Genetics
CLASSIFICATION AND GROUPING ARE OPINIONS BASED ON SIMILARITIES. AMONG THE SIMILARITIES ARE FOUND DIFFERENCES AS WELL AS THE DIFFERENCES DECLARED AS DIFFERENCES. THUS, HUMAN IS NOT A DEFINITE VARIABLE. THIS DESCRIPTION OF HUMAN IS BASED ON CURRENT CLASSIFICATION. HOWEVER, THERE MOST PROBABLY IS A MORE ACTUAL AND ACCURATE DESCRIPTION OF MANKIND, APE, HUMAN, AND SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES THAT IS NOT REVEALED, YET. MANKIND IN HIS BEGINNING MAY NOT BE AN APE. RATHER HUMAN MAY BECAME AN APE AFTER INTERBREEDING WITH THE APES.
HUMANS ARE SOME OF THE MANKINDS BASTARDIZED WITH APES, MORE OR LESS, AS A HOMINOID LINEAGE THAT SPLITS OFF INTO NEW APEKINDS. OR HUMANS ARE APES THAT MERELY SPLITS FROM ITSELF BY RANDOM AND GENETIC PRESSURE. OR HUMANS ARE NOT APES BUT, SOME ARCAHIC MANKINDS INTERBRED WITH THE APES IN AFRICA FORMING APE-HOMO HYBRIDS THAT SPLIT OFF WHILE NON-AFRICAN MANKINDS DID NOT INTERMIX WITH THE APES....
Human
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human
Humans are part of a subfamily called the Homininae (or hominins), inside the hominids or great apes.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder:Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily:Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species: H. sapiens
Binomial name
Homo sapiens
Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
†Homo sapiens idaltu White 2003
Homo sapiens sapiens
************
Hominins includes humans and our ancestral relatives,
but not the other great apes....
In the begining was Hominoids, and lesser apes. The Hominoid lineage diverged from itself as various forms of apes i.e., gibbons, orangs, gorilla, chimps, and niggers. The process must have been initiated when an archaic mankind interbred with a lesser apekind in Africa. With continued interbreeding in Africa between the apes, mankind, and ape-homos increased diversity and caused increased mutations among them which created the splits. The nigger is the most recent split between the ape and hominoid lineage diverging about 300kya to 500kya.
Hominoidea contain hominoids and apes which are the archaic mankinds, and apes. As they admix the hominoids and apes evolve into other ape forms, and hominid forms. The further mixing of the apes with hominids will later produce gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, humans, and further hybrids and admixtures. The humans will further admix more with the gorillas and chimps as their genetic closeness allows which produced niggers and other monkey people. Some of these monkey people exit Africa to spread monkey genes into Eurasia which replaces most, and admixes with some of the nonAfrican archaic mankinds, and CroMagnon man. In more recent times niggers were then admixed with nonAfricans. Thus, the earliest Nigger diverged from either the chimp lineage, the homo lineage, or was hybridized by the chimp-homo after archaic mankinds in Africa continued interbreeding with the apes and the ape-hominin hybrids. And as the nigger intermixes further with the Humans makes him more humanlike deceptively appearing as if he diverged from the humans with more human genes today. The earliest Eurasian /Europeans continue from their direct lineage from archaic hominoids rather than from the ape-hominin nigger split. Recent admixing with the cro magnon, and then more recent out of african monkey people migrants causes their evolution from archaic to modern man. Each individual is determined from their admixtures more or less based on lineage...
SO FAR WHAT I GATHER IS THE EVOLUTION OF CERTAIN SAPIENS FROM THE OTHER PRIMATES IS INFERRED. THE ARCHAIC MAN THAT INTERBRED WITH THE APES AND WAS GENETICALLY CLOSE ENOUGH TO REPRODUCE A HYBRID MONKEY MAN HAS NOT BEEN DISCOVERED. THERFORE THE ONLY PROOF THIS HAPPENED IS INFERRING A HYPOTHESIS TO EXPLAIN GENETIC EVOLUTION.
IN ADDITION TO NO PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF APE TO HUMAN TRANSITION, NO PHYSICAL EVIDENCE HAS BEEN FOUND LINKING THE MONKEY MAN HYBRIDS OF AFRICA TO CROMAGNON MAN WHICH WAS THE FIRST EARLY MODERN HUMAN NONAFRICAN OF WHICH ALL NONAFRICAN PEOPLE DESCEND. HOWEVER, LATEST DISCOVERY OF 1.4 MYA NATIVE EUROPEAN HUMAN WITH A FACE SAME AS TODAYS NATIVE EUROPEAN REVEALS NATIVE EUROPEANS DID NOT DESCEND FROM CRO-MAGNON AND CRO-MAGNON WAS NOT THE FIRST MODERN HUMAN IN EUROPE. HE WAS A MORE RECENT MIGRANT.
THE ONLY PHYSICAL PROOF IS THAT MONKEY MAN HYBRIDS INTERBRED WITH NONAFRICAN ARCHAIC MANKINDS AS WELL AS NONAFRICAN CROMAGNON MAN WHICH WOULD HAVE OCCURRED IN SOUTH ASIA ABOUT THE TIME OF CROMAGNON MAN BUT NOT REACHING EUROPE UNTIL AFTER CROMAGNON MAN HAD ALREADY BEEN ESTABLISHED IN EUROPE AFTER 40 TO 30KYA. CROMAGNON'S FIRST WAVE INTO EUROPE WOULD HAVE BEEN FREE OF THE MONKEY MAN HYBRID GENETICS. LATER WAVES OF THE MIXED SOUTHERN PEOPLE WOULD THEN SPREAD MONKEY GENES INTO EUROPE WHICH POSSIBLY CAUSED THE EXTINCTION AND/OR HYBRIDIZATION OF THE EARLIER EUROPEAN ARCHAIC MANKINDS SUCH AS NEANDERTHAL.
THE REST IS INFERRED AND OPINION...
The Great Debate Lingers: Creation, Evolution, Gene Sharing, All the Above, Something Else?
When a creator builds different things he is limited to materials available. SO that multiple different things are made using available materials. So that some things are made with the same ingredients but, in different proportions. Some things omit some of the ingredients so that some creations lack, or contain an ingredient compared to the other creation.
So when the great creator created all life on our planet he did it using the available ingredients available to him. Some of these ingredients are from the Earth itself, and possisbly some ingredients available to him in every place of the universe and beyond available to him.
So mankind and animal kinds were created some with similar ingredients, some with different proportions of the same ingredients, some without similar ingredients, and some with with and without similar ingredients and with different proportions.
So although different things are made up of the same materials the end result perform different functions. Such as wood for example can be used to create a house, a hotel, a boat, tootpicks, a pencil, a toothpick, etc.... Same building block made into many creations. Now combine wood with metal, and your creations expand vastly. Our bodies contain 3 Billion different building blocks, or materials used to create us. So if you can see the amount of creations made from just one material such as wood alone can you imagine how many different creations you get from 3 Billion materials used?
Giving data as percentages can be quite deceiving making the observer think it represents more, or less of data. For example, what is more: 90% of 10, or 10% of 90? The answer is 9 for both.
What is the difference between 100% of 3 Billion, and 99.5% of 3 Billion? Answer is 15 Million. 15 Million is the genetic differences just between the humans.
So if 0.5% difference between the human kind represents 15 Million genetic differences in humans, the similarity of 4% difference between humans and chimpanzees is 120 Million. The actual difference between chimp and human is at least 5%.
So percentages of large quantities appear smaller to the observer, and vice versa.
Being the same or different is actually just a relative term used based on the individuals level. To be the same means equal. 1.00 and 1.00 is the same. But, 0.95 is not the same as 1.00. And 0.95 may or may not be close to the same since it depends on what the whole represents. As for the above example the 0.5% difference represents a difference of 15 Million. But, 0.5% of 10.0 is 0.05.
Maybe the standards used from Genetic Studies of DNA are not the true indicators of sameness. From this article it shows that Genetic DNA closeness have greater differences in apparent traits in some animals and humans. WHile some human and animals the reverse is true where greater genetic differences also correlate to greater differences in apparent traits. So that current Genetic DNA standards may not give a complete accurate description of humans and animals. Similarly with Blood groups the blood Groups especially the Rh may not be an accurate standard to classify people other than for medical uses but, less accurate to trace or classify humans to a race, species or a geography.
Similarites are useful but, may not be absolute indicators. Being similar is not the same, and is relative to the observer with an opinion. A human has two eyes, a nose, a mouth, etc similar to many other animals and humans. With thse similarities we can add in the many differences. It appears it is the differences in our dna makes us unique, and not the similarities.
Maybe the standards science is using to classify, and describe are inaccurate in correctness, and are only as good as its comparisons based misunderstandings of that which is known, and not yet known.
NORTH SPAIN FINDS THE OLDEST HUMAN IN EUROPE DATES TO 1.4 MILLION YA. PRIOR TO THIS FIND IT WAS BELIEVED CRO-MAGNON WAS FIRST MODERN HUMAN AT 50KYA. THIS 1.4 MILLION YEAR OLD WEST EUROPEAN HAD A FACE SAME AS NATIVE EUROPEANS TODAY. IN AFRICA AT 1.4 MILLION YA THE NIGGERS HAD DISTINCTLY APE LIKE FACES. PROOF THAT NATIVE WEST EUROPEANS FIRST PEOPLE DID NOT DESCEND FROM AFRICAN APE-HOMOS, NOR DID HE DESCEND FROM CRO-MAGNON. THESE LATTER MIGRANTS MERELY ADMIXED HIS WAY INTO MORE RECENT TIMES. IN AFRICA THE ARCHAIC MANKIND HAD INTERBRED WITH APES WHICH CREATED THE NIGGER AN APE-HOMO HYBRID OF THE A YDNA HAPLOGROUP WHICH IS MERELY THE COLLECTIVE GROUP OF APE HOMOS NOT RELATED TO ANY OTHER GROUPS OTHER THAN A HG WHICH OCCURRED IN AFRICA....
Breakthrough: Excavators Find the Oldest European Face Ever Discovered
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/european-face-0016992
The discovery of a 1.4-million-year-old human ancestor in Spain was in itself a history changing moment. But to discover it looked like us, “forces us to rewrite the books on human evolution,” claims a team of Spanish archaeologists. It is being heralded as the earliest European face found. The location was hidden deep in the Atapuerca Mountain range near the village of Atapuerca, in the province of Burgos in northern Spain. Archaeologists excavating in the Sima del Elefante caves uncovered the fossilized face of an ancient hominid. Now, it has been determined that this ancient human lived between 1.2 and 1.4 million years ago and that it represents “the oldest human” ever discovered in Europe, reports the Atapuerca Foundation .
Until recently anthropologists generally maintained that Cro-Magnon were the first anatomically modern humans who migrated to Europe around 50,000 years ago. But the discovery of this human skull, and others, dating to between 1.2 and 1.4 million years ago, has released a gang of proverbial cats right amongst the archaeological pigeons. The fossil was originally discovered on June 30 at the Sima del Elefante archaeological site by ֹdgar Tיllez, a doctoral student. Rosa Huguet is a site coordinator and she told El Pais that the day after the jaw was discovered she declared they were “unequivocally human.” Furthermore, the fossil that dates back 1.4 million years has a particular feature on the chin that suggests these first Europeans had faces similar to our own. In contrast, at this time in Africa , Homo ergaster or Homo habilis had distinctly ape-like faces....
In conclusion, these remains “push back the human presence in Europe.”...
The so-called Burgos species was the common ancestor of our modern human species and of the Neanderthals that evolved in Europe around 400,000 years ago. This is a distinct Homo species that was called antecessor. Therefore, the site researchers are inclined to think the jaw belonged to a this species of Homo, and that it descended from Homo erectus, one of the “first hominids that left Africa 1.8 million years ago,”...
THE NIGGER A-YDNA HAPLOGROUP SPLITS OFF OF THE ALPHA LINEAGE IN AFRICA ABOUT 132KYA. HE FORMED WHEN MANKIND WAS INTERBREEDING APE-HOMOS IN AFRICA ABOUT 160KYA, AND PROBABLY MUCH EARLIER. THE NIGGER A-YDNA HG IS NOT A DEFINED MUTANT BUT RATHER A HYBRID OF CHIMPANZEE/GORILLA/HOMO MIXED WITH MANKIND ALPHA. THIS SAME MANKIND ALPHA WAS ALSO THE COMMON ANCESTOR FOR ALL NON-AFRICANS CALLED THE BETA LINEAGE.
B HAPLOGROUP DID NOT DESCEND FROM A HAPLOGROUP RATHER HE MIGRATED INTO AFRICA 46KYA AND MIXED. A AND B ARE AFRICAN HAPLOGROUPS. EUROPEANS DID NOT DESCEND FROM EITHER A NOR B HAPLOGROUPS. EUROPEANS ARE NOT OUT OF AFRICAN APE-HOMOS. A GENETIC GAP EXISTS BETWEEN SOME AFRICAN AND NON-AFRICANS BECUZ THE TWO DESCENDED SEPARATELY FROM AN ANCIENT COMMON ANCESTOR. THIS COMMON ANCESTOR IS NOT PROVEN TO BE AFRICAN. THE REASON FOR THE GREAT DIVERSITY IN AFRICA IS BECUZ MANKINDS INTERBRED WITH THE DIVERSE APE-HOMOS WHEN MANKINDS MIGRATED INTO AFRICA AT DIFFERENT AGES....
Re-Examining the “Out of Africa” Theory and the Origin of Europeoids (Caucasoids) in Light of DNA Genealogy
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aa.2012.22009
ABSTRACT
Seven thousand five hundred fifty-six (7556) haplotypes of 46 subclades in 17 major haplogroups were considered in terms of their base (ancestral) haplotypes and timespans to their common ancestors, for the purposes of designing of time-balanced haplogroup tree. It was found that African haplogroup A (originated 132,000 ± 12,000 years before present) is very remote time-wise from all other haplogroups, which have a separate common ancestor, named β-haplogroup, and originated 64,000 ± 6000 ybp. It includes a family of Europeoid (Caucasoid) haplogroups from F through T that originated 58,000 ± 5000 ybp. A downstream common ancestor for haplogroup A and β-haplogroup, coined the α-haplogroup emerged 160,000 ± 12,000 ybp. A territorial origin of haplogroups α- and β-remains unknown; however, the most likely origin for each of them is a vast triangle stretched from Central Europe in the west through the Russian Plain to the east and to Levant to the south. Haplogroup B is descended from β-haplogroup (and not from haplogroup A, from which it is very distant, and separated by as much as 123,000 years of “lateral” mutational evolution) likely migrated to Africa after 46,000 ybp. The finding that the Europeoid haplogroups did not descend from “African” haplogroups A or B is supported by the fact that bearers of the Europeoid haplogroups, as well as all non-African haplogroups do not carry either SNPs M91, P97, M31, P82, M23, M114, P262, M32, M59, P289, P291, P102, M13, M171, M118 (haplogroup A and its subclades SNPs) or M60, M181, P90 (haplogroup B), as it was shown recently in “Walk through Y” FTDNA Project (the reference is incorporated therein) on several hundred people from various haplogroups....
Thanks largely in part to geneticists, the “Out of Africa” concept was popularized during the last two decades, yet it was never directly proven; however, for many specialists its appeal was undeniably convincing. The concept was based primarily on the premise that Africa possesses the highest variability, or variance, of the human DNA and its segments. Set apart, it is not a strong argument because a mix of different DNA lineages also results in a high variability and, as we show below, it is largely what occurs in Africa. Moreover, a genomic gap exists between some Africans and non-Africans, which has also been interpreted as an argument that the latter descended from Africans. A more plausible interpretation might have been that both current Africans and non-Africans descended separately from a more ancient common ancestor, thus forming a proverbial fork. A region where this downstream common ancestor arose would not necessarily be in Africa. In fact, it was never proven that he lived in Africa. Research into this question has served as the basis for and the subject of our work. We have found that a great diversity of Y chromosomal haplotypes in Africa is a result of the mixing of several very distant lineages, some of them not necessarily African, and that Europeiods (at least) do not contain “African” SNPs (those of haplogroups A or B). These important findings put a proverbial dent in the “Out of Africa” theory....
Haplogroup A
Extended haplotypes of haplogroup A collected in various databases (YSearch, FTDNA Projects), split into at least four different and distinctive DNA lineages, each with its base haplotype.... These base haplotypes have been assigned to subclades A3b2, A1a, A* (P97+, SRY10831.1-), and A* (M23-, M32-, P108-, SRY10831.1-), respectively. It was calculated that the common ancestors of the branches lived 5500, 5000, 600 years before
present (ybp), and the last one is an individual haplotype.... 132,000 years to a common ancestor of all the available haplotypes of haplogroup A... , base haplotypes of the A1a and A3b2 subclades differ by 25 mutations in all 22 markers, which places their common ancestor at 4167 → 8576 conditional generations, that is 112,000 ybp. Two haplotypes with null-mutation differ by 27 mutations, which places their common ancestor at 4500 → 9922 conditional generations, that is 127,000 years to a common ancestor. This gives an additional support of the obtained “age” of haplogroup A as 132,000 ± 20,000 years.
Haplogroup B
A similar approach was applied to haplogroup B, and the following 22 marker base haplotype was obtained for a common ancestor who lived 46,000 ybp... constitutes 123,000 years between common ancestors of haplogroup A and B. Because they lived 132 and 46 thousand years before present, respectively, their common ancestor lived approximately 150,000 years before present... This finding indicates that haplogroup B did not descend from haplogroup A. Rather, they both descended from a comon ancestor who lived ~150,000 ybp, and he was not necessarily living in Africa. Since he belonged to a haplogroup upstream from haplogroups A and B, his haplogroup can be named “alpha-haplogroup”. It is a matter of taste and belief to call it “Adam” or not....
Haplogroups C through T
a common ancestor of the α-haplogroup at 160,000 ± 12,000 years before present. For example, 18 mutations between A and B base haplotypes, as it was described above, result in 150,000 ybp for their common ancestor. Twentyone (21) mutations with haplogroup DE base haplotype give 167,000 ybp for their common ancestor. Twenty-three (23) mutations with haplogroup H base haplotype result in 171,000 ybp for their common ancestor with haplogroup A. For haplogroup I (21 mutations) it is 161,000 ybp. For haplogroup Q (22 mutations) it is 166,000 ybp. For haplogroup R (21 mutations) it is 160,000 ybp. The distance in 19 mutations between the base haplotypes of haplogroup A and β-haplogroup places α-haplogroup at 165,000 ybp. Clearly, the base haplotype of haplogroup A and its subclades is very remote from all other haplogroups.
Similar pairwise calculations with the base haplotype of haplogroup B as well with all other haplogroups (besides A) place a common ancestor of beta-haplogroup to 64,000 ± 6000 years before present. This haplogroup is close to or identical with the BT haplogroup according to the current classification. The α-haplogroup which is the ancestral one with respect to both African (left branch) and non-African haplogroups (right branch) arose around 160,000 ybp, and 132,000 ybp gave rise to haplogroup A. Another, quite different branch, had formed a fork, then apparently went through a population bottleneck around 70 - 60 thousand ybp (perhaps the Toba event), and gave rise to β-haplogroup, ancestral to non-African haplogroups, 64,000 ± 6000 ybp.
Apparently, haplogroup B was initially not of an African origin. It could have migrated to Africa and mixed there with a local Negroid population. A common ancestor of the present day bearers of haplogroup B lived 46,000 ybp. A similar story had occurred with a group of bearers of haplogroup R1b1 around 4000 ybp, who ventured to the center of African continent during their westward migration along the African Mediterranean shore, an became a Negroid population having an unusual (for Africa) haplogroup.
The Mongoloid and Austronesian haplogroup C split ~36,000 ybp and gradually populated regions of Central Asia, Australia and Oceania. Haplogroup DE split to D and E around 42,000 ybp, and currently populates vast territory from North Africa to the west to Korea and Japan to the east.
The family of haplogroup from F through T is largely the Europeoid (Caucasoid) family. Most of bearers of these haplogroups remained Europeoids;...
Lack of the African SNP (Haplogroup A) in Non-Africans
A critical datapoint has emerged that disproves the “Out of Africa” concept; specifically, recent data shows that non-African people have neither M91, P97, M31, P82, M23, M114, P262, M32, M59, P289, P291, P102, M13, M171, M118 (haplogroup A and its subclades SNPs), nor M60, M181, P90 (haplogroup B SNPs) in their Y-chromosomes....
Figure 3.
The tree shows the alpha-haplogroup, which is the ancestral haplogroup of the African and non-African haplogroups, and the beta-haplogroup, which is the ancestral haplogroup, close or identical with BT haplogroup in the current classification. The left branch represents haplogroup A (arose ~132,000 ybp) and its subclades. The right branch of haplogroups F through R including T) represent Europeoids (Caucasoids) arose ~58,000 years before present. Haplogroup B (arose ~46,000 ybp) migrated to Africa, the Mongoloid and Austronesian haplogroup C split ~36,000 ybp, apparently Middle Eastern haplogroups DE split ~42,000 ybp. A region of the origin of the alpha-haplogroup ~160,000 ybp remains unknown. The Europeoid family of haplogroups arose apparently in the triangle between Central Europe on the west, the Russian Plain (Eastern European Plain) on the east and Levant on the south. ...
undeniably indicate that non-African people, bearers of haplogroups from C to T, did not descend from the “African” haplogroups A or B. Their origin is likely not in Africa....
Therefore, we are left holding the question of the origin of Homo sapiens. Based on palaeoarchaeological evidence, the region, where anatomically modern humans have likely originated, is comprised of a vast territory from Central Europe in the west to the Russian Plain in the east to Levant in the south....
A EURASIAN MIGRATES INTO AFRICA 95.8KYA AND INTERBRED WITH AN AFRICAN APE HOMO HYBRID BECOMING KNOWN AS THE MBUTI. THIS EURASIAN LINEAGE SUFFERED A BOTTLE NECK EFFECTIVE POPULATION IN EURASIA AT THE SAME TIME UNTIL 50.4KYA. AT THAT TIME THE EURASIAN LINEAGE MAKES A COMEBACK IN EURASIA KNOWN AS THE ANATOLIA ANCESTRAL EUROPEAN. THE ANCESTRAL EUROPEAN HAS A RANGELAND SPREAD OUT FROM SIBERIA TO WEST EUROPE. HIS MOVEMENTS OFTEN MISINTERPRETTED BY HIS MOSTLY PURE BLOODLINE SINCE PALEOLITHIC UNTIL HOLOCENE ADMIX. THUS WHEN PATERNAL R1 HAPLOGROUP SUBCLADES MIX FROM THE EAST BACK TO THE WEST IT CAUSED CONFUSION UNTIL THIS STUDY POINTS OUT THE MISINTERPRETATIONS...
Fig. 2: a, Schematic of the West Eurasian population history model
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01914-9/figures/2
696KYA TO 95.8KYA UNKNOWN SOURCE POPULATION BRANCH COULD BE AFRICAN OR EURASIAN.
95.8KYA THE SOURCE BRANCH IS A COMMON ANCESTOR FOR MBUTI PEOPLE IN AFRICA, AND THE EURASIAN PEOPLE.
50.4KYA A EURASIAN PEOPLE ARE KNOWN AS ANATOLIA ANCESTRAL EUROPEAN.
45KYA ANATOLIA ANCESTRAL SEPARATES TO CHG.
37.7KYA ANATOLIA ANCESTRAL SEPARATES TO WHG.
36KYA CHG SEPARATES TO ANE/EHG.
8KYA WHG BACK MIGRATES AND ADMIXES IN 50% WITH ANATOLIA ANCESTRAL KNOWN AS EUROPEAN EARLY FARMER (ANATOLIAN, WHG).
5KYA ANE/EHG BACK MIGRATES AND ADMIXES IN 40% WITH CHG.
4.5KYA CHG BACK MIGRATES AND ADMIXES IN 33% WITH ANATOLIA ANCESTRAL KNOWN AS STEPPE BRONZE AGE (ANATOLIA, WHG, STEPPE).
NOTES:
Among the newly reported individuals, GoyetQ116-1 from present-day Belgium is the oldest at ~35,000 years ago. It is similar to the ~37,000 year old Kostenki14 and all later samples in that it shares more alleles with present-day Europeans (e.g. French) than with East Asians (e.g. Han). In contrast, Ust’-Ishim and Oase1, which predate GoyetQ116-1 and Kostenki14, do not show any distinctive affinity to later Europeans. Thus, from at least about 37,000 years ago, populations in Europe shared at least some ancestry with present Europeans....
45,000-year-old west-Siberian known as Ust’-Ishim, was related to both Europeans and Asians. That suggests the two groups parted ways between 45,000 and 37,000 years ago and makes Kostenki-14 the oldest European to have his genome sequenced. What’s more, Kostenki-14’s Y-chromosome shares features with a 7000-year-old hunter-gatherer from Spain. “This shows some level of continuity in European populations across almost 30,000 years,” ...
a close relationship to both "Mal'ta boy" (24 ka) of south-east Siberia (Ancient North Eurasian) and to the later Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Europe and western Siberia, as well as with a basal population ancestral to Early European Farmers, but not to East Asians.
THIS THEORY PROPOSES HUMANS DIVERGED FROM APES. MORE SPECIFICALLY FROM EXTINCT APE(S) WHICH HAS NOT BEEN FOUND. THIS THEORY IS MISSING THE BIGGER PICTURE. EQUALLY LIKELY THEN WE CAN REVERSE THIS THOERY, AND/OR HYBRIDIZE THIS THEORY AND SAY AN ARCHAIC MANKIND GENETICALLY CLOSE TO APES INTERBRED AND DIFFERENT ADMIXTURES EVOLVED INTO MODERN MANKINDS AND MODERN APES. THE NIGGER IS CLOSER TO THE APES AS HE IS CLOSEST RELATIVE TO THE CHIMPANZEE. ARCHAIC EUROPEANS BEING CUTOFF FROM THE AFRICAN APE HYBRIDS DID NOT MIX WITH THE APES. THE LATER OUT OF AFRICAN APE HOMIN HYBRIDS WOULD BEGIN TO SPREAD THE APE HOMIN HYBRID GENES BEGIN THE EXTICTION OF THE ARCHAIC EUROPEAN AND EURASIANS POSSIBLY BY INCOMPATABILITY, DISEASE, MURDER, ETC.... THE A-YDNA HG IS POSSIBLY THE SPLIT BETWEEN GORILLA AND ARCHAIC HOMININ AFRICAN, AND BT-YDNA HG IS POSSIBLY THE SPLIT BETWEEN GORILLA-HOMININ NIGGER AND CHIMPANZEE. C-YDNA HG AND F-YDNA HG ARE A CROMAGNON MAN EURASIAN NOT APART OF THE AFRICAN APE MIXING BUT, MAY HAVE ADMIXED LATER AS THE OUT OF AFRICAN APE HOMININS MIX IN. BUT THE FIRST OF C-YDNA HG AND F-YDNA HG WHO TOOK THE NORTH ROUTE TO EUROPE AND EURASIA DID NOT MIX WITH THE MONKEY PEOPLE. THE CROMAGNONS ADMIX WITH EUROPEAN ARCHAICS SUCH AS NEANDERTHAL, OR THE CROMAGNON WAS AN EVOLUTIONARY FROM THE EUROPEAN /EURASIAN ARCHAIC MANKINDS....
Most human origins stories are not compatible with known fossils
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/05/210506142133.htm
In the 150 years since Charles Darwin speculated that humans originated in Africa, the number of species in the human family tree has exploded, but so has the level of dispute concerning early human evolution.... Humans diverged from apes -- specifically, the chimpanzee lineage -- at some point between about 9.3 million and 6.5 million years ago, towards the end of the Miocene epoch....
Overall, the researchers found that most stories of human origins are not compatible with the fossils that we have today. "Living ape species are specialized species, relicts of a much larger group of now extinct apes. When we consider all evidence -- that is, both living and fossil apes and hominins -- it is clear that a human evolutionary story based on the few ape species currently alive is missing much of the bigger picture,"...
"The unique and sometimes unexpected features and combinations of features observed among fossil apes, which often differ from those of living apes, are necessary to untangle which features hominins inherited from our ape ancestors and which are unique to our lineage."
Living apes alone, the authors conclude, offer insufficient evidence. "Current disparate theories regarding ape and human evolution would be much more informed if, together with early hominins and living apes, Miocene apes were also included in the equation," says Almécija. "In other words, fossil apes are essential to reconstruct the 'starting point' from which humans and chimpanzees evolved."
NIGGERS ARE NOT AN ACCIDENT OF NATURE. THEY ARE A PRODUCT OF DELIBERATE INTERBREEDING OF ARCHAIC MANKIND WITH APES IN AFRICA.
NOW THERE IS PROOF THAT MAN DID NOT EVOLVE FROM APES AS A RANDOM ACCIDENT OF GENE MUTATED TEENAGED NINJA MONKEYS. APE-HOMO HYBRIDS WERE MADE WHEN ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH APES PASSING ON AND MIXING MAN GENES WITH APE GENES. COMBINED WITH NEW MUTATIONS FORMING NOT PRESENT IN EITHER THE APE PARENT NOR MAN PARENT. NEW MUTATIONS OCCUR MORE FREQUENTLY FROM SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES THAT ACCUMULATES THRU THE GENERATIONS. THUS, EVOLUTION IS THE PRODUCT OF GENE POOLS INHERITED TO EACH INDIVIDUAL BY OUR PARENTS, AND FROM THEIR PARENTS AND SO ON DOWN THE LINE WITH ANY CHANGE TO THE OFFSPRING A RESULT OF GENERATIONAL GENE POOL ACCUMULATIONS, AND SOME RANDOM. THIS EXPLAINS WHY NIGGERS INHERIT MORE APE GENE MUTATIONS CONTRIBUTING TO THEIR HbS MUTATIONS, SICKLE CELL, AND OTHER APE FEATURES. IF DARWINS THEORY WAS TRUE THEN EUROPEANS WOULD ALSO BE NIGGERS AS WELL. THUS, EUROPEANS CAN ONLY BECOME NIGGER IF THEY INTERBREED WITH NIGGERS TO INHERIT GENES FROM THE APE-HOMOS...
Darwin’s Natural Selection Theory May Not Be True, Gene Study Says
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/natural-selection-theory-0016397
According to the researchers, mutations have been misattributed to randomness, and this has been the backbone of the theory of evolution, until now. Instead, the researchers have been able to provide evidence of non-random mutations by showing “a long-term direct mutational response to environmental pressure.” This is in direct contradiction to Darwin’s longstanding theory of natural selection, which argues that all genetic mutations are random and accidental, and attributes beneficial traits being passed on through generations of breeding. For long, this has been a key tenet of neo-Darwinism, but we can now safely postulate that one helpful genetic mutation was not random at all – the human haemoglobin S (Hbs) mutation that protects against malaria....
In the mix, non-random mutations were added to detect “de novo” mutations, which literally mean “out of the blue” mutations that are present in an offspring but not inherited from either parent,...Interestingly, the HbS mutation was found to occur more frequently in populations where malaria is endemic, i.e., Africa, suggesting that certain mutations arise more frequently where they are of adaptive significance. The scientists behind the latest study hypothesize that evolution is influenced both by external information (natural selection), and internal information (generational genetic pools). This new thinking about natural selection has actually been around for a long time but the recent study proves it for the human hemoglobin malaria mutation....
malaria-protective mutation actually originates de novo more frequently in sub-Saharan Africans , a population subgroup that has been exposed to centuries of malarial selection pressure, compared to that of the Europeans. Clearly, a random mutation would have equally random chances of appearing in both populations, as per Darwinian postulation, but that is not what actually happened.... complex information that is accumulated in the genome through the generations impacts mutation, and therefore mutation-specific origination rates can respond in the long-term to specific environmental pressures. Mutations may be generated nonrandomly in evolution after all, but not in the way previously conceived....
OUTSIDE OF JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA WAS A MIXING OF APE-HOMOS. THE ARCHAIC MAN CUTOFF IN AFRICA OVER 6 MILLION YA INTERBRED WITH APES PRODUCING APE HOMOS. THESE APE HOMOS CONTINUE TO INTERMIX WITH EACH OTHER AND OTHER APES PRODUCING MORE APE HOMOS OF VARIOUS KINDS IN AFRICA MIGRATE INTO SOUTH AFRICA. IN SOUTH AFRICA THEY CONTINUE TO INTERMIX WITH MORE APES AND MORE APE HOMOS ABOUT 3 MYA. THESE BECAME GENUS' AUSTRALOPITHECUS, PARANTHROPUS, AND HOMO. SOME HOMININS IN THIS AREA WERE A. AFRICANUS, P. ROBUSTUS, H. ERECTUS, AND H. NALEDI.
AFRICANUS MAY BE THE BEGINNING OF MORE HUMANLIKE APE WITH BIPEDALISM BUT, STILL RESEMBELD THE APE.
ROBUSTUS IS IN A SEPARATE GENUS OF PARANTHROPUS BECUZ IT WAS MORE GORILLA LIKE THAN THE AUSTRALOPITHECUS WHICH WAS CHIMPANZEE LIKE.
H. HABILIS WAS AN EARLIER HOMO WITH A MORE APE LIKE BODY.
H. ERECTUS IS THE EARLIEST KNOWN HUMAN SPECIES TO HAVE A MODERN HUMANLIKE BODY AND TO HAVE LIVED LIKE US COMPARED TO GORILLA AND CHIMPANZEE. ERECTUS MAY HAVE BEEN THE FIRST HUMAN SPECIES TO MIGRATE OUT OF AFRICA FROM 1.9MYBP TO 110,000 YBP WHERE HE WOULD HAVE ENCOUNTERED SEVERAL NON-AFRICAN ARCHAIC MANKINDS.
H. NALEDI WAS A SHORT LIVED WHORE INTERBREEDING ITSELF OUT OF EXISTANCE. IT WAS A APE HOMO HYBRID OF THE HUMAN AND AUSTRALOPITHECINE. NALEDI WAS A DIVERSE HOMININ BASTARD IN SOUTH AFRICA.
NIGGERS CONTAIN MORE APE GENES BECUZ THEIR RELATIVES WERE AFRICAN APE HOMOS. EUROPEANS RECEIVE THEIR GENES FROM EUROPEAN AND EURASIAN ANCESTORS WHO DID NOT INTERBREED WITH THE APE-HOMOS UNTIL MORE RECENT TIMES WHEN THE APE HOMOS MIGRATE OUT OF AFRICA.
THE APE HOMOS CAUSED MASS GENOCIDE AND EXTINCTION OF EUROPEAN AND EURASIAN MANKINDS AS THEY INTEGRATED WITH THE APE HOMOS.
MODERN MAN IS A BROAD TERM TO DESCRIBE THE MANY VARIOUS ADMIXTURES OF ARCHAIC MANKINDS WITH THE MANY APE-HOMO HYBRIDS AND EVERYTHING IN BETWEEN STILL LIVING AND EXTINCT FROM THOSE NOW EXTINCT...
Denizens of South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind: The First Walking Apes
https://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science/cradle-of-humankind-0016393
Cradle of Humankind outside of Johannesburg, South Africa...have produced fossils of up to five hominin species, including Australopithecus africanus , Paranthropus robustus , Homo habilis , Homo erectus , and Homo naledi . This makes the Cradle of Humankind a chronicle of human evolution, covering about 3 million years...
Homo habilis (KNM-ER 1813, Koobi Fora, Kenya ∼1.8 million years old), an early Homo erectus (D2700, Dmanisi, Georgia ∼1.8 million years old) and Homo floresiensis (Liang Bua 1, Indonesia ∼20,000 years old)...
Today, there is one species of hominin in the Highveld, Homo sapiens . For millions of years, however, the landscape was much more diverse. For millions of years, multiple hominin species appear to have coexisted in the Cradle of Humankind. At one point, perhaps 2 million years ago, there were as many as three different genera of hominins in the area simultaneously, australopithecines (genus Australopithecus), paranthropines (genus Paranthropus), and humans (genus Homo). Some major hominin species that dominated the area include Australopithecus africanus , Paranthropus robustus , Homo erectus , and Homo naledi ....
A. africanus was related to the ancestors of the genus Homo. Australopithecus africanus flourished as a species between 3.3 Ma (Million years ago) and about 2.1 Ma. It was bipedal, as shown by its femur, foot bones, and pelvis....a more ape-like appearance.... A. africanus reflects the beginning of the more human-like great apes with its bipedalism, rounder skull, and smaller teeth. Nonetheless, it was still very ape-like and did not signal the beginning of physically recognizable humanity.... the earliest toolmakers were australopithecines...
Originally called Australopithecus robustus , enough evidence has been gathered that the hominin is now considered to be in a separate genus, Paranthropus. robustus flourished between about 1.8 Ma and 1.2 Ma....a more gorilla-like appearance compared to the chimpanzee-like A. africanus .... P. robustus also had a wide, dish-shaped face... P. robustus demonstrates how similar species can evolve in very divergent ways...
Homo habilis...one of the earliest members of the genus Homo. It lived from about 2.4 Ma to about 1.4 Ma and coexisted with its eventual ecological successor, Homo erectus , for half a million years. Homo habilis had a larger brain than the australopithecines, but it still had a more ape-like body with relatively long forelimbs and a slightly jutting face...
Homo erectus is the earliest known human species to have had a modern human-like body with relatively long hind-limbs (i.e., legs) and shorter forelimbs (i.e., arms).... H. erectus were the first humans to live more like us than chimpanzees or gorillas.... The tools developed by H. erectus are collectively referred to as the Acheulean toolkit or industry.... H. erectus was probably the first human species to “leave Africa” and lasted for almost 2 million years from 1.9 Ma to ⁓110,000 years B.P. (Before Present). One of the last regions inhabited by H. erectus was Indonesia where they may have coexisted with several other hominin species including Homo floresiensis and Homo sapiens .
Like H. habilis , H. erectus did not originate in South Africa, but they did have a presence there for over a million years. It is not entirely clear what caused H. erectus to migrate to South Africa. One possibility is that they migrated due to climate change. When they arrived in the area now known as the Cradle of Humankind, they would have encountered P. robustus and perhaps the last of A. africanus. H. erectus represents the first human species to be recognizably human beyond cladistics...
Homo naledi lived from 335,000 years B.P. to 236,000 years B.P. They are unusual in that they had a mixture of human and australopithecine characteristics. Their large brains, their hands, and their feet make them look more like genus Homo. Their pelvis and shoulders make them look more like australopithecines....Homo naledi shows the diversity of the hominin denizens of the Cradle of Humankind....
EVER WONDER WHY SOME NIGGERS LOOK LIKE A GORILLA HUMAN HYBRID, AND SOME NIGGERS LOOK LIKE A CHIMP HUMAN HYBRID AND SOME NIGGERS LOOK MORE LIKE A BONONBO. ITS BECUZ OF THE ADMIXTURE THEY INHERIT FROM THEIR AFRICAN RELATIVES WHO MATED WITH VARIOUS KINDS OF APES.
ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH APES IN AFRICA CREATING THE GORILLA 6 TO 8 MYA AND OTHER APES AND HOMOS. AS HE AND HIS APE HOMO HYBRIDS CONTINUE TO INTERBREED CREATES CHIMPANZEE AND OTHER APES AND HOMOS. GORILLA YDNA RESEMBLES HUMAN YDNA MORE THAN CHIMP YDNA ALTHOUGH HUMAN AND CHIMPS ARE MORE SIMILAR. THIS COULD BE EXPLAINED BECUZ CHIMPS FUK ANYTHING THAT WALKS WHEREAS GORILLAS AND HUMANS GENERALLY ARE A ONE WOMAN MAN OR APE.
Gorilla Y chromosome strongly conserved with Human but not Chimpanzee
Gorilla Y flow sorted DNA is 30% to 40% of human sequence.
Gorilla origins 6 to 8MYA. Chimpanzee origin 5 to 6 MYA.
Y chromosome similarity:
human - chimp 97.99%
gorilla - human 97.10%
gorilla - chimp 97.09%
% of gorilla Y to human Y 83.4%
% of gorilla Y to chimp Y 70.3%
Gorilla Y resembles Human Y more than Chimp Y. Possibly because chimps are polyandrous while gorillas and humans are not.
NIGGER SEES HIMSELF FOR THE FIRST TIME....
Animals Fascinated By Their Reflection
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAYMkRD8_Uo&list=PLXC1aShJSBiWfzDkULOCUrCuYX0dgmf_8&index=2
NIGGER GOT A HOT DATE TONITE PREPPING UP....
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9IG1MveSZjw&list=PLXC1aShJSBiWfzDkULOCUrCuYX0dgmf_8&index=4
Of Kinds and Common Ancestors: Comparing Mitochondrial Genomes of Mammals
https://thenaturalhistorian.com/2013/02/26/kinds-baramins-creationism-mtdna-genomes-compared/
The average human has 1462 differences with that of a typical chimpanzee. That sounds like a lot of differences. This is 8.8%. ... I didn’t show the numbers for chimps compared to great apes and orangutans but the differences (<2000 differences) are much greater than the differences between humans and chimps....
Let look at the canine sequences next. Domesticated dogs and wolves are more similar than humans are to each other. Despite the obvious morphological differences in dog breeds they are genetically almost identical both in the mtDNA and nuclear genomes and they are barely different from wolves. Look at the coyote and dog comparison. There is an average of 700 differences. Coyotes and dogs can interbreed and so this amount of difference is no big deal. But look at the red fox and dog/wolf comparison. Here we see a whopping 2269 differences. This is close to double the differences that we find between chimps and human mtDNA genomes. ...
Now look at the “cat” family members. The lion and tiger, which are poster species for creationists who say that evolution has happened within kinds, have 1373 differences. This is almost the same as the number of differences between humans and chimpanzees and I think reflect some very real differences between lions and tigers....Can creationists really claim that all these cats are actually related to a single common ancestor and probably had a single mtDNA sequence just 4000 years ago but then claim that the genetic difference between chimps and humans is so vast that it is ridiculous to think they had a common ancestor....
How Similar is Similar? Baramins, Species, and the Identification of Common Ancestors
70%, 90%, 98% – what’s in a number?
Well, really percentages don’t matter that much. Who cares if something is 90% similar with a given algorithm or it is 98% similar. What matters much much more is how those numbers compares to other similar pairwise comparisons. In other words, you need to do an apples-to-apples, or oranges-to-oranges if you prefer, analyses to actually be able to compare something meaningfully.
1) Chimpanzees mitochondrial genomes differ from the average human by 1462 base pairs out of 16,569 total bases in humans. That is an 8.9% difference (or 91.1% similarity). Notice that Tomkins found a 70% similarity for the nuclear genome but the mtDNA genome is easy to compare and so this number is pretty solid and agreed upon by everyone.
2) The average human mitochondrial genome differs from the Denisovan (fossil human) by 385 bp (2.3%)
3) The average human mitochondrial genome differs from the Neanderthal (fossil human) by 202 bp (1.2%)
4) I am not sure how different individual humans are but I’m going to guess that any two individual humans alive today differ by 0 to 75 bp. (ie. less than 0.5%)
Giving data as percentages can be quite deceiving making the observer think it represents more, or less of data. For example, what is more: 90% of 10, or 10% of 90? The answer is 9 for both. What is the difference between 100% of 3 Billion, and 99.9% of 3 Billion? Answer is 3 Million.
Does a difference of 3 Million genetic building blocks make us the same?
But, Genome-wide variation from one human being to another can be up to 0.5% (99.5% similarity)
NIGGERS DISPLAY VISUAL SIMILARITIES TO THEIR APE RELATIVES SOME APPEARING MORE GORILLA LOOKING, SOME LOOK MORE CHIMPANZEE, WHILE OTHERS MORE BONOBO. THIS DEPENDS ON THEIR ADMIXTURES. GORILLAS ARE OLDER OF THE NIGGER APE HOMO. CHIMPS AND BONOBOS ARE THE NIGGERS CLOSEST RELATIVE WHEN THE A-YDNA HG WAS HAVING SEX WITH APES AND THEIR HYBRIDS CAUSED DIVERGENCE BETWEEN A-YDNA HG AND NIGGERS OF BT-YDNA HG, BONOBOS, AND CHIMPS. A-YDNA HG FORMED WHEN ARCHAIC MAN IN AFRICA INTERBRED WITH APES WHICH MADE ORANGUTANS, GORILLAS, AND OTHER APE HOMO HYBRIDS.
IN ADDITION TO THEIR APE LOOK YOU CAN ALSO DISTINGUISH THEIR APE RELATIVE BY BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS. NIGGERS WHO ARE AGGRESSIVE CAN BE FROM BOTH THEIR GORILLA AND CHIMP ANCESTORS. NIGGERS WHO USE SEX AS A WEAPON INHERIT THAT TRAIT FROM THEIR BONOBO ANCESTORS...
Bonobo vs Chimpanzee
CHIMPS, BONOBOS, AND NIGGERS ARE CLOSEST RELATIVES.
CHIMPS ARE AGRESSIVE EAT MONKEYS, CANNIBALS, ANIMALS, PLANTS. SOCIAL IN UNIT GROUPS, PATERNAL LED, INTELLIGENT, STRONGER THAN BONOBOS.
BONOBOS EAT FRUITS PLANTS SOME ANIMALS. ARE PASSIVE USES SEX TO AVOID FIGHTS. ACTIVE IN DAY. FEED IN GROUPS, MATERNAL LED SOCIETY. FUN, SEX, USE TEAM WORK,
CHIMPANZEE VS GORILLA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IwmEwyMoyxI&list=RDCMUCDBgTJ_aPb8YT4FuLZ6WU2w&index=5
GORILLAS ARE PEACEFUL, FAMILY ORIENTED, PLANT EATING AND ALSO INSECTS, SOCIAL GROUPS, LARGEST OF ALL PRIMATES, BUILD NESTS ON GROUND OR IN TREES,
CHIMPS BUILD NESTS IN TREE WHERE THEY SLEEP. CHIMPS HAVE 5 TIMES MORE STRENGTH THAN HUMANS, GORILLAS HAVE MUCH MORE STRENGTH THAN A CHIMP.
Why Chimpanzees Are So Strong?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhWth5fUhWQ&list=RDCMUCDBgTJ_aPb8YT4FuLZ6WU2w&index=9
CHIMPS ARE 1.5 TIMES STRONGER THAN HUMANS IN PULLING AND JUMPING DUE TO MUSCLE FIBER DISTRIBUTION 67% FAST TWITCH FIBERS COMPARED TO 40% IN HUMANS.
Why Gorillas Are So Strong?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ok438yG2guY&list=RDCMUCDBgTJ_aPb8YT4FuLZ6WU2w&index=11
GORILLAS SHARE 98% DNA WITH HUMANS. GORILLAS ARE 4+ TIMES STRONGER THAN MAN. GORILLAS HAVE THICKER SKIN AND SKULLS THAN HUMANS. GORILLAS HAVE BIGGER MOUTHS AND STRONGER JAWS. STRENGTH FROM EXERCISE, DIET, AND PHYSICAL FEATURES.
COMPARING GENETIC SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TWO SPECIES CALLED HYBRIDIZATION ARE FOUND ALSO IN THE DIFFERENCES CALLED INDELS. THUS, HUMAN AND CHIMPANZEE BASE SUBSTITUTON SIMILARITY 1.4% PLUS INDELS DIFFERENCE 3.9% EQUALS 5.3%. THIS IMPLIES HUMAN AND CHIMPS ARE 95% SHARED DNA....
Humans and chimps have 95 percent DNA compatibility, not 98.5 percent, research shows
genetic similarities between two species. Called hybridization... The problem with the old studies is that the methods did not recognize differences due to events of insertion and deletion that result in parts of the DNA being absent from the strands of one or the other species. These are different from the aforementioned substitutions. Such differences, called "indels," are readily recognized by comparing sequences, if one looks beyond the missing regions for the next regions that do match....
As expected, he found a base substitution rate of about 1.4 percent—well in keeping with earlier reported results—but also an incidence of 3.9 percent divergence attributable to the presence of indels. Thus, he came up with the revised figure of 5 percent....
ABOUT 6.5MYA TO 7.5MYA CHIMPS AND HUMANS SHARED A COMMON ANCESTOR WHEN ARCHAIC MANKIND INTERBRED WITH GORILLA-HOMO HYBRIDS. THIS CREATED CHIMPANZEES, AND CHIMP HOMO HYBRIDS. THIS PROCESS REPEATS ITSELF AGAIN WHEN ARCHAIC MANKIND INTERBREEDS WITH THE CHIMPANZEE CREATING CHIMP-HOMO HYBRIDS ABOUT 300KYA.
ABOUT 180KYA ALPHA MANKIND IS THE COMMON ANCESTOR WHO INTERBRED WITH THE CHIMP-HOMO HYBRIDS IN AFRICA CREATING A-YDNA NIGGER HAPLOGROUP. THE NON-AFRICAN RACES DID NOT DESCEND FROM THE AFRICAN GORILLA-CHIMP-HOMO-NIGGER LINEAGE. THE NON-AFRICANS DESCEND FROM THE BETA GROUP WHICH SHARED THE SAME COMMON ANCESTOR ALPHA MANKIND.
SCIENCE CANNOT IDENTIFY THE CAUSATIVE HUMAN GENES. BUT, IT IS ACCEPTED THAT GENE REGULATION AND ALTERED PROTEIN CODING PLAYED A ROLE IN THE DIFFERENCES. HIGHEST DIVERSITY IN CHIMPS ARE IN CENTRAL AFRICA. THE mt-DNA INSERTS ITSELF INTO THE PROTEINS OF GENES WHICH MAY BE HOW THE HYBRIDIZATION OCCURS. WHETHER THIS A FEMALE HUMAN, OR A FEMALE CHIMP, GORILLA, ETC. OR BOTH WHICH WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR HYBRIDIZING BETWEEN MANKIND AND APES IS UNCERTAIN. BUT, THE EVOLUTIONARY APE LADDER IF YOU WILL IS ORANG, GORILLA, CHIMP, AND NIGGER AS THE MANKINDS HAVE BEEN DEBASED BY INTERBREEDING WITH THE APE HOMO HYBRIDS....
Differences between human and chimpanzee genomes and their implications in gene expression, protein functions and biochemical
https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-020-06962-8
Chimpanzees are the closest living relatives of humans. The divergence between human and chimpanzee ancestors dates to approximately 6,5–7,5 million years ago. Genetic features distinguishing us from chimpanzees and making us humans are still of a great interest. After divergence of their ancestor lineages, human and chimpanzee genomes underwent multiple changes including single nucleotide substitutions, deletions and duplications of DNA fragments of different size, insertion of transposable elements and chromosomal rearrangements....
we still cannot identify with certainty the causative genes of human identity... In this review, we summarized the available information about genetic differences between humans and chimpanzees... https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-020-06962-8/tables/1
Conclusions:
It is now generally accepted that both changes in gene regulation and alterations of protein coding sequences might have played a major role in shaping the phenotypic differences between humans and chimpanzees....
the central chimpanzees retain the highest diversity in the chimpanzee lineage, whereas the other subspecies show multiple signs of population bottlenecks...
1 IN 4,000 BIRTHS SOME GENETIC CODE FROM mt-DNA INSERTS INTO OUR NUCLEAR DNA. mt-DNA IS PASSED DOWN THE MATERNAL LINE. THIS INSERTION ACTS TO REPAIR DAMAGE TO OUR GENETIC CODE BUT IN RARE CASES CAN DAMAGE OUR GENETIC CODE. 58% OF THE INSERTIONS ARE IN REGION OF GENES THAT CODE FOR PROTEINS. THE BODY SILENCES THE PROCESS BUT, SOME OF THE INSERTS BECOME COPIED AND MOVE AROUND THE NUCLEUS....
A new route to evolution: How DNA from our mitochondria works its way into our genomes
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/10/221005111913.htm
Scientists have shown that in one in every 4,000 births, some of the genetic code from our mitochondria -- the 'batteries' that power our cells -- inserts itself into our DNA, revealing a surprising new insight into how humans evolve.... mitochondrial DNA also appears in some cancer DNA, suggesting that it acts as a sticking plaster to try and repair damage to our genetic code....
Mitochondria are tiny 'organelles' that sit within our cells, where they act like batteries, providing energy in the form of the molecule ATP to power the cells. Each mitochondrion has its own DNA -- mitochondrial DNA -- that is distinct to the rest of the human genome, which is comprised of nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is passed down the maternal line -- that is, we inherit it from our mothers, not our fathers....
the new inserts are actually happing all the time, showing a new way our genome evolves.... mitochondrial DNA transfers to nuclear DNA in around one in every 4,000 births. If that individual has children of their own, they will pass these inserts on -- the team found that most of us carry five of the new inserts, and one in seven of us (14%) carry very recent ones. Once in place, the inserts can occasionally lead to very rare diseases, including a rare genetic form of cancer.... "Our nuclear genetic code is breaking and being repaired all the time," said Professor Chinnery. "Mitochondrial DNA appears to act almost like a Band-Aid, a sticking plaster to help the nuclear genetic code repair itself. And sometimes this works, but on rare occasions if might make things worse or even trigger the development of tumours."...
More than half (58%) of the insertions were in regions of the genome that code for proteins. In the majority of cases, the body recognises the invading mitochondrial DNA and silences it in a process known as methylation, whereby a molecule attaches itself to the insert and switches it off. A similar process occurs when viruses manage to insert themselves into our DNA. However, this method of silencing is not perfect, as some of the mitochondrial DNA inserts go on to be copied and move around the nucleus itself....
cells only have two copies of nuclear DNA, but thousands of copies of mitochondrial DNA, so the chances of mitochondrial DNA being broken and passing into the nucleus are much greater than the other way around.... DNA in mitochondria is packaged inside two membranes and there are no holes in the membrane, so it would be difficult for nuclear DNA to get in. By contrast, if mitochondrial DNA manages to get out, holes in the membrane surrounding nuclear DNA would allow it pass through with relative ease....
What did humans evolve from according to the theory of evolution?
The main line through genus Homo goes: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo antecessor, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo sapiens.
but there were a lot of other species in the genus, with which we cross bred. Homo habilis came from one of the members of the genus Australopithecus - probably Australopithecus afarensis, as they seem to have been most common.
Before that it gets murkier, because there were so many proto-human species living at the same time and we don’t know which were ancestors and which cousins. But we have Sahelanthropus tchadensis living around the point at which our line split from the line leading to chimps and bonobos.
Before that we go down through the great apes, basal apes, basal catarrhines, basal simians, basal primates, then something related to tree shrews and colugos, then back down through the placental mammals, to what we used to call mammal-like reptiles, and so on back.
Here’s a nice sequence which shows selected highlights from the first chordates to us, although there are many more species which fit in between each pair. Before the chordates we think our ancestors were related to starfish and sea urchins, but at that point we’re getting into organisms which have few hard parts and don’t fossilise well.
https://www.quora.com/Why-have-no-fossils-been-found-of-humans-ape-like-creatures-to-prove-evolution
There isn’t a single male ancestor. Y-chromosome Adam, who lived about 250,000 years ago, give or take 50,000 years. Y-chromosome Adam isn’t our single male ancestor. There were tens of thousands of men alive in his day from whom we are all descended. But Y-chromosome Adam is the most recent man from whom we are all descended *in the male line*, and therefore from whom all modern Y-chromosomes descend. Every time a line passes through an all-female generation its Y-chromosome is lost, but there’s always a father’s father’s father’s father’s father, all the way back to the origin of fixed sexes.
ALL MAMMALS FROM A HUMAN TO A WHALE ARE THOUGHT TO DESCEND FROM A PREHISTORIC MOUSELIKE CREATURE 180 MYA...
Revealing the genome of the common ancestor of all mammals
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/09/220928094821.htm
The earliest mammal ancestor likely looked like the fossil animal "Morganucodon" which lived about 200 million years ago.... Every modern mammal, from a platypus to a blue whale, is descended from a common ancestor that lived about 180 million years ago.... The reconstruction shows that the mammal ancestor had 19 autosomal chromosomes...(these are paired in most cells, making 38 in total) plus two sex chromosomes... 1,215 blocks of genes that consistently occur on the same chromosome in the same order across all 32 genomes....
"This remarkable finding shows the evolutionary stability of the order and orientation of genes on chromosomes over an extended evolutionary timeframe of more than 320 million years," Lewin says. In contrast, regions between these conserved blocks contained more repetitive sequences and were more prone to breakages, rearrangements and sequence duplications, which are major drivers of genome evolution.... the rate of chromosome rearrangement differed between mammal lineages....
Our DNA is 99.9% the same as the person sitting next to us — and we're surprisingly similar to a bunch of other living things
Our bodies have 3 billion genetic building blocks, or base pairs, that make us who we are. And of those 3 billion base pairs, only a tiny amount are unique to us, making us about 99.9% genetically similar to the next human.
MILLIONS TO HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO HOMONOIDS INTERBRED WITH APES. NIGGERS ARE THE CLOSEST RELATIVES OF THE APE-HOMO HYBRIDS AN ADMIXTURE OF VARIOUS APES WITH HOMONOIDS IN AFRICA OVER MANY YEARS...
World’s First Human-Monkey Hybrid Created In China
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-science-space/animal-human-hybrids-0012383
genetically modified monkey embryos” and have successfully created a HUMAN-MONKEY embryo.... If left to evolve ‘naturally’ the embryo would quickly have grown into a monkey with human cells ; but adhering to ‘ethical standards’ the plug was pulled on the whole process long before the embryo began developing a central nervous system ....
IS IT ETHICAL TO GENOCIDE AND REPLACE THE HUMAN POPULATION WITH APE-HOMO HYBRIDS SUCH AS OCCURRED WITH ARCHAIC MANKINDS GENOCIDED BY OUT OF AFRICAN APE-HOMOS....
The Ethics of Crossing Human and Animals
Are you man or pig?
Do pigs share 98 per cent of human genes?
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2010/05/03/2887206.htm
"Making broad comparisons by saying … 98 per cent of [human] genes are similar to a chimpanzee or whatever else … tend to be a little bit misleading," says Moran. The amount of genetic material we share with other species depends upon what you compare. All living organisms have genetic information encoded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), divided into units called genes. Information is transferred from the genes via a chemical called ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Some RNA is translated into chains of amino-acid that make up proteins, the building blocks of every living cell. Scientists have discovered about 20,000 mammalian genes that encode proteins with similar basic functions. So if you compare the protein-encoding portion of our DNA we have a lot in common with a lot of mammals. "Mammals have most of the same genes for similar biochemical and physiological functions. If you look at the details of the genes … there'll be differences between them, but they'll still be doing the same kind of function," says Moran. "It's a little bit like having a Ford or a Holden — it's still obviously a car but a slightly different version."
But while 20,000 similar genes sounds like a lot, only one to two per cent of our DNA actually encodes proteins. Most of the rest is transcribed into RNA. Some RNAs that don't carry the plans for proteins have important structural or functional roles in their own right. Transfer RNAs, for example, ferry specific amino acids into a growing protein, while ribosomal RNA constitutes part of the factories in cells that manufacture proteins. But we are only just beginning to understand what many other non-coding RNA molecules do. Some control higher level functions such as the expression of protein-encoding genes, and some have even been implicated in memory.
Are you man or ape?
Are you a closer relative to a chimp than a gorilla is to a chimp? Are you more of an ape than other apes are to themselves? Are you more of an ape than a monkey is to an ape? Or are you just a man who is similar to other animals in certain aspects but, closer in similarities to some than in others?
Facts How closely are gorillas related to us?
http://www.berggorilla.org/en/gorillas/general/facts/how-closely-are-gorillas-related-to-us/
Certain genes that were analyzed differ by:
1.2% between humans and chimpanzees
1.6% between humans and gorillas
1.8% between gorillas and chimpanzees
3.1% between African apes and humans differ from orang-utan
In mitochondrial DNA geneticists found a difference of:
8.8% between humans and chimpanzees
10.3% between humans and gorillas
10.6% between chimpanzees and gorillas
16-17% difference between the other species and the orang-utan
If there is a difference of 7% DNA between Humans and Rhesus Monkey how can Rh blood group be an indicator within the human species, or sub-species let alone an indicator of race? Rh then is nothing more than the 93% similarity shared between the monkey and human blood. We have shown above the vast differences that 0.1% makes in our dna so that 7% is a huge difference that can in no way be used to completely identify a human species let alone a racial or ethnic group. The similarities can compare the similarities and be useful in those terms medically and even as a partial indicator of people on a broad scale only. But, only to identify them as human, or primate. Which is limited to say that an original human found in an African, an Amerind, a Chinese, and in Europe had type O- blood. Does not reveal the species or race of the human only the similarities of the blood.
The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics
A difference of 3.1% distinguishes us and the African apes from the Asian great ape, the orangutan. How do the monkeys stack up? All of the great apes and humans differ from rhesus monkeys, for example, by about 7% in their DNA....
The 1.2% chimp-human distinction, for example, involves a measurement of only substitutions in the base building blocks of those genes that chimpanzees and humans share. A comparison of the entire genome, however, indicates that segments of DNA have also been deleted, duplicated over and over, or inserted from one part of the genome into another. When these differences are counted, there is an additional 4 to 5% distinction between the human and chimpanzee genomes.
As I understand this A and B blood group did not mutate from O. It was present in the hominids at least 20 Milion years ago. All the primates carry their own ABO and the A and B are persistent while O is a null allele, there is a high mutation rate to O, such that the current O could be derived from any functional allele. That each species can carry all or some of the ABO antigens that are determined by balancing selection by type rather than by species. Which sounds to me that the more A in a group the more it will remain A, and likewise the more B in a group the more the group will be B. And since O is null its presence is the highest among the group because both A and B can default to O. So it seems the most homogenous a group is absent of foreign peoples then that pure isolated homogenous group would eventually over time default to the O blood group. A and B is considered a newer group only because it had not enough time in isolation to default to the O group. This may be caused because the group had mixed with other peoples along their migration introducing the A or B persistant pressure.
This is proof against the out of africa myth because we know that each human and primate carry their own ABO independant of each other. That ABO is only a similarity that we share. Just as we both have our own 2 eyes, two ears, etc...
However, since earth has had many various primates and humanids it is very likely some were more closely related to each other that passed on more monkey like genes onto the humans. Which is why some humans look more ape like than others. Not because we all evolved from the apes but, some of the other original humankinds were either more genetically closer, and/or the more ape/human man were closer genetically allowing a intermixing of the two producing the more monkey like traits. This is gene sharing, and is not evolution from a single Adam monkey.
This expalins why original peoples in Africa, Europe, Asia, South America, and North America originally had O type blood but, are all genetically different. It was the ability to live isolated for a long enough time away from foreign contamination of their genes to allow for the balance to default to O.
The ABO blood group is a trans-species polymorphism in primates
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3494955/
ABO antigens are also polymorphic in many other primates, with the same two amino acid changes responsible for A and B specificity in all species sequenced to date. ... genetic variation data in humans and gibbons as well as in Old World monkeys are inconsistent with a model of convergent evolution and support the hypothesis of an ancient, multiallelic polymorphism of which some alleles are shared by descent among species. These results demonstrate that the A and B blood groups result from a trans-species polymorphism among distantly related species and has remained under balancing selection for tens of millions of years...
Balancing selection pressures can maintain two or more alleles in the population for long periods of time—so long, that the polymorphism may be shared due to identity by descent among distinct species, leading to a trans-species polymorphism. In this scenario, the time to the most recent common ancestor (tMRCA) of the selected alleles will predate speciation times. Due to linkage, sites near the selected ones may also have old tMRCAs, resulting in unusually high diversity within species and shared alleles between species. Because of recombination events between the two allelic classes in the history of the sample, however, the tMRCA at linked sites can also be much more recent than at the selected sites, so diversity levels need not be unusually high. Moreover, the old tMRCA provides many opportunities for recombination, which will erode the segment that carries the high diversity signal; as a result, ancient balancing selection will leave only a narrow footprint in genetic variation data and will often be hard to detect....
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3494955/figure/fig01/
We show instead that the remarkable distribution of ABO alleles across species reflects the persistence of an old ancestral polymorphism that originated at least 20 million years ago and is shared identical by descent by humans and gibbons as well as among distantly related Old World monkeys....
Strikingly, in the trees within hominoids (other than orangutan) and within Old World monkeys, A and B alleles cluster by type rather than by species (Fig. 3). The clustering by A and B types is consistent with a scenario in which the A and B allelic classes had a most recent common ancestor long ago and persisted across species (Fig. 2A). The lack of clustering for the O alleles could then reflect frequent turnovers (i.e., replacement) of these alleles within a balanced polymorphism, as expected from the high mutation rate to null alleles...
We note further that because O is a null allele, there is a high mutation rate to O, such that the current O could be derived from any functional allele, including some that have not persisted to the present. As a consequence, divergence between O and A (or O and B) may be deep, possibly even deeper than A versus B, even if the O allele is itself recent....
Thus, the data are inconsistent with a model where only one allelic class existed during the first 12 My of hominoid evolution (i.e., convergent evolution in humans and gibbons) and are best explained by the persistence of the A and B allelic class for the ∼20 My since divergence of humans and gibbons. ...
Our results indicate that ABO is a trans-species polymorphism inherited identical by descent in humans and gibbons as well as among all Old World monkeys studied (macaques, baboons, and colobus monkeys), and which was therefore maintained over tens of millions of years. ABO is the second example of a locus at which human variation traces back to the origin of hominoids. Moreover, given that the signal of a trans-species polymorphism is expected to decrease over time, eventually becoming undetectable, we cannot exclude an older origin of the balanced polymorphism, which led to allele sharing among hominoids and Old World monkeys (albeit with a turnover of the A allele), or possibly even with New World monkeys. This finding points to selection pressures that have remained strong relative to genetic drift throughout the evolution of these species.
COMMENT:
This is why some people claim that O is older than A and B in origin. Yes O would appear to be older because it must age to become more homogenous among more homogenous peoples. But, A and B are just as old as O.
In summary, the more time an homogenous isolated group of people are it will become O type blood.
The more heterogenous, nomadic, or more mixing the group of people are with other peoples the more likely it will be A or B type blood.
The more A or B the group of people are depends on how much of that type blood is in the group of people, and the type that mixes in with the other group of people.
It is claimed O type people are the indigenous peoples, or original peoples. Yes, and No. Yes that O type would have been in an area among their own people pure and isolated for a long long time.
But, once that O type blood migrates to another geography does his O type then represent where he now lives? No. His O type blood only represents the people he came from. The people he received his O genes from.
But, if he passes on O type to his children, and if his child becomes O type in the new land is the child then indigenous to his parents new land? No. The childs O type is indigenous to his ancestors that aged long enough to produce that O type.
Although O type blood is still the same the child is not indigenous of his new land.
If that child passes on his genes to a woman from the new land then their child has a greater chance of becoming A type because A and O are more numerous than B type.
And although the new land may have once been originall O type the influx of the new migrating peoples will change the blood type more in favor of A type with some B type added in.
In my opinion there must be another identifier to distinguish between O types from different peoples in different geography but still have O type.
DIFFERENT BLOOD TYPES MUTATE TO COUNTER DISEASES...
Why Do We Have Different Blood Types?
https://www.livescience.com/33528-why-blood-types-exist-compatible.html
There are four main blood types. Blood type A is the most ancient, and it existed before the human species evolved from its hominid ancestors. Type B is thought to have originated some 3.5 million years ago, from a genetic mutation that modified one of the sugars that sit on the surface of red blood cells. Starting about 2.5 million years ago, mutations occurred that rendered that sugar gene inactive, creating type O, which has neither the A or B version of the sugar. And then there is AB, which is covered with both A and B sugars. These sugars are what makes some blood types incompatible:...
The evolutionary cause, or at least one of them, appears to be disease.....
Blood type (non-human)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type_(non-human)
Antigens from the human ABO blood group system are also found in apes and Old World monkeys, and the system traces back to the origin of hominoids. Other animal blood sometimes agglutinates (to varying levels of intensity) with human blood group reagents, but the structure of the blood group antigens in animals is not always identical to those typically found in humans. The classification of most animal blood groups therefore uses different blood typing systems to those used for classification of human blood.
Two categories of blood groups, human-type and simian-type, have been found in apes and monkeys and can be tested by methods established for grouping human blood.
The rhesus system is named after the rhesus monkey, following experiments by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener, which showed that rabbits, when immunised with rhesus monkey red cells, produce an antibody that also agglutinates the red blood cells of many humans.
Chimpanzee blood group systems: Data on blood groups of chimpanzees, baboons and macaques. Two complex chimpanzee blood group systems, V-A-B-D and R-C-E-F systems, proved to be counterparts of the human MNS and Rh-Hr blood group systems, respectively. Two blood group systems have been defined in Old World monkeys: the Drh system of macaques and the Bp system of baboons, both linked by at least one species shared by either of the blood group systems.
Pig blood is similar to humans. Does that make man a pig?
Ape-to-human, pig-to-human blood donations: Could xenotransfusions work?
Would you accept a transfusion of blood products from a chimpanzee or a gorilla? Or what about a pig? One person did back in 1667 when French physician Jean-Baptiste Denis successfully transfused blood from a lamb into 15 year-old human boy. ... despite ABO and Rh commonality, there are minor differences between the blood of humans, apes, and other animals whose effects on transfusion would have to be understood completely. ...
Thus, as we consider xenotransfusion pigs might actually be a more feasible option, and in fact that’s what’s happening. Xenotransfusion research currently focusses on pigs, not apes, and it’s not just because pigs are abundant. They’re blood actually is quite similar to human blood. The size of red blood cells is similar. So is the typical red blood cell life span, the hemoglobin content and structure, and other factors, plus pigs can be genetically modified to produce red blood cells that are equivalent to human type O negative. As noted earlier, that’s the universal donor blood, and this makes xenotransfusion sound very attractive, although, other ways to make O negative blood also beckon.
Some evolutionists claim that since Rh is found in a majority of humans, and also found in certain monkeys then humans must have evolved from monkeys. There is no proof ABO or Rh were given to humans from the monkeys. These are only similarities that primates have in common with humans. Similarities do not equate to same origins, nor to same ancestry. From previous articles we have learned that the ABO blood group is found in humans and primates from their beginnings. One did not inherit it from the other. It is just another similarity humans have with primates. So the Rh must also be another similarity that humans share with primates, and not indicitive of evolution, or direct gene sharing, although it is also shared genetically does not porve that man bred with apes but, more genetically similar ape men may have existed that were interbred with modern humans is a possibility. But, it would not have to have come from the monkey, or an ancient ape man since it is independantly a part of our human genetics which originated from our own unique ancestor just as other primates inherited it from their own ancestor.
Do primates have similar blood types to humans?
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2010/04/07/2866275.htm
'Rh factor' in human blood, a molecule that is either present (Rh+) or absent (Rh-) on our red blood cells, ...The 'Rh' stands for the rhesus monkey because researchers recognised that this human blood antigen was similar to a rhesus monkey blood antigen.
Blood types have only been studied in a handful of primate species, but Rideout says Old World monkeys and apes have been shown to have blood types comparable, although not identical, to the human ABO blood group system.
With proper cross-matching you could theoretically do transfusions between closely-related species, like apes and humans, says Rideout. But there are enough differences between ape and human ABO systems that could influence the success of a xenotransfusion.
- Genome-wide variation from one human being to another can be up to 0.5% (99.5% similarity)
- Chimpanzees are 96% to 98% similar to humans, depending on how it is calculated.
- Cats have 90% of homologous genes with humans, 82% with dogs, 80% with cows, 79% with chimpanzees, 69% with rats and 67% with mice.
- Cows (Bos taurus) are 80% genetically similar to humans
- 75% of mouse genes have equivalents in humans, 90% of the mouse genome could be lined up with a region on the human genome 99% of mouse genes turn out to have analogues in humans
- The fruit fly (Drosophila) shares about 60% of its DNA with humans
- About 60% of chicken genes correspond to a similar human gene.
The number of genes across a few tested species can be compared on HomoloGene.
Are you man, or mouse? Are you a chicken?
Animals That Share Human DNA Sequences
http://education.seattlepi.com/animals-share-human-dna-sequences-6693.html
Rhesus monkeys and humans share 93 percent of their DNA.
Humans share 98.8 percent of their DNA with bonobos and chimpanzees.
Humans and gorillas share 98.4 percent of their DNA.
Humans and orangutans share 96.9 percent of their DNA.
Humans and monkeys share approximately 93 percent.
Humans and mice share nearly 90 percent of human DNA.
Humans and dogs share 84 percent of their DNA.
Humans and birds (chikens) share 65 percent of their DNA.
Humans Aren’t Apes: It’s Past Time We Evolve Past This Outdated Assertion
What they neglected to mention was that the project only compared protein-coding segments of the genome, which in humans, account for just 2 percent of the total! The rest is what Francis Collins once termed “junk DNA.” ... this “junk” serves regulatory roles that determine how other genes are expressed, particularly in the brain... “junk DNA,” which makes up the vast majority of our genome, is a vital part of what makes humans, human and chimps, chimps.
Second, it turns out that the “99%” figure resulted from using a complete human genome as the template to sequence that of chimpanzees. That would be like assembling a jigsaw puzzle based on how another puzzle fit together! ...
The comparison also selected for areas of greater similarity and discarded those that didn’t match. ...the two genomes looked similar because researchers expected them to look similar.
...humans and chimps share around 92 percent of our DNA. To put that in perspective, scientists tell us that we’re 90% identical to cats. ... recent advances show how differently human and ape bodies put specific genes to work. Special proteins called transcription factors switch certain genes on and off during development, and roughly a third of these are human-specific. Apes don’t even have them.
The differences on the level of gene transcription, splicing, and expression are so profound that Gauger compares the process with an operating system, and protein-specific DNA with lines of code. They may look the same, but the results—a human and a chimp—could hardly be more different.
9 OUT OF TEN HUMANS WHO HAVE TRIED WIMIN PREFER MONKEYS AND APES.
HUMANS ARE CLASSIFIED AS PRIMATE BECUZ THEIR DNA IS CLOSE, THEIR HANDS ARE SIMILAR, EYES ARE SIMILAR, AND BECUZ THEY HAVE A DOMED SKULL. HUMANS ARE DIFFERENT THAN APES AND MONKEYS BECUZ HUMANS HAVE A LARGER BRAIN. CLASSIFYING BASED ON THE RELATIVE DEGREE OF SIMILARITIES AND CLOSENESS IS THE OPINION OF ONE MAN CARL LINNAEUS AND THIS EVOLUTION OF TAXONOMY OPINIONS FOLLOWS. THIS PUTS TAXONOMY INTO A FURTHER CLASS OF HUMANS AS STUPID AND STUPIDER. OPINIONS ARE LIKE ASS HOLES, EVERYONE HAS ONE AND THEY STINK, SOME WORSE THAN OTHERS. THERFOR IT IS THE OPINION OF SOME WHO SAY HUMANS ARE APES AND OPINION OF SOME WHO SAY OTHERWISE. CLOSENESS, AND SIMILARITIES DO NOT DEFINE A GROUP ACCURATELY. RATHER IT MERELY GROUPS SIMILIRITIES OF SOMETHINGS REGARDLESS HOW DIFFERENT THEY ARE IN OTHER THINGS. THERFORE BASED ON TAXONOMY WE REALLY ARE NOT THE SAME AS OUR DEFINED GROUP RATHER WE ARE ONLY SIMILAR IN SOME ASPECTS BASED ON SIMILAR OPINIONS OF A FEW.
WHICH MEANS YOUR ANCESTOR MAY NOT ACTUALLY BE A MONKEY BUT YOU MAY BE AN APE, OR EVEN A NIGGER OR AN ALBINO MONKEY...
Why Are Humans Primates?
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-are-humans-primates-97419056/
People may seem very different from lemurs, monkeys and apes, but all primates share a few key physical and behavioral characteristics...
These are simple questions to answer from a genetic perspective—humans share more DNA with lemurs, monkeys and apes than they do with other mammals. Genetic research of the last few decades suggests that humans and all living primates evolved from a common ancestor that split from the rest of the mammals at least 65 million years ago....
Today, anthropologists recognize several physical and behavioral traits that tie humans to primates.... Primates have nimble hands and forward-facing eyes, ... And in general, primates tend to have larger brains than other mammals of a similar size. They also have smaller litters—often just one baby at a time—and longer periods of gestation and childhood....
Primates (including humans) are different to all other animals because they are the only mammals that have the following combination of features: relatively large, complex brain. forward-facing eyes with overlapping fields of view that allow depth perception. Humans are primates https://australian.museum
What makes you a primate? Primates have large brains (relative to body size) compared to other mammals, as well as an increased reliance on visual acuity at the expense of the sense of smell, which is the dominant sensory system in most mammals. ... Except for apes (including humans), primates have tails. Most primates also have opposable thumbs. Primate https://en.wikipedia.org
5 TO 6 MYA ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH THE APES PRODUCING HYBRIDIZED APES AND HOMININS. THE CLOSEST LIVING EVOLUTIONARY HYBRID IS CLAIMED TO BE CHIMPANZEE 1.2% DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE HUMAN AND CHIMP BUT, 8.8% DIFFERENCE IN mtDNA. AN ARCHAIC MAN DECIDES AGAINST BEING AN APE HYBRID AND SPLITS AWAY FROM HIS APE HYBRID SIBLING. HE MIGRATES TO MIX IN WITH THE ARCHAIC NONAFRICAN MANKINDS WHO WERE NOT DESCENDED FROM THE APE HYBRIDS. THIS BEGAN THE EXTERMINATION AND GENOCIDE OF THE NONAFRICAN PEOPLES. THE NIGGER CONTINUED TO LIVE THE LIFE OF AN APE-MAN HYBRID IN AFRICA IS CLOSER RELATED TO CHIMPANZEES, GORIILAS, AND OTHER APES COMPARED TO MODERN WHITE EURASIANS AND EUROPEANS BECUZ OF LESS TO NO ADMIXING WITH APE MAN HYBRIDS AND MORE GENES FROM ARCHAIC NONAFRICAN MANKINDS. THIS EXPLAINS THE 0.5% DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NIGGERS COMPARED TO WHITES WHICH MADE NIGGERS NEARLY MIDPOINT BETWEEN CHIMPANZEES AND EUROPEANS. IT WAS THE A-YDNA HAPLOGROUP WHICH INTERMIXED WITH THE CHIMPANZEES, AND OTHER APES. THIS STUDY FINDS OUR DIFFERENCES ARE CONTAINED IN THE 98% SIMILARITIES RATHER THAN IN OUR 2% DIFFERENCES. BUT, REMEMBER THAT JUST 0.1% DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUMANS IS A DIFFERENCE OF 3 MILLION BUILDING BLOCKS. THUS, 0.5% DIFFERENCE, 1.2% DIFFERENCE, AND 2% DIFFERENCE IS A LOT OF DIFFERENCES. AND IF SOME OF OUR DIFFERENCES ARE ACTUALLY FOUND IN OUR 98% SIMILARITIES THEN WE ARE ACTUALLY MORE DIFFERENT THAN ORIGINALLY PROPOSED WHICH MEANS THE USA PROPAGANDA WE ARE ALL THE SAME IS A HOAX TO FURTHER BASTARDIZE AND GENOCIDE MORE OF THE HUMANS, AND EXPAND MORE APE-MAN HYBRIDS...
What makes us human? The answer may be found in overlooked DNA
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/10/211008105736.htm
Our DNA is very similar to that of the chimpanzee, which in evolutionary terms is our closest living relative... The chimpanzee is our closest living relative in evolutionary terms and research suggests our kinship derives from a common ancestor. About five to six million years ago, our evolutionary paths separated, leading to the chimpanzee of today, and Homo Sapiens, humankind in the 21st century....
The researchers then found that humans and chimpanzees use a part of their DNA in different ways, which appears to play a considerable role in the development of our brains. "The part of our DNA identified as different was unexpected. It was a so-called structural variant of DNA that were previously called "junk DNA,"... Previously, researchers have looked for answers in the part of the DNA where the protein-producing genes are -- which only makes up about two per cent of our entire DNA -- and examined the proteins themselves to find examples of differences." The new findings thus indicate that the differences appear to lie outside the protein-coding genes in what has been labelled as "junk DNA," which was thought to have no function and which constitutes the majority of our DNA. "This suggests that the basis for the human brain's evolution are genetic mechanisms that are probably a lot more complex than previously thought, as it was supposed that the answer was in those two per cent of the genetic DNA. Our results indicate that what has been significant for the brain's development is instead perhaps hidden in the overlooked 98 per cent, which appears to be important. This is a surprising finding."
Are Negros Closer to Apes Than to Humans?
https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/letters/2012/apes.htm
Taxonomists and geneticists believe that negros should be classified as different species. In fact, Darwin declared in The Descent of Man that the negros are so distinct that similar differences found in any other animal would warrant their classification as a different species.
On the Negro's Place in Nature. James Hunt
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3025197?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
Negro's are closer to the apes than to Europeans....
Franz Ignaz Pruner (1808–1882) was a medical doctor who studied the racial structure of Negroes in Egypt. In a book which he wrote in 1846 he claimed that Negro blood had a negative influence on the Egyptian moral character. He published a monograph on Negroes in 1861. He claimed that the main feature of the Negro's skeleton is prognathism, which he claimed was the Negro's relation to the ape. He also claimed that Negroes had brains very similar to those of apes and that Negroes have a shortened big toe, a characteristic, he said, that connected Negroes closely to apes.
In Chapter VII of his Lectures of Man (1864) he compared the Negro to the white race whom he described as "two extreme human types". The difference between them, he claimed are greater than those between two species of ape; and this proves that Negroes are a separate species from the whites. * Carl Vogt
Ernst Haeckel wrote that Negroes have stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race which is evidence that Negroes are related to apes because when apes stop climbing in trees they hold on to the trees with their toes. Haeckel compared Negroes to "four-handed" apes.
The facial angle was formed by drawing two lines: a horizontal line from nostril to ear; and a vertical line from the upper-jawbone prominence to the forehead prominence.... whites an 80-degree angle, blacks a 70-degree angle, and the orangutan a 58-degree facial angle... * Pieter Camper
ARCHAIC MANKINDS BEING SEPARATED BY NATURAL BOUNDARIES FORMED 6.25MYA SOME IN AFRICA, AND OTHERS IN EUROPE AND EURASIA. THOSE ARCHAICS IN AFRICA BEGAN TO INTERBREED WITH APES, AND WITH THE HYBRIDS CREATED BY THE ARCHAIC PART HOMOS-PART APES WHICH LATER CREATES NIGGERS IN AFRICA OF THE A YDNA HG. THE ARCHAIC MANKINDS SEPARATED IN EUROPE AND EURASIA BECAME NEANDERTHAL, DENISOVAN, AND OTHER EXTINCT MANKINDS WHICH LATER BECAME THE C YDNA HG.
THIS ARTICLE REVEALS A TWO MILLION YEAR OLD SPINE FROM SOUTH AFRICA OF A TRANSITIONAL APE-NIGGER HYBRID THAT WALKS UPRIGHT AND CLIMBS TREES WITH LONG ARMS....
Spinal Missing Link Is Discovered Unifying Apes, Neanderthals and Us
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/spinal-missing-link-0016108
A team of scientists has analyzed a set of two-million-year-old so-called ‘missing link’ fossils. Unlike anything presented before, their new study shows how the ancient human relative, Australopithecus sediba , 'walked like a human, but climbed like an ape'.... two million years old fossilized spine of the new species of ancient human relatives. Researchers call this female skeleton “Issa,” which means ‘protector’ in Swahili, after she was found at Malapa Cave, in the self-proclaimed Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site northwest of Johannesburg, South Africa... anthropologists discovered ’the most complete lower back ever discovered’ of a male sediba at the same site.... lumbars inform scientists as to whether any given species could walk on two legs, like modern humans do. Previous lumbar studies were all based on incomplete lower spines. Until now, it was not noticed that sediba had ‘a relatively straight spine, without the curvature, or lordosis, typically seen in modern humans,’ according to the paper....
‘Lordosis’ is the inward curve of the lumbar spine associated with tendencies towards bipedalism. The research showed how the lordosis of sediba was ‘more extreme than any other australopithecines yet discovered.’ This indicates ‘a powerful trunk musculature, perhaps for arboreal [tree climbing] behaviors,’ according to Russo. And, Issa’s spine was found to be more similar to ‘Neanderthals, and other more primitive species of ancient hominins older than two million years’. The study concluded that the new spine research demonstrates sediba’s ‘transitional nature’ being able to walk like a human and climb trees like an ape: ‘a missing link’ showing another intermediate species between the great apes, Neanderthals and modern humans.
Part Ape, Part Human: The Fossils... 28:27
MtDNA sequences of human’s closest relatives
http://www.phylotree.org/resources/mtDNA_human_relatives.htm
SCIENTIFIC AND GENETIC PROOF HAVING SEX WITH MONKEYS, APES, GORRILLAS, AND NIGGERS CAUSES EXTINCTION OF ARCHAIC MANKINDS AND WOMANKINDS. THE FIRST ARCHAIC WOMEN, AND THE GODDESS' HAVE BEEN REPLACED BY MONKEYS, GORRILLAS, APES, AND MONKEY PEOPLE HYBRIDS WHICH CREATED NIGGERS CALLED EVE....
Scientists Think They've Found 'Mitochondrial Eve's' First Homeland
https://www.livescience.com/mitochondrial-eve-first-human-homeland.html
the oldest DNA lineages on Earth: a collection of genes called L0 ... "We've known for a long time that humans originated in Africa and roughly 200,000 years ago," ...
Furthermore, he added, because the present study follows only one sequence of maternally inherited genetic code, its findings may not capture the full picture of humankind's earliest travels through Africa. Rather, the best available evidence suggests that multiple genetically-different founder populations may have lived throughout various parts of the continent, giving modern humans not one but several homelands....
The team found that mitochondrial Eve and her descendants lived in this region for about 30,000 years (from 200,000 to 170,000 years ago) before the L0 lineage split into its first subgroup. ...a hypothetical woman called "mitochondrial Eve." Today, the L0 lineage is found most commonly in the Khoisan people, two indigenous groups living in southern Africa. ...What it does not explain, however, is the other half of our genetic lineage (the male half). According to Stringer, there's not a lot of evidence that our earliest male ancestors walked a path like the one described here. "Looking at the male-inherited Y chromosome, the most-divergent lineages currently known in extant humans are found in west Africa, not south Africa, suggesting our Y-chromosome ancestors may have originated from there," Stringer said....The authors of the study do acknowledge that modern humans may have had multiple "homelands" where different genetic lineages took root; L0 is simply the best-preserved lineage...
Mitochondrial Eve
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_Eve
In terms of mitochondrial haplogroups, the mt-MRCA is situated at the divergence of macro-haplogroup L into L0 and L1–6. As of 2013, estimates on the age of this split ranged at around 155,000 years ago, consistent with a date later than the speciation of Homo sapiens but earlier than the recent out-of-Africa dispersal.
The male analog to the "Mitochondrial Eve" is the "Y-chromosomal Adam" (or Y-MRCA), the individual from whom all living humans are patrilineally descended. As the identity of both matrilineal and patrilineal MRCAs is dependent on genealogical history (pedigree collapse), they need not have lived at the same time. As of 2013, estimates for the age Y-MRCA are subject to substantial uncertainty, with a wide range of times from 180,000 to 580,000 years ago (with an estimated age of between 120,000 and 156,000 years ago, roughly consistent with the estimate for mt-MRCA.)....
Maximum parsimony tree based on an alignment of entire mtDNA sequences.
https://www.phylotree.org/resources/mtDNA_human_relatives.htm
Y ADAM WAS CREATED WHEN HOMO ERECTUS OR ANOTHER ARCHAIC MAN HAD SEX WITH GORILLAS AND CREATED CHIMPANZEE AND HUMANS. HAPLOGROUP A HAS 8T NUCLEOBASE UNITS WHEREAS HAPLOGROUP BT AND CHIMPANZEES HAVE 9T UNITS.
THIS SUGGESTS THAT ADAM Y A HUMAN HAD SEX WITH GORILLAS CREATING THE CHIMPANZEE AND HIS SIBLING BT HAPLOGROUP. BUT THIS CHIMPANZEE/HUMAN SPLIT OCCURRED WITHIN THE A HAPLOGROUP.
THE HUMANS WERE NEANDERTHAL AND SAPIENS. THE EUROPEANS ARE NEANDERTHALS AND AFRICANS ARE SAPIENS. THE SAPIENS REMAINED IN AFRICA MATING WITH GORRILLAS, CHIMPANZEES, AND APES WHILE NEANDERTHAL REMAINED UNTOUCHED BY MONKEY GENES UNTIL THE SAPIENS EXIT AFRICA CAUSE NEADERTHALS TO GO EXTINCT BY PROCESS OF POLYGYNY, HYBRIDIZATION, INFERTILIZATION, DISEASE, ETC. THIS SAPIEN TAKEOVER CONTRIBUTES TO MAJORITY OF GENES TODAY AS THE GODS, AND THE FIRST ARCHAIC MANKINDS BECAME EXTINCT....
Y-chromosomal Adam
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Adam
By definition, it is not necessary that the Y-MRCA and the mt-MRCA should have lived at the same time. While estimates as of 2014 suggested the possibility that the two individuals may well have been roughly contemporaneous,[4] the discovery of archaic Y-haplogroup has pushed back the estimated age of the Y-MRCA beyond the most likely age of the mt-MRCA. As of 2015, estimates of the age of the Y-MRCA range around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, roughly consistent with the emergence of anatomically modern humans...
Y-chromosomal data taken from a Neanderthal from El Sidrón, Spain, produced a Y-T-MRCA of 588,000 years ago for Neanderthal and Homo sapiens patrilineages, dubbed ante Adam, and 275,000 years ago for Y-MRCA....
The Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor is the most recent common ancestor of the Y-chromosomes found in currently living human males....The MRCA of a population may move forward in time as archaic lineages within the population go extinct: once a lineage has died out, it is irretrievably lost. This mechanism can thus only shift the title of Y-MRCA forward in time. Such an event could be due to the total extinction of several basal haplogroups. The same holds for the concepts of matrilineal and patrilineal MRCAs...
Estimates on the age of the Y-MRCA crucially depend on the most archaic known haplogroup extant in contemporary populations. As of 2018, this is haplogroup A00 (discovered in 2013). Age estimates based on this published during 2014–2015 range between 160,000 and 300,000 years, compatible with the time of emergence and early dispersal of Homo sapiens....
Early estimates of the age for the Y-MRCA published during the 1990s ranged between roughly 200 and 300 thousand years ago (kya), Such estimates were later substantially revised downward, as in Thomson et al. 2000, which proposed an age of about 59,000. This date suggested that the Y-MRCA lived about 84,000 years after his female counterpart mt-MRCA (the matrilineal most recent common ancestor), who lived 150,000–200,000 years ago. This date also meant that Y-chromosomal Adam lived at a time very close to, and possibly after, the migration from Africa which is believed to have taken place 50,000–80,000 years ago. One explanation given for this discrepancy in the time depths of patrilineal vs. matrilineal lineages was that females have a better chance of reproducing than males due to the practice of polygyny. When a male individual has several wives, he has effectively prevented other males in the community from reproducing and passing on their Y chromosomes to subsequent generations. On the other hand, polygyny does not prevent most females in a community from passing on their mitochondrial DNA to subsequent generations. This differential reproductive success of males and females can lead to fewer male lineages relative to female lineages persisting into the future. These fewer male lineages are more sensitive to drift and would most likely coalesce on a more recent common ancestor. This would potentially explain the more recent dates associated with the Y-MRCA....
The announcement by Mendez et al. of the discovery of a previously unknown lineage, haplogroup A00, in 2013, resulted in another shift in the estimate for the age of Y-chromosomal Adam. The authors estimated the split from the other haplogroups at 338,000 years ago (kya) (95% confidence interval 237–581 kya), but later Elhaik et al. (2014) dated it to between 163,900 and 260,200 years ago (95% CI), and Karmin et al. (2015) dated it to between 192,000 and 307,000 years ago (95% CI). The same study reports that non-African populations converge to a cluster of Y-MRCAs in a window close to 50kya (out-of-Africa migration), and an additional bottleneck for non-African populations at about 10kya...
The revised root of the y-chromosome family tree by Cruciani et al. 2011 compared with the family tree from Karafet et al. 2008. It is now known that there is a haplogroup (A00) outside of this scheme.... Initial sequencing (Karafet et al., 2008) of the human Y chromosome suggested that two most basal Y-chromosome lineages were Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT. Haplogroup A is found at low frequencies in parts of Africa, but is common among certain hunter-gatherer groups. Haplogroup BT lineages represent the majority of African Y-chromosome lineages and virtually all non-African lineages. Y-chromosomal Adam was represented as the root of these two lineages. Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT represented the lineages of Y-chromosomal Adam himself and of one of his sons, who had a new SNP.
Cruciani et al. 2011, determined that the deepest split in the Y-chromosome tree was found between two previously reported subclades of Haplogroup A, rather than between Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT. Later, group A00 was found, outside of the previously known tree. The rearrangement of the Y-chromosome family tree implies that lineages classified as Haplogroup A do not necessarily form a monophyletic clade. Haplogroup A therefore refers to a collection of lineages that do not possess the markers that define Haplogroup BT, though Haplogroup A includes the most distantly related Y chromosomes....
The M91 and P97 mutations distinguish Haplogroup A from Haplogroup BT. Within Haplogroup A chromosomes, the M91 marker consists of a stretch of 8 T nucleobase units. In Haplogroup BT and chimpanzee chromosomes, this marker consists of 9 T nucleobase units. This pattern suggested that the 9T stretch of Haplogroup BT was the ancestral version and that Haplogroup A was formed by the deletion of one nucleobase. Haplogroups A1b and A1a were considered subclades of Haplogroup A as they both possessed the M91 with 8Ts....
According to Cruciani et al. 2011, the most basal lineages have been detected in West, Northwest and Central Africa, suggesting plausibility for the Y-MRCA living in the general region of "Central-Northwest Africa". Scozzari et al. (2012) agreed with a plausible placement in "the north-western quadrant of the African continent" for the emergence of the A1b haplogroup...
In particular, the possible presence of between 1% and 4% Neanderthal-derived DNA in Eurasian genomes implies that the (unlikely) event of a discovery of a single living Eurasian male exhibiting a Neanderthal patrilineal line would immediately push back T-MRCA ("time to MRCA") to at least twice its current estimate. However, the discovery of a Neanderthal Y-chromosome by Mendez et al. suggests the extinction of Neanderthal patrilineages, as the lineage inferred from the Neanderthal sequence is outside of the range of contemporary human genetic variation. Questions of geographical origin would become part of the debate on Neanderthal evolution from Homo erectus.
A HG IS NOT A DEFINED MUTANT. IT ONLY IS DEFINED AS NOT DESCENDING FROM BT. A IS EXCLUSIVE TO AFRICA. BT PARTICIPATED IN OUT OF AFRICA? A HG REFERS TO ALL MUTANTS FROM 300KYA TO 80KYA.? HOWEVER MANY MORE SPLITS HAVE BEEN FOUND WITHIN THE A HG. WHICH MEANS A HG WAS MIXING WITH GORILLAS AND/OR MONKEYS WELL BEFORE BT...
Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_A_(Y-DNA)#A00
Possible time of origin roughly 270,000 years ago, or about 275,000 years ago. (303-241,000 years ago), or 291,000 years ago. Coalescence age 275,000 ybp (split with other lineages). Possible place of origin Possibly West or Central Africa.
Ancestor Human Y-MRCA (A00-T). Descendants primary: A00 (AF6/L1284), A0-T
Haplogroup A is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup, which includes all living human Y chromosomes which do not belong to haplogroup BT. Bearers of extant sub-clades of haplogroup A are almost exclusively found in Africa (or among descendants of populations which have recently left Africa), in contrast with haplogroup BT, bearers of which participated in the Out of Africa migration of anatomically modern humans. The known branches of haplogroup A are A00, A0, A1a, and A1b1; these branches are only very distantly related, and are not more closely related to each other than they are to haplogroup BT....
haplogroup A is not defined by any mutation but refers to any haplogroup which is not descended from the haplogroup BT, i.e. defined by the absence of the defining mutation of that group (M91). By this definition, haplogroup A includes all mutations that took place between the Y-MRCA (estimated at some 270 kya) and the mutation defining haplogroup BT (estimated at some 80–70 kya), including any extant subclades that may yet to be discovered....
haplogroup A's oldest sub-clades are exclusively found in Central-Northwest Africa, where it (and by extension the patrilinear ancestor of modern humans) is believed to have originated. Estimates of its time depth have varied greatly, at either close to 190 kya or close to 140 kya in separate 2013 studies, and with the inclusion of the previously unknown "A00" haplogroup to about 270 kya in 2015 studies...
Haplogroup E in general is believed to have originated in Northeast Africa, and was later introduced to West Africa from where it spread around 5,000 years ago to Central, Southern and Southeastern Africa with the Bantu expansion. According to Wood et al. (2005) and Rosa et al. (2007), such relatively recent population movements from West Africa changed the pre-existing population Y chromosomal diversity in Central, Southern and Southeastern Africa, replacing the previous haplogroups in these areas with the now dominant E1b1a lineages....
In the North Africa , haplogroup is largely absent. Its subclade A1 has been observed at trace frequencies among Moroccans....
A00 (A00-AF6)...unknown haplogroup, for which they proposed the designator "A00". It has an estimated age of around 275 kya, so is roughly contemporary with the known appearance of earliest known anatomically modern humans, such as Jebel Irhoud.... This previously unknown haplogroup was discovered in 2012, in the Y chromosome of an African-American man, who had submitted his DNA for commercial genealogical analysis... Researchers later found A00 was possessed by 11 Mbo males of Western Cameroon (Bantu)... Further research in 2015 indicates that the modern population with the highest concentration of A00 is the Bangwa (or Nweh), a Yemba-speaking group of Cameroon (Grassfields Bantu)...
A0 (A-V148)...A0 is found only in Bakola Pygmies (South Cameroon) at 8.3% and Berbers from Algeria at 1.5%. Also found in Ghana.
A1a (A-M31)...Guinea-Bissau...Cabo Verde...Senegambia... Mali... Berbers from Morocco...In 2007, seven men from Yorkshire, England sharing the unusual surname Revis were identified as being from the A1a (M31) subclade. It was discovered that these men had a common male-line ancestor from the 18th century, but no previous information about African ancestry was known.
A1b1a1a (A-M6)...Khoisan peoples...Tsumkwe San...!Kung/Sekele... Nama...Dama...
A1b1b (A-M32)...The clade A1b1b (M32; formerly A3) contains the most populous branches of haplogroup A and is mainly found in Eastern Africa and Southern Africa.
A1b1b1 (A-M28)...has only been rarely observed in the Horn of Africa...of South Semitic languages from Ethiopia...and in Somalis.
A1b1b2a (A-M51)...occurs most frequently among Khoisan peoples...lower frequency among Bantu peoples of Southern Africa...
A1b1b2b (A-M13)...Nilotic populations in East Africa and northern Cameroon. It is different from the A subclades that are found in the Khoisan samples and only remotely related to them (it is actually only one of many subclades within haplogroup A). This finding suggests an ancient divergence....Sudan... Ethiopia...occasionally outside of Central and Eastern Africa, as in the Aegean Region of Turkey, Yemenite Jews, Egypt, Palestinian Arabs, Sardinia, Jordan, Amman, and Oman....
Initial sequencing of the human Y-chromosome had suggested that first split in the Y-Chromosome family tree occurred with the mutations that separated Haplogroup BT from Y-chromosomal Adam and haplogroup A more broadly. Subsequently, many intervening splits between Y-chromosomal Adam and BT, also became known....
A HG CONTAINS 8 T UNITS. BT HG AND CHIMPANZEES HAVE 9 T UNITS. THIS IS AN ANCESTRAL VERSION CAUSED WHEN AN ARCHAIC MAN A00 ADAM Y MATED WITH GORRILLAS IN AFRICA CREATING NIGGERS, AND THEN A0 NIGGERS BRED WITH THAT GORRILLA ADAM HYBRID TO CREATE CHIMPANZEES WHICH BRED TOGETHER CREATING BT HG. THIS IS WHY CHIMPS AND NIGGERS ARE CLOSELY RELATED GENETICALLY, FOLLOWED BY OTHER APES AND GORRILLAS...
Haplogroup A-L1085 (aka Haplogroup AO-T)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_A-L1085
Possible time of origin 140,000 YBP, 125,000 - 382,000 YBP.
Possible place of origin Central-Northwest Africa
Ancestor Homo Y-MRCA
Descendants A-V148 (A0), A-P305 (A1)
Highest frequencies Namibia (Tsumkwe San, Nama) 60-70%
Southern Sudan (Dinka, Shilluk, Nuer) 33%-61.5%
Ethiopia (Beta Israel ) 41%-46%
It is part of the paternal lineage of almost all humans alive today. The SNP L1085 has played two roles in population genetics: firstly, most Y-DNA haplogroups have diverged from it and; secondly, it defines the undiverged basal clade A-L1085*. A0-T has two primary branches: A-V148 (also known as haplogroup A0) and haplogroup A-P305 (haplogroup A1)....
it is now known that deepest split in the Y-chromosome tree is found between two previously reported subclades of Haplogroup A, rather than between Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT. Subclades A1b and A1a-T now descend directly from the root of the tree.... Haplogroup A therefore refers to a collection of lineages that do not possess the markers that define Haplogroup BT, though many lineages within haplogroup A are only very distantly related. The M91 and P97 mutations distinguish Haplogroup A from Haplogroup BT. Within Haplogroup A chromosomes, the M91 marker consists of a stretch of 8 T nucleobase units. In Haplogroup BT and chimpanzee chromosomes, this marker consists of 9 T nucleobase units. This pattern suggested that the 9T stretch of Haplogroup BT was the ancestral version and that Haplogroup A was formed by the deletion of one nucleobase. But according to Cruciani et al. 2011, the region surrounding the M91 marker is a mutational hotspot prone to recurrent mutations. It is therefore possible that the 8T stretch of Haplogroup A may be the ancestral state of M91 and the 9T of Haplogroup BT may be the derived state that arose by an insertion of 1T. This would explain why subclades A1b and A1a-T, the deepest branches of Haplogroup A, both possess the 8T stretch. Furthermore, Cruciani et al. 2011 determined that the P97 marker, which is also used to identify haplogroup A, possessed the ancestral state in haplogroup A but the derived state in Haplogroup BT....
Haplogroup A-P305 (A1)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_A-P305
Possible time of origin 161,300 years BP. Possible place of origin Africa
Ancestor A0-T. Descendants A1a and A1b.
A1 includes the vast majority of living human males.... Basal, undivergent A-P305* is largely restricted to populations native to Africa...
THIS MAY NOT BE AN ACTUAL HAPLOGROUP AS NO BASAL BT* HAVE EVER BEEN DOCUMENTED. BT SPECIFICALLY EXCLUDES ALL NONAFRICAN K HAPLOGROUPS AND ITS SUBCLADES K*,LT,K2B*,MS,NO,P,Q, AND R WHICH ARE THE NATIVE PEOPLE OF EUROPE, EURASIA,AND THE EAST. RATHER DIFFICULT TO THINK IT EXITED AFRICA....
Haplogroup BT
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_BT
Possible time of origin about 150-145,000 years ago. Possible place of origin Africa.
Ancestor A2-T. Descendants B-M60, CT
also known as Haplogroup A1b2 (and formerly as A4, BR and BCDEF), is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. BT is a subclade of haplogroup A1b (P108) and a sibling of the haplogroup A1b1. Basal BT* has not been documented in any living individuals or ancient remains. No definite examples of BT(xCF,DE)... specifically excluding the broader haplogroup K and its subclades, such as haplogroups K*, LT, K2b*, MS, NO, P, Q and R).... The ISOGG tree since 2014 has treated M91 as the defining mutation of BT....
THIS HAPLOGROUP MAYBE THE EURASIAN ADAM, OR CF IS EURASIAN ADAM.
NO CT* PARAGROUP HAS EVER BEEN DISCOVERED IN MODERN HUMANS. ITS MUTANTS ARE NOT PRESENT IN A AND B-M60 WHICH ARE AFRICAN. THIS SUGGESTS CT MAY HAVE BEEN A MIX OF SOME NONAFRICAN ARCHAIC MAN WHO MIXED WITH THE MONKEY PEOPLE IN AFRICA WHICH CAUSES A HYPOTHESIZED MUTANT CF TO DEVELOP IN AFRICA OR OUT OF AFRICA.....
Haplogroup CT
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_CT
Possible time of origin c. 70,000 years ago, ca. 100,000 years ago, or about 101,000 years ago. Possible place of origin Africa, possibly Northeast Africa.
Ancestor Haplogroup BT. Descendants Haplogroup CF, Haplogroup DE.
These mutations are present in all modern human male lineages except A and B-M60, which are both found almost exclusively in Africa. ... The most recent common male line ancestor (TMRCA) of all CT men today probably predated the recent African origin of modern humans, a migration in which some of his descendants participated.... the lineage of "Eurasian Adam" or "Out of Africa Adam"; because, along with many African Y-lineages, all non-African Y-lineages descend from it.
No male in paragroup CT* has ever been discovered in modern populations. This means that all males carrying this haplogroup are also defined as being in one of the several major branch clades. All known surviving descendant lineages of CT are in one of two major subclades, CF and DE. In turn, DE is divided into a predominantly Asia-distributed haplogroup D-CTS3946 and a predominantly Africa-distributed haplogroup E-M96, while CF is divided into an East Asian, Native American, and Oceanian haplogroup C-M130 and haplogroup F-M89, which dominates most non-African populations....
CF HAPLOGROUP IS A MADE UP OF HYPOTHETICAL INDIVIDUALS SUPPOSEDLY DEVELOPS IN ASIA FROM HIS OUT OF AFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE. BUT, THERE IS NO PROOF OF THIS THEORY OTHER THAN ALL NONAFRICAN HAPLOGROUPS ARE INFERRED TO HAVE DESCENDED FROM CF. BUT THE FACTS REVEAL THE OPPOSITE. THE FACTS REVEAL NONAFRICANS DESCEND FROM C AND F. THE FIRST EUROPEANS AFTER NEANDERTAHL WAS K2 WHO DESCENDED FROM F.
C WAS THE FIRST MODERN MAN CALLED CRO MAGNON, AND F MAY ALSO BE CROMAGNON. THEREFOR THE PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS AND EURASIANS WERE NOT ORIGINALLY MONKEY PEOPLE AT THAT TIME. THIS CAN ALSO BE PROVEN BY THE ABSENCE OF THE RHESUS MONKEY GENE Rh- IN NATIVE EUROPEANS AND EURASIANS. THE MONKEY GENE Rh+ CAME MORE RECENT TO EUROPE FROM THE MONKEY PEOPLE HYBRIDS OUT OF AFRICA...
Haplogroup CF (Y-DNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_CF_(Y-DNA)
Possible time of origin 75,000-70,000 BP. Possible place of origin Unknown.
Ancestor CT. Descendants C, F.
The clade's existence and distribution are inferred from the fact that haplogroups descended from CF include most human male lineages in Eurasia, Oceania and The Americas.... There are, as yet, no confirmed cases of living individuals or human remains belonging to the basal, undivergent haplogroup CF*. ...
IN SUMMARY: In the begining was Hominoids, and lesser apes. The Hominoid lineage diverged from itself as various forms of apes i.e., gibbons, orangs, gorilla, chimps, and niggers. The process must have been initiated when an archaic mankind interbred with a lesser apekind in Africa. With continued interbreeding in Africa between the apes, mankind, and ape-homos increased diversity and caused increased mutations among them which created the splits. The nigger is the most recent split between the ape and hominoid lineage diverging about 300kya to 500kya.
ALL THIS MIXING LED TO THE EXTINCTION OF SOME OF THE EARLIEST OF ARCHAIC HUMANS. THIS GENOCIDE OF ARCHAIC HUMANS ACCELERATE WHEN THE MONKEY PEOPLE EXIT AFRICA BY WAY OF RACIAL MIXING, OR SUBSPECIES INTEGRATION WHICH CAUSED INFERTILITY, REPLACEMENT, ADMIXING, HYBRIDIZING, DISEASE, ETC. IN OTHER WORDS SAPIEN MONKEY PEOPLE OUT BRED, AND MURDERED THEIR WAY INTO EURASIA AND EUROPE MAKING THE ARCHAIC PEOPLE EXTINCT. NOT ENTIRELY THOUGH AS ABOUT 20% ARCHAIC GENES REMAINS IN MODERN NON-AFRICANS. FOR EXAMPLE LIGHT SKIN GENE CAME FROM NEANDERTHAL. IT ADMIXED IN WITH PALEOLITHIC CROMAGNON MAN AND THEN WITH THE MONKEY PEOPLE ACCELERATING DURING THE LGM. EUROPEANS ARE ACTUALLY NENDERTHALS WHO HAVE BEEN OVERSATURATED BY MONKEY PEOPLE WHO WERE ADMIXED IN CENTRAL ASIA WITH ARCHAIC MAN PRIOR TO ARRIVAL IN EUROPE. EUROPEANS THEREFORE CONTAIN MORE ORIGINAL ARCHAIC GENES FROM NONAFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE WHILE AFRICAN NIGGERS CONTAIN MORE MONKEY, APE, AND GORRILLA GENES OF THEIR CLOSEST ANCESTORS. THUS, WE ARE NOT ALL THE SAME, NOR FROM THE SAME COMMON ANCESTOR. MONKEY PEOPLE MERELY SPREAD MORE GENES WHICH SURVIVED COMPARED TO OTHER PEOPLES WHO HAVE BEEN GENETICALLY GENOCIDED BY INTEGRATION. TODAYS PEOPLE REFLECT THEIR PAST ADMIXTURES. THE MORE AFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE GENES THE MORE APE, GORRILLA, MONKEY, AND ITS ARCHAIC HYBRIDS WITHIN. THE MORE NONAFRICAN ARCHAIC GENES, AND CROMAGNON GENETICS THE LESS MONKEY GENES IN THOSE PEOPLE WHICH ARE THE EURASIAN, AND EUROPEAN PEOPLES WHO HAVE THE LEAST TO NO MONKEY GENES...
CLASSIFICATION AND GROUPING ARE JUST OPINIONS BASED ON SIMILARITIES. AMONG THE SIMILARITIES ARE FOUND DIFFERENCES AS WELL AS THE DIFFERENCES DECLARED DIFFERENCES. THUS, HUMAN IS NOT A DEFINITE VARIABLE...
Human
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human
Humans are apes (superfamily Hominoidea). The gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo) were the first living groups to split from this lineage, then gorillas, and finally, chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed 8–4 million years ago, during the late Miocene epoch, with a more constrained interval 8–7 million proposed by some geneticists. During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes.
The genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus. The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species are Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. The appearance of the genus coincides with the invention of stone tool manufacturing.
H. erectus (the African variant is sometimes called H. ergaster) evolved 2 million years ago and was the first archaic human species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia. H. erectus also was the first to evolve a characteristically human body plan. Homo sapiens emerged around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either H. heidelbergensis or H. rhodesiensis, the descendants of H. erectus that remained in Africa. H. sapiens migrated out of the continent, gradually replacing local populations of archaic humans.
The "out of Africa" migration took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. H. sapiens proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 60,000 years ago, Australia around 65,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280 CE.
Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species. Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution. DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non-African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day humans.
Human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are obligate bipedalism, increased brain size and decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate....
Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth....Humans share with chimpanzees a vestigial tail, appendix, flexible shoulder joints, grasping fingers and opposable thumbs. Apart from bipedalism and brain size, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in smelling, hearing and digesting proteins. While humans have a density of hair follicles comparable to other apes, it is predominately vellus hair, most of which is so short and wispy as to be practically invisible. Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet...
two humans on average will have a genetic similarity of 99.5%-99.9%. This makes them more homogeneous than other great apes, including chimpanzees. This small variation in human DNA compared to other species suggests a population bottleneck during the Late Pleistocene (around 100,000 years ago), in which the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs....
By 2010 estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes. By comparing mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago...
There is biological variation in the human species—with traits such as blood type, genetic diseases, cranial features, facial features, organ systems, eye color, hair color and texture, height and build, and skin color varying across the globe.... Much of human variation is continuous, often with no clear points of demarcation. Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are almost as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups. Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other.
Genetic research has demonstrated that human populations native to the African continent are the most genetically diverse and genetic diversity decreases with migratory distance from Africa, possibly the result of bottlenecks during human migration. These populations acquired new genetic inputs from local admixture with archaic populations and have much greater variation from Neanderthals and Denisovans than is found in Africa....
Humans have a larger and more developed prefrontal cortex than other primates, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. This has led humans to proclaim themselves to be more intelligent than any other known species. Objectively defining intelligence is difficult, with other animals adapting senses and excelling in areas that humans are unable to...
Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first forms of human social organization were families living in band societies as hunter-gatherers.
Kinship: All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity)....In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance....
Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics... there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group....
THIS TERM IDENTIFIES MODERN PEOPLE FROM EXTINCT ARCHAIC PEOPLE. THIS IS USEFUL TO DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE NIGGER MONKEY PEOPLE INVASION INTO WHITE NEANDERTHAL AND CROMAGNON EUROPEANS IN THE PALEOLITHIC BEFORE THE WHITES INTERBRED THEMSELVES INTO EXTINCTION WITH MONKEY PEOPLE EXITING AFRICA. THE AFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE WERE A BASTARD SUBSPECIES OF ARCHAIC AFRICAN MAN WHO WERE INTERBREEDING WITH THE MONKEYS, GORRILLAS, APES, AND THE HYBRIDS THEY WERE CREATING. THE EARLY MODERN PEOPLE MAY HAVE BEEN THE BT OR CT HAPLOGROUP WHO WERE THE FIRST MIX OF AFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE WITH THE NONAFRICAN ARCHAIC PEOPLE OF ASIA MINOR, AND/OR THE CROMAGNON MAN OF C AND F HAPLOGROUP...
Early modern human
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_human
This article is about the first humans (Homo sapiens), specifically during the Old Stone Age....
Early modern human (EMH) or anatomically modern human (AMH) are terms used to distinguish Homo sapiens (the only extant Hominina species) that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans from extinct archaic human species. This distinction is useful especially for times and regions where anatomically modern and archaic humans co-existed, for example, in Paleolithic Europe. Among the oldest known remains of Homo sapiens are those found at the Omo-Kibish I archaeological site in south-western Ethiopia, dating to about 196,000 years ago, the Florisbad site in South Africa, dating to about 259,000 years ago, and the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco, dated about 300,000 years old.
Extinct species of the genus Homo include Homo erectus (extant from roughly 2 to 0.1 million years ago) and a number of other species (by some authors considered subspecies of either H. sapiens or H. erectus). The divergence of the lineage leading to H. sapiens out of ancestral H. erectus (or an intermediate species such as Homo antecessor) is estimated to have occurred in Africa roughly 500,000 years ago. The earliest fossil evidence of early modern humans appears in Africa around 300,000 years ago, with the earliest genetic splits among modern people, according to some evidence, dating to around the same time. Sustained archaic human admixture with modern humans is known to have taken place both in Africa and (following the recent Out-Of-Africa expansion) in Eurasia, between about 100,000 and 30,000 years ago....
The species was initially thought to have emerged from a predecessor within the genus Homo around 300,000 to 200,000 years ago.... For this reason, a lineage-based (cladistic) definition of H. sapiens has been suggested, in which H. sapiens would by definition refer to the modern human lineage following the split from the Neanderthal lineage. Such a cladistic definition would extend the age of H. sapiens to over 500,000 years. Estimates for the split between the Homo sapiens line and combined Neanderthal/Denisovan line range from between 503,000 and 565,000 years ago; between 550,000 and 765,000 years ago; and (based on rates of dental evolution) possibly more than 800,000 years ago.
Extant human populations have historically been divided into subspecies, but since around the 1980s all extant groups have tended to be subsumed into a single species, H. sapiens, avoiding division into subspecies altogether. Some sources show Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) as a subspecies (H. sapiens neanderthalensis). Similarly, the discovered specimens of the H. rhodesiensis species have been classified by some as a subspecies (H. sapiens rhodesiensis), although it remains more common to treat these last two as separate species within the genus Homo rather than as subspecies within H. sapiens. All humans are considered to be a part of the subspecies H. sapiens sapiens, a designation which has been a matter of debate since a species is usually not given a subspecies category unless there is evidence of multiple distinct subspecies....
Homo heidelbergensis is shown as diverging into Neanderthals, Denisovans and H. sapiens. With the rapid expansion of H. sapiens after 60 kya, Neanderthals, Denisovans and unspecified archaic African hominins are shown as again subsumed into the H. sapiens lineage.... The divergence of the lineage leading to H. sapiens out of archaic human varieties derived from H. erectus, is estimated as having taken place over 500,000 years ago. Earlier studies estimated the oldest splits among modern populations to date around 160–100,000 years ago (in 2011 and 2012) on the basis of short-sequence fragments and to 300–250,000 years ago after rescaling (in 2012). However, the oldest split among modern human populations (such as the Khoisan split from other populations) was more recently calculated by a 2017 study to date between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago, and the earliest known H. sapiens fossils also date to about that period, including the Jebel Irhoud remains from Morocco (ca. 300,000 or 350–280,000 years ago), the Florisbad Skull from South Africa (ca. 259,000 years ago), and the Omo remains from Ethiopia (ca. 195,000 years ago)....
An alternative suggestion defines H. sapiens cladistically as including the lineage of modern humans since the split from the lineage of Neanderthals, roughly 500,000 to 800,000 years ago....
The derivation of a comparatively homogeneous single species of H. sapiens from more diverse varieties of archaic humans (all of which were descended from the early dispersal of H. erectus some 1.8 million years ago) was debated in terms of two competing models during the 1980s: "recent African origin" postulated the emergence of H. sapiens from a single source population in Africa, which expanded and led to the extinction of all other human varieties, while the "multiregional evolution" model postulated the survival of regional forms of archaic humans, gradually converging into the modern human varieties by the mechanism of clinal variation, via genetic drift, gene flow and selection throughout the Pleistocene. Since the 2000s, the availability of data from archaeogenetics and population genetics has led to the emergence of a much more detailed picture, intermediate between the two competing scenarios outlined above: The recent Out-of-Africa expansion accounts for the predominant part of modern human ancestry, while there were also significant admixture events with regional archaic humans....
H. heidelbergensis, dated 600,000 to 300,000 years ago, has long been thought to be a likely candidate for the last common ancestor of the Neanderthal and modern human lineages....H. heidelbergensis in its entirety should be included in the Neanderthal lineage, as "pre-Neanderthal" or "early Neanderthal", while the divergence time between the Neanderthal and modern lineages has been pushed back to before the emergence of H. heidelbergensis, to close to 800,000 years ago, the approximate time of disappearance of H. antecessor....
While early modern human expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa before 130 kya persisted, early expansion to North Africa and Asia appears to have mostly disappeared by the end of MIS5 (75,000 years ago), and is known only from fossil evidence and from archaic admixture. Eurasia was re-populated by early modern humans in the so-called "recent out-of-Africa migration" post-dating MIS5, beginning around 70,000-50,000 years ago. In this expansion, bearers of mt-DNA haplogroup L3 left East Africa, likely reaching Arabia...
Evidence for the overwhelming contribution of this "recent" (L3-derived) expansion to all non-African populations was established based on mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence based on physical anthropology of archaic specimens, during the 1990s and 2000s, and has also been supported by Y DNA and autosomal DNA. The assumption of complete replacement has been revised in the 2010s with the discovery of admixture events (introgression) of populations of H. sapiens with populations of archaic humans over the period of between roughly 100,000 and 30,000 years ago, both in Eurasia and in Sub-Saharan Africa....
The extent of Neanderthal admixture (and introgression of genes acquired by admixture) varies significantly between contemporary racial groups, being absent in Africans, intermediate in Europeans and highest in East Asians. Certain genes related to UV-light adaptation introgressed from Neanderthals have been found to have been selected for in East Asians specifically from 45,000 years ago until around 5,000 years ago. The extent of archaic admixture is of the order of about 1% to 4% in Europeans and East Asians, and highest among Melanesians (the last also having Denisova hominin admixture at 4% to 6% in addition to neanderthal admixture). Cumulatively, about 20% of the Neanderthal genome is estimated to remain present spread in contemporary populations....
Following the peopling of Africa some 130,000 years ago, and the recent Out-of-Africa expansion some 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, some sub-populations of H. sapiens had been essentially isolated for tens of thousands of years prior to the early modern Age of Discovery. Combined with archaic admixture this has resulted in significant genetic variation... Some climatic adaptations, such as high-altitude adaptation in humans, are thought to have been acquired by archaic admixture. Introgression of genetic variants acquired by Neanderthal admixture have different distributions in European and East Asians,... A 2017 study found correlation of Neanderthal admixture in phenotypic traits in modern European populations.
Physiological or phenotypical changes have been traced to Upper Paleolithic mutations, such as the East Asian variant of the EDAR gene, dated to c. 35,000 years ago. Recent divergence of Eurasian lineages was sped up significantly during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the Mesolithic and the Neolithic, due to increased selection pressures and due to founder effects associated with migration. Alleles predictive of light skin have been found in Neanderthals, but the alleles for light skin in Europeans and East Asians, associated with KITLG and ASIP, are (as of 2012) thought to have not been acquired by archaic admixture but recent mutations since the LGM. Phenotypes associated with the "white" or "Caucasian" populations of Western Eurasian stock emerge during the LGM, from about 19,000 years ago....
THE FIRST NONAFRICANS EARLY MODERN HUMANS OF THE PALEOLITHIC WERE ABSENT OF THE RHESUS MONKEY GENE. THIS SUGGESTS THE MONKEY GENE CAME TO NONAFRICANS AFTER THE FIRST PALEOLITHIC MODERN HUMANS. THE BERBERS ARE THE FIRST PALEOLITHIC NONAFRICAN MODERN HUMANS WHO MIGRATE INTO NORTH AFRICA ABOUT 45KYA ARE ABSENT OF THE MONKEY GENE, AND THE BASQUES ARE DESCENDED FROM THE FIRST NONAFRICAN MODERN HUMANS OF PALEOLITHIC WEST EUROPE ABOUT 40KYA ARE ALSO ABSENT OF THE MONKEY GENE. WHEN THE HUMANS AND APES, GORILLAS, MONKEYS, HYBRIDS, ETC ALL INTERBRED THE CONSEQUENCES WERE INCOMPATIBLE CAUSING DISEASES AND DEATHS....
Rh blood group | Definition, Rh Factor, & Rh Incompatibility
https://www.britannica.com/science/Rh-blood-group-system
The Rh antigen poses a danger for the Rh-negative person, who lacks the antigen, if Rh-positive blood is given in transfusion. Adverse effects may not occur the first time Rh-incompatible blood is given, but the immune system responds to the foreign Rh antigen by producing anti-Rh antibodies. If Rh-positive blood is given again after the antibodies form, they will attack the foreign red blood cells, causing them to clump together, or agglutinate. The resulting hemolysis, or destruction of the red blood cells, causes serious illness and sometimes death. A similar hazard exists during pregnancy for the Rh-positive offspring of Rh-incompatible parents, when the mother is Rh-negative and the father is Rh-positive...
Although the Rh-negative trait is rare in most parts of the world, it occurs in about 15 percent of Caucasians in Europe, Canada, and the United States. The trait’s highest incidence is among the Basques of the Pyrenees (25–35 percent) and the Imazighen (Berbers) of Africa and the Bedouins of the Sinai Peninsula (18–30 percent).
Rh NEGATIVE BLOOD MAY BE RELATED TO CRO-MAGNON ANCESTRY OF PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS...
Rh-Negative Blood: An Exotic Bloodline or Random Mutation?
This has led to speculation that Rh-Negative blood is related to Cro-Magnon ancestry going back to the upper Paleolithic period in Europe. ...
EUROPEANS, ESPECIALLY PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS, ARE THE POPULATIONS WITH THE LEAST POSITIVE RHESUS MONKEY GENE. ALTHOUGH THE HUMAN FACTOR AND MONKEY FACTOR ARE NOT IDENTICAL THE RHD GENE AROSE DURING PRIMATE EVOLUTION. WE CAN CONCLUDE IT SPREAD TO HUMANS AS ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH THE APES, GORRILLAS, MONKEYS, AND THEIR RESULTING HYBRIDS IN AFRICA. IT THEN SPREAD TO NONAFRICANS BY THE MONKEY PEOPLE AS THEY MIGRATE OUT OF AFRICA...
Rh blood group system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_blood_group_system
Population Rh(D) Neg Rh(D) Pos Rh(D) Neg alleles
African-
Americans ∼ 7% 93% ∼ 26%
Albania 10.86% 89% weak D 1.4%
Basques 21%–36% 65% ∼ 60%
Britain 17% 83%
China < 1% > 99%
Ethiopians 1%–21% 99%–79%
Europeans-
(others) 16% 84% 40%
India 0.6%–8.4% 99.4%–91.6%
Indonesia < 1% > 99%
Japan < 1% > 99%
Koreans < 1% > 99%
Madagascar 1% 99%
Moroccans 9.5% 90.5%
Moroccans-
(High Atlas) ∼ 29% 71%
Native-
Americans ∼ 1% 99% ∼ 10%
Nigeria 6% 94%
Saudi Arabia 8.8% 91.2% 29.5%
Subequatorial-
Africa 1%–3% 99%–97%
United States 15% 85%
Inheritance...The D antigen is a dominant trait. If both of a child's parents are Rh negative, the child will definitely be Rh negative. Otherwise the child may be Rh positive or Rh negative, depending on the parents' specific genotypes. The epitopes for the next 4 most common Rh antigens, C, c, E and e are expressed on the highly similar RhCE protein that is genetically encoded in the RHCE gene, also found on chromosome 1. It has been shown that the RHD gene arose by duplication of the RHCE gene during primate evolution....
WHEN THE HUMANS AND APES, GORILLAS, MONKEYS, HYBRIDS, ETC ALL INTERBRED THE CONSEQUENCES WERE INCOMPATIBLE CAUSING DISEASES AND DEATHS....
Rh factor blood
https://www.britannica.com/science/Rh-factor
Most individuals are Rh-positive...Approximately 15 percent of the population lacks this antigen; such individuals are described as Rh-negative.... The condition erythroblastosis fetalis, or hemolytic disease of the newborn, occurs when Rh-positive infants are born to Rh-negative mothers who have developed anti-D antibodies either from a previous transfusion or by maternal-fetal exchange during a previous pregnancy. The maternal antibodies cross the placenta and cause distress of the red blood cells of the fetus, often leading to severe hemolytic anemia and brain damage, heart failure, or death of the fetus....
MAMMALS CONTAIN THE MONKEY GENE. HOMINIDS ARE ABSENCE OF THE MONKEY GENE SUCH AS IS SEEN IN EARLY MODERN HUMANS (CROMAGNON), AND UNMIXED ARCHAIC MANKINDS (NEANDERTHAL,ETC). PEOPLE TODAY WHO ARE POSITIVE CONTAIN SOME ADMIX OF MONKEY PEOPLE . TODAYS PEOPLE WHO ARE NEGATIVE INHERIT FROM BOTH PARENTS THE UNMIXED HOMINID GENES WHO ARE POPULATIONS OF THE EARLIEST NEANDERTHAL AND CRO MAGNON PEOPLE PRIOR TO THE MONKEY PEOPLE MIGRATIONS ...
The genetics of the Rhesus blood group system
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2535884/
The first Rhesus gene, the RHCE gene, was discovered in 1990. The RHD gene was found two years later, and the total deletion of this gene ascertained as the cause of the European D negative phenotype.... More than 170 alleles have been found on the RHD gene since. The site has still not been explored fully, even 15 years after the first RH gene was cloned. DNB, the commonest of all European partial D alleles, was described as recently as 2002....
Most mammals only have one RH gene, whose position corresponds to the human RHCE gene. The RHD gene arose from the duplication of an ancestral RH gene during mammalian evolution. An RHD deletion occurred during the evolution of hominids, so that many modern humans completely lack the RHD gene. This haplotype (glossary) is the leading cause of the D negative phenotype worldwide....
RHD-CE-D hybrid alleles are often formed by gene conversion.... The two Rhesus proteins, RhD and RhCE, are very similar, differing in only 36 of the 417 amino acids...
The clinically essential difference between Rhesus positive and Rhesus negative hinges on the presence or absence of the RhD protein in the erythrocyte membrane...
Deletion of the RHD gene resulted from recombination between an upstream and a downstream Rhesus box on two different chromosomes. This is termed an unequal crossover. When the two crossed strands separate (from A over the recombination site to B), the DNA at the RH gene site completely lacks the RHD gene (C). This haplotype (C) occurs in about 41% of the population. An individual homozygous for this haplotype (about 17% are) is D-negative....
In the RHD gene some homologous exons of the RHCE gene will be inserted, forming a hybrid Rhesus allele which expresses a corresponding hybrid protein.... RHD alleles are classified as either partial D, weak D or DEL.... DNB is the commonest European partial D... The weak D type 1 is the commonest in Europe... All DEL alleles are rare in Europe, but up to 30% of all apparently D negative individuals in East Asia are bearers of the DEL allele RHD(K409K)...
MORE EVIDENCE OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION FROM MONKEY PEOPLE TO THOSE THEY INTEGRATED WITH WHICH HELP TO CAUSE THE EXTINCTION OF THE NON-MONKEY PEOPLE. WHEN ARCHAIC AFRICAN MANKIND HAD SEX WITH GORILLAS AND CHIMPANZEES IT GAVE THEM STD's. HERPES SPEAD TO ERECT HOMO'S WHEN THEY HAD SEX WITH CHIMPS 1.4 MILLION YA. THIS IN TURN SPREAD TO THE MONKEY PEOPLE. IN MORE RECENT TIMES THE CHIMP/NIGGER OFFSPRING WERE EATING CHIMPANZEES AND STILL HAVING SEX WITH CHIMPANZEES WHICH CAUSED THE HIV VIRUS TO SPREAD TO NIGGERS. THEN THE NIGGERS FURTHER SPREAD HIV HAVING SEX WITH MONKEY PEOPLE AND NON-MONKEY PEOPLE ....
This ancient primate may be responsible for genital herpes
Herpes viruses are as varied as they are old. There are more than 100 different kinds of herpes. Eight regularly infect humans, causing diseases like chickenpox and mononucleosis. What we commonly call herpes are two types of incurable herpes simplex viruses, HSV-1 and HSV-2. Oral cold sores are almost always caused by HSV-1. HSV-2 is typically sexually transmitted. (Spikes in HSV-1 genital infections, attributed to a rise in the popularity of oral sex, have muddied the distinction.)
Our closest living relatives, gorillas and chimpanzees, get herpes simplex infections, too. “Every other species of primate only has one kind of herpes simplex virus... a long-ago meeting of two primates — when Paranthropus boisei met Homo erectus... Oral herpes, HSV-1, has been around since humans and chimpanzees split 6 million years ago.... The researchers also discovered that HSV-2 must have jumped from ancestral chimpanzees into the human lineage later, as recently as 1.4 million years ago....The event must have involved swapping bodily fluids.... Perhaps our ancestor killed and ate a Paranthropus boisei. Perhaps Homo erectus... People who butchered chimpanzee carcasses, he said, were the first exposed to the pandemic strain of HIV....
The evidence is good that the species overlapped 2 million and 1.5 million years ago, he said. Archaeologists have found Paranthropus boisei fossils in the same landscape as tools made by Homo erectus.... There are other questions this work cannot answer, such as why HSV-2, if it incubated in Paranthropus boisei before migrating to the genus Homo, prefers genital tissues....
DISEASE WAS ONE FACTOR THAT GENOCIDED ARCHAIC MANKINDS INTO EXTINCTION WHEN HE INTERBRED WITH THE APES IN AFRICA. THE DISEASES FROM THE APES WERE TRANSMITTED TO ARCHAIC MAN AS HE MIXED WITH APES IN AFRICA. THEN SPREAD BY INTEGRATION WHEN APE HOMO HYBRIDS CAME OUT OF AFRICA INTERMIXING WITH EURASIAN AND EUROPEAN ARCHAIC MANKINDS...
Century-old malaria parasite puzzle solved as ape origin traced
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/04/220406101658.htm
Scientists have solved a 100-year-old mystery about the evolutionary links between malaria parasites that infect humans and chimpanzees. They have discovered that the parasite P. malariae - one of six species that spreads malaria among humans - originated in African apes before evolving to infect people... They have found that there are, in fact, three distinct species. One species - P. malariae - infects mainly humans, while the two others infect apes. One of the two ape-infecting parasites was found in chimpanzees, gorillas and bonobos across Central and West Africa. This previously unknown species is only distantly related to the human parasite. The other ape parasite is much more closely related to the one that infects humans.... A likely explanation for this is that P. malariae was originally an ape parasite, but a small number of parasites switched hosts to begin infecting humans, the team says....
Transatlantic slave trade introduced novel pathogenic viruses in the Americas
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/09/210907110705.htm
The transatlantic slave trade may have introduced new pathogenic viruses from Africa to North America that affected Indigenous communities, shows an analysis of ancient DNA published in eLife... "Multiple outbreaks in what is now Mexico killed millions of Indigenous people, Africans and some Europeans in the 16th century. But the exact pathogens responsible for some of these outbreaks is not currently known,"...
the team extracted ancient viral DNA from the teeth of probable...who were Indigenous as well as those who were of African descent....identify ancient human hepatitis B virus and human B19 parvovirus from different individuals. By comparing these virus' genomes to others, they found that the viruses likely originated in Africa....
The study is not able to determine whether these individuals were infected in Africa, during the forced transport, or if the viruses occurred after the Africans' arrival in North America. It is also unable to say whether the viruses caused the victims' deaths. But it does provide evidence that these viruses, which can cause serious disease, were circulating in the affected populations. "Our findings also suggest that multiple, newly introduced viruses were circulating at the same time, which may explain why the epidemics proved so deadly for Indigenous communities,"...
BLOOD GROUP B PREDATES THE A, AND O IN EUROPE. THE B GENE WAS PALEOLITHIC, AND THEN CAME AGAIN FROM MORE RECENT MIGRATIONS FROM THE EAST. THE PALEOLITHIC B GENE WAS PUSHED TO THE EXTREME WEST EUROPE BEING RUN OUT OF HIS NATIVE GROUNDS FROM WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA. RHESUS NEGATIVE WAS ALSO MORE COMMON AMONG THE PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS BUT, IT HAS BEEN REPLACED BY MONKEY PEOPLE INVASIONS. REMOTE AREAS OF PALEOLITHIC PEOPLE OF EUROPE CONTAIN SKULLS FROM IRELAND, WALES, DORDOGNE, N.PORTUGAL, CERTAIN BERBERS, GUANCHES, AND BASQUES RESEMBLE CRO-MAGNON MAN. HOW IS RHESUS NEGATIVE A PHENOMENOM OF PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS? IF NEANDERTHAL WAS RHESUS POSITIVE THEN CRO-MAGNON MAY BE THE LIKELY SOURCE FOR THE RHESUS NEGATIVE. THIS COULD INDICATE THIS FIRST EARLY EUROPEAN HUMAN HAD NOT INTERBRED WITH MONKEY PEOPLE AND FURTHER SUPPORT HE DID NOT DESCEND FROM EITHER A HG, NOR BT HG. CRO-MAGNON WOULD DESCEND FROM EURASIAN ADAM, AND NOT AFRICA ADAM. ELSE NEANDERTHAL MAY HAVE BEEN NEGATIVE ORIGINALLY, AND HAD MIXED WITH EARLIER MONKEY PEOPLE MUCH EARLIER THAN MONKEY PEOPLE OUT OF AFRICA. AN EARLIER MONKEY PEOPLE MAY HAVE MIXED WITH NEANDERTHAL ANYTIME BETWEEN 200KYA TO 60KYA PRIOR TO MODERN HUMAN. THIS WOULD HAVE CAUSED THE MONKEY DISEASE TO MAKE HIS PEOPLE INFERTILE AND INCOMPATIBLE. THIS FIRST CONTAMINATION OF MONKEY GENE INFECTED HIM BEFORE MODERN HUMANS HAD MIXED WITH NEANDERTHAL AS HIS RHESUS GENE IS NOT FOUND IN MODERN HUMANS. IN SUMMARY, THE FIRST EARLY PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS WERE BASQUE LIKE K2/R1b LINEAGE, WERE B BLOOD TYPE, AND RHESUS NEGATIVE UNMIXED WITH MONKEY PEOPLE....
BLOOD GROUPS, ANTHROPOLOGY AND LANGUAGE IN WALES AND THE WESTERN COUNTRIES
https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy19522.pdf?origin=ppub
people akin to the Basques once occupied a large part of Europe, and, mixing with mainly D-positive invaders, was the main source of the d gene through out the continent....
ANTHROPOMETRY...Fleure and Vallois have drawn attention to resemblances between the late palolithic inhabitants of Europe and certain small relict populations in islands and mountainous areas. Some of these have been found to show unusual blood group distributions. The Basques are one population showing such ancient skeletal features, and others are found in remote areas of Ireland and Wales, in the Dordogne region of France, in Northern Portugal and in Sardinia. Certain Berbers, and the aboriginal Guanches of the Canary Islands are said to resemble Crô-Magnon man. Hawkes believes that "a fair proportion of the later inhabitants of Europe have drawn in the network of their descent upon the stocks of upper paholithic times,"...
It has already been mentioned that the frequency of the B gene is higher in the "Celtic" lands than elsewhere in Western Europe, but in these mountain areas it is higher still. The B gene in Europe as a whole is mainly associated with the Slavonic speaking peoples and this gene in Western Europe may be derived in part from the east. The far western rise in B is, however, clearly a different and probably a much older phenomenon. A consideration of some of the details of the distribution of the B gene in Wales suggests that it may have been introduced at a very early period indeed in the human settlement of the country.... The B gene reaches its greatest frequency in those regions where the physical anthropologist informs us that the present population contains a palolithic foundation... a high B wave entered the country not merely before the moderately high A current, but probably even before the very high 0 stream. Relics of the former much wider distribution of the high B people are probably to be seen in the moderately high B frequencies found elsewhere in Wales as well as in Ireland, Scotland and Brittany.... there is some evidence that both [Basque type and B gene people] of these populations have been present since palolithic times and that both were once more widely spread than at present....
That there should exist in most of North Wales, in some mountain regions of South Wales, in Ireland, in Scotland and, to a certain extent, even south of Hadrian's Wall, people whose ABO group frequencies are almost identical with those of certain tribes belonging to the North African White Race may, at first sight, seem rather strange. Nevertheless, there is much evidence—anthropological,archological and linguistic—to suggest that such a finding is more than an accidental coincidence....
Herodotus. "The Celts,"he writes, "areoutside the Pillars of Hercules and they border onthe Kynesii who dwell the furthest away towards the west of theinhabitants of Europe." He repeats the statement in his fourth bookwhere he states that the Celts are the furthest away towards thesetting of the sun, "with the exception of the Kynetes"... The duality of the population in Southern Britain at the time of the Romans is considered by Huxley to be "one of the few fixed points in British ethnology." Strabo informs us that the prisoners taken in the south-eastern part of Britain were six inches taller than the tallest men in Rome. Their colouring was blond. In the interior on the other hand, there dwelt according to Caesar, a vastly different people who regarded themselves as the autocthonous children of the soil. The swarthy visages and twisted locks of the South Welsh tribe of Silures, states Tacitus, pointed to their Iberian origin... The institution of marriage, as practised by the Romans, was unknown to the former and, as a consequence, every relationship was counted through the mother. Schrader states that the primeval Aryan family was, on the other hand, patrilineal. In referring to the matrilineality of the early inhabitants of Britain...Amidst the Berbers and in other parts of the East, the same state of affairs exists to this day...
7. CONCLUSION: In view of the evidence presented there appear to us reasonable grounds for the belief that, prior to the advent of Celtic-speaking immigrants, the British Isles were inhabited by a people whose domain had at one time extended over a considerable part of Europe and North Africa but who under ever increasing pressure from the east had been driven from their homelands. Some, no doubt, found refuge in the more isolated mountain regions, but the remainder were gradually driven westwards and finally came to occupy a limited area near the Atlantic seaboard of Europe....
SUMMARY:
1. In Europe three main zones of ABO blood group distribution can be distinguished, one of relatively high B in the east, one of high A in the centre and west and one of high 0 in the extreme west, with B slightly but significantly more frequent than in the central zone.
The Rh groups are fairly evenly distributed in Northern and Central Europe with about 16 per cent, of Rh-negatives. The frequency of Rh-negatives is about 30 per cent, in the Basques and varies from 5-16 per cent, in Southern Europe.
2. Wales displays significant local variations in the frequencies of the O, A and B genes. On the remoter moorlands where physical anthropologists postulate the existence of very early human stocks, B gene frequencies exceeding 10 per cent. are common, and in the Black Mountain of Carmarthenshire even exceed 16 per cent, In the Marches they fall below 5 per cent.
3. Apart from one or two mountain regions in South Wales, very high O gene frequencies of 70-75 per cent, similar to those found in Scotland and Ireland are confined to the north of the principality—a fact which supports the obvious view that a less accessible NorthWales has not been subjected to the human migrations which have affected the southern half of the country.
4. It appears that a high B wave entered Wales not merely before the moderately high A current, but probably even before the very high O stream. It has formerly been supposed that populations with high B frequencies were among the latest to enter Europe and were confined to the east.
5. O frequencies similar to those in North Wales, Scotland and Ireland are also to be found among the Berbers in North Africa and elsewhere in the Mediterranean region. That the early inhabitants of Western Britain had strong White North African affinities is suggested by the pre-Aryan syntax of Celtic. Philologists have pointed out that "the Celts show in the whole structure of their language a close affinity to the language of the White Mediterranean peoples of North Africa."
One needs to remain objective in interpretations cited. As the evolution theory will converge all life to a single cell micro-orgasm which must have evolved from the "Big O Bang". This comes down to a level of individual acceptance. To accept all life is related to each other by converging our similarities, or diverging our vast differences. Science can show the similarities as well as the differences between groups, within species, and non species. To accept a theory based on similarities rather than to reject a theory due to the differences is a matter of individual opinion, and is not scientifically proven any more than if a glass is half full or half empty but the scientific fact is the volume, mass, and other real values of the water in the glass. How you then theorize beyond that is personal opinion. If however we all did actually evolve from a speck of dust what then becomes our guide, and acceptances. Or are we under no obligations other than what society puts on us? If we are closely the same as a monkey, or pig, or cat can we interbreed with them, or genetically integrate them with humans? How close in DNA are we morally, and ethically obliged to integrate them into our society as our equals? Are we one with nature meaning we are free to individual actions with nature with no recourse or obligations to our fellow humans? Taking that idea further what obligations do we owe our closer kin by way of racial ancestry? Where is the line, and who determines the line of bounds and metes of nature?
If the nature obligations arent enough to consider think of the political obligations. Imagine the geographical boundaries protected based on race. For example the USA Treaties with the Amerinds, or the State of Israel which are legal politcal agreements based on race. If we are all the same how can one group of people own land based on their race? Sounds hypocritical to say we are all the same but, we are really different. If you can legally prove you are different, and therefore entitled to a legal agreement how are we all the same?
Human Genome Project
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project
The project was not able to sequence all the DNA found in human cells. It sequenced only "euchromatic" regions of the genome, which make up more than 95% of the genome. The other regions, called "heterochromatic" are found in centromeres and telomeres, and were not sequenced under the project. The Human Genome Project was declared complete in April 2003. ...Although this was reported to cover 99% of the euchromatic human genome with 99.99% accuracy, a major quality assessment of the human genome sequence was published on May 27, 2004 indicating over 92% of sampling exceeded 99.99% accuracy...
The U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as GenBank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations, such as the UCSC Genome Browser at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Ensembl present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it...
The genome published by the HGP does not represent the sequence of every individual's genome. It is the combined mosaic of a small number of anonymous donors, all of European origin. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals. Subsequent projects sequenced the genomes of multiple distinct ethnic groups, though as of today there is still only one "reference genome."...
The first printout of the human genome to be presented as a series of books, displayed at the Wellcome Collection, London...
National Institutes of Health embraced the idea for a "shortcut", which was to look just at sites on the genome where many people have a variant DNA unit...
(In 2002 the National Institutes of Health started a $138 million dollar project called the HapMap to catalog the common variants in European, East Asian and African genomes.) ...The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length....
studies of DNA variation continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or “haps”). ...
The work on interpretation and analysis of genome data is still in its initial stages. ...By visiting the human genome database on the World Wide Web this researcher can examine its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruit flies,...The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is also opening new avenues in the study of evolution....
The 1000 Genomes Project
http://www.internationalgenome.org
Browse a Genome
http://uswest.ensembl.org/index.html
This figure shows the vast differences of genetic profile between the different groups, or it shows the similarities between the different groups whatever your point of view:
Figure 2: The distribution