rGyalrong

Updates:

January 2019: Horpa-Lavrung words and Tibetic loanwords have been removed from the list of reconstructions. Several reconstructions have also been updated.

Lexical layers in rGyalrong:

• 1. Eastern Sino-Tibetan independent branch

  2. Burmo-Qiangic areal influences

Reconstruction of Proto-rGyalrong

Here are about 250 of my preliminary Proto-rGyalrong reconstructions, based on data from:

Nagano, Yasuhiko and Prins, Marielle (eds.). 2013. rGyalrongic Languages Database. Minpaku. http://htq.minpaku.ac.jp/databases/rGyalrong/

This reconstruction is that of rGyalrong proper, and does not include Horpa (Ergong) or Lavrung. The rGyalrongic lexical data in Nagano & Prins (2013) shows that rGyalrong is complex dialect chain consisting of many different varieties that are partially intelligible with each other to various degrees. Hence, rGyalrong cannot be neatly divided into only four languages with clear boundaries, which are Situ, Japhug, Tshobdun, and Zbu (Jacques 2017).

Zbu has some Horpa-Lavrung loanwords, such as the numerals 'five' and 'ten.'

The north-central dialects in Baoxing, Heishui, Hongyuan, Maerkang, Xiaojin counties preserve PTB *-a and did not undergo the vowel heightening ("Qiangic brightening") characteristic of surrounding Qiangic languages.

Although rGyalrong is in contact with other Qiangic / Burmo-Qiangic languages, the lexical and phonological evidence show that rGyalrong itself is not Burmo-Qiangic, but rather a separate branch of Sino-Tibetan.

There are various structural and even occasional lexical resemblances shared with Proto-Austroasiatic, possibly due to ancient contact between Proto-Sino-Tibetan and Proto-Austroasiatic.

Proto-rGyalrong is an elegant marvel. It may be one of the most conservative reconstructable Sino-Tibetan meso-languages. It is clear that a reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan would definitely need to take Proto-rGyalrong into account, since Proto-Sino-Tibetan morphology, phonology, and lexicon would have looked very similar to those of Proto-rGyalrong. In order to understand how reflexes of highly eroded eastern Sino-Tibetan languages had gotten to where they are from Proto-Sino-Tibetan, it is crucial to consider Proto-rGyalrong.

Dialects

I have identified 9 distinct varieties of rGyalrong. (Map: https://drive.google.com/open?id=1dcf1OdmfcsfgZrbXyvKLLonfuAvWnPSA&usp=sharing )

• 1. Xiaojin rGyalrong

  2. Jinchuan Situ (*-a > -e; *-e > -i)

  3. Lixian Situ (*-a > -e; *-e > -i)

  4. Barkam Situ

  5. Maori Situ

  6. Japhug

  7. Longerjia Japhug

  8. Tshobdun

  9. Zbu

My tentative classification is as follows:

rGyalrong languages

• 1. Zbu

     1. Northern: Kangshan, Ribu

     2. Central: Rong'an, Kehe

     3. Southern: Geletuo, Shili

  2. Core rGyalrong

• • 1. Japhug

       1. Long'erjia

       2. Sha'erzong, Dazang

    2. Tshobdun

    3. rGyalrong proper

• • • 1. Xiaojin (SE rGyalrong)

      2. Situ

         1. Barkam

         2. Southern

            1. Maori

            2. Jinchuan

            3. Lixian

Gates (2012) recognizes 5 distinct rGyalrong languages, namely Zbu, Japhug, Tshobdun, SE rGyalrong, and Situ.

Notes:

• • Longerjia Japhug is a divergent Japhug dialect that has undergone influence from Tshobdun.

  • Lixian has been influenced by Southern Qiang, and is located just to the west of it. The *-a > -e/i sound change diffused from Southern Qiang into Lixian.

  • Jinchuan is in contact with Eastern Horpa and Lavrung. The *-a > -e/i sound change may have diffused from the Choyo area languages (nDrapa, Choyo, Guiqiong, and Minyak) into Jinchuan.

  • Barkam in the north and Xiaojin in the southeast tend to be more conservative.

  • Diversity is centered around the town of Barkam.

