Theory of knowledge (TOK) is a course that is fundamentally about critical thinking and inquiry into the process of knowing rather than about learning a specific body of knowledge. The TOK course examines the nature of knowledge and how we know what we claim to know. It does this by encouraging students to analyse knowledge claims and explore questions about the construction of knowledge. The task of TOK is to emphasize connections between areas of shared knowledge and link them to personal knowledge in such a way that an individual becomes more aware of his/her own perspectives and how they might differ from others.
Students in the subject group 3 explore the interactions between humans and their environment in time and place. As a result, these subjects are often known collectively as the humanities or social sciences.
As with other subject areas, knowledge in individuals and societies subjects can be gained in a variety of ways. For example, archival evidence, data collection, experimentation, observation, and inductive and deductive reasoning can all be used to help explain patterns of behaviour that lead to knowledge claims. Students in individuals and societies subjects are required to evaluate these knowledge claims by exploring concepts such as validity, reliability, credibility, certainty and individual as well as cultural perspectives through knowledge questions.
The relationship between individuals and societies subjects and TOK is of crucial importance and fundamental to the Diploma Programme. Having followed a course of study in individuals and societies, students should be able to reflect critically on the various ways of knowing and methods used in human sciences, and in doing so, become “inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people” (IB mission statement).
During the business management course, a number of issues will arise that highlight the relationships between TOK and business management. Some of the questions that could be considered during the course are identified below in relation to the six concepts that underpin the course as well as within the syllabus.
Knowledge questions in business management
A knowledge question in business management challenges a statement, assertion or assumption about the subject that students believe to be true or take for granted. From a TOK perspective, students need to question these claims and how they are justified. Knowledge questions are not about business management per se but about how knowledge in business management—and more widely, in social sciences—is constructed and viewed.
Some knowledge questions that could be considered during the course are identified below. These are presented in relation to the concepts of change, culture, ethics, globalization, innovation and strategy that underpin the course and so reflect more overarching questions. Suggested links to TOK within each of the course units are also identified below.
Links to Unit 1
- How do assumptions about what a business is and how a business works vary by industry and location, and what implications does this have for business actors?
- To what extent are the language and customs of business management based on the English language and Western tradition, and what implications does this have for business cultures around the world?
- To what extent do intuition, imagination and reason factor into the decision to set up a new business?
- Is business decision-making art or science?
- Do we have self-evident beliefs about what the objectives of a business are or how a business operates? If so, which ones and how could we challenge them?
- What needs to be true for ethical objectives to contribute to good strategy? What needs to be true for business strategy to be ethically laudable?
- Most businesses desire to expand. What motivates the growth of a social organization like business?
- How can we evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of globalization, given the multitude of stakeholders it influences?
Links to Unit 2
- The pace of change in modern business is high and what is important to know is not static. How do individuals and organizations cope with change and new demands?
- “Knowledge is power.” If this saying is true, how does it affect different stakeholders’ ability to contribute to business decision-making?
- In large businesses, many stakeholders are far from the centre of decision-making. What challenges does an organizational or a geographical distance create for understanding the concerns of individual and stakeholder groups?
- Each individual and stakeholder group in a business has its own interests. Does this mean that a genuine shared strategy is impossible?
- How can a good leader use the different ways of knowing for effective communication and interaction with employees?
- Can individual motivation only emerge internally or can it be created externally? Is there such a thing as collective motivation?
- What types of knowledge, skills and attitudes might future business leaders and employees need?
Links to Unit 3
- Do financial statements reflect the “truth” about a business?
- Many businesses are introducing metrics about their environmental, social or ethical performance on the side of financial information. Can well-being, or other social variables, be measured?
- How certain is the information we get from financial statements? For example, could we know in advance if an investment will be successful?
- What is the role of interpretation in accounting? For example, could we compare businesses by just looking at their financial statements?
- Often, financial information is presented to the wider audience in a graphical or summary form. Do such simplifying presentations limit our knowledge of accounts?
- Does the accounting process allow for imagination?
- Accounting practices vary from country to country. Is this necessary, or is it possible to have the same accounting practices everywhere?
Links to Unit 4
- The four Ps and seven Ps frameworks suggest that marketing has four or seven aspects, all of which can be described with a word that starts with a P. How helpful are such analytical frameworks to you as a knowledge-seeker?
- Many ads use scientific language. What does this tell us about the hierarchy of different areas of knowledge?
- The observer effect is a common problem in the social sciences whereby knowledge of being researched influences how people answer questions and behave. What problems does the observer effect create for market research?
- In market research, how might the language used in polls and questionnaires influence consumers and businesses’ conclusions?
- Is it possible to measure brand loyalty?
- To what extent is consumer behaviour rational?
- Is the decision to develop CSR objectives solely a marketing strategy?
- To what extent are marketing practices a reflection of the values of a given time and culture?
Links to Unit 5
- Is there a difference between a product that consumers perceive to be of good quality and one that businesses know is? What ethical dilemmas does the information advantage businesses have over consumers pose?
- Is a quality product always more expensive to manufacture or buy than a mediocre product? How does time perspective affect our assessment of such statements?
- Is there such a thing as an optimal production method? What evidence and whose experiences could business leaders look at to decide on this?
- Environmental costs of production are often referred to as “externalities” as they harm third parties. How does our formulation of problems affect our sense of responsibility for solving them?
- What ways of knowing do you think business leaders use in deciding where to locate their production?
- What is the role of creativity, imagination and emotion in a business context?
- Can one make an argument that the more people’s needs and wants are met, the more difficult innovation is?
- Can a business plan for a crisis?