  • Horpa and Lavrung form a Horpa-Lavrung branch with each other, but Horpa-Lavrung and rGyalrong do not form a great together. Hence, "Proto-Horpa-Lavrung-rGyalrong" or "Proto-rGyalrongic" cannot be reconstructed. rGyalrongic is a linguistic convergence area and not a branch.

Phonemes

The 31 Proto-rGyalrong consonants are:

Stops (13): pʰ, p, b, tʰ, t, d, cʰ, c, ɟ, kʰ, k, g, ʔ

Nasals (4): m, n, ɲ, ŋ

Fricatives (7): β, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, x, ɣ

Affricates (3): tsʰ, ts, dz

Approximants (4): l, r, j, w

Velarized initial consonants include *lɣ-.

Reflexes in synchronic languages include:

*p- > p-, w-

*w- > w-, mb-

*-ʔ > -ʔ, -k

*r- > r-, ʂ-

*Cr- > C[retroflex]-

*ɣ- > ɣ-, x-

The reconstruction of final *-ʔ is often uncertain.

The 6 Proto-rGyalrong vowels are a, e, i, o, u, ə.

Reflexes in synchronic languages include:

*-a > -a, -e, -o

*-(j)e > -a, -(j)e, -i

*-i > -i, -e

*-o > -a, -o, -u

*-u > -o, -u, -ɔ

*-ə > -ə, -a

Phonotactics

Proto-rGyalrong has many sesquisyllables (minor syllables). Some consonant clusters are part of the main syllable; these are different from sesquisyllables that are separated by syllable boundaries.

Tightly attached prefixes *C.- contrast with loosely attached prefixes *Ca.- .

Medials include c, ɟ, ɲ, j, w, r.

Sesquisyllables include k.-, t.-, p.-, ʔ.-, r.-, ts.-, ʃ.- . Reflexes of *ʔ.- include wu.- and ʔə.-

Finals include p, t, k, ʔ, m, n, ŋ, j, r.

Within the main syllable, pre-consonants (which are conditioned by voicing) attaching to the main consonant root include s/z, ʃ/ʒ, k/g, x/ɣ, n/ŋ, m, β, r (See table below). These form the consonant clusters, and are not to be confused with true sesquisyllables.

Morphology

The prefixes *t.- and *k.- are the most common ones. *k.- generally tends to be used with numerals, animals, intransitive verbs, and some adjectives. *t.- tends to be used with body parts and some nouns. However, *k.- is also used for some body parts, and *t.- is also used for some numerals and animals. Fricatives and nasals can precede consonants to form consonant clusters.

Some body parts are prefixed with *t.r-:

*t.rkʰom ‘wing’

*t.rnaʔ ‘ear’

*t.rnok ‘brain’

Some body parts are prefixed with *t.ʃ-:

*t.ʃba ‘cheek’

*t.ʃci ‘urine’

*t.ʃmje ‘tongue’

*t.ʃna ‘nose’

*t.ʃɲe ‘heart’

Some animal names, especially for birds, are prefixed with *p.-.

Loosely attached prefixes include:

*ka.- 'verbal prefix'

*kʰa.- 'nominal prefix' (especially for animals / vermin). *kʰa.- often exhibits vowel harmony where it changes to kʰo- when the main consonant root contains a back vowel such as -o or -u.

*taj.- 'plant or part of plant'

*ta.- 'indication of bodily state'

Active verbs are often prefixed with k.- or k.n.-

Adjectives (stative verbs) are usually prefixed with k.-

The suffix *-t functions as a verbalizer. For example:

*t.wa 'clothing'

*k.wat 'to clothe'

List of reconstructions

Proto-Tibetic comparisons

Compare Proto-Tibetic reconstructions by Tournadre (2014). Italics indicate possible Tibetic loanwords.

References

Jacques, Guillaumes. 2017. Rgyalrong language. In Encyclopedia of Chinese languages and linguistics (volume 3), p.583. Leiden: Brill.

Nagano, Yasuhiko and Marielle Prins. 2013. rGyalrongic languages database. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology (Minpaku).

Tournadre, Nicolas (2014). "The Tibetic languages and their classification". In Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan W. Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area. De Gruyter. pp. 103–129. ISBN 978-3-11-031074-0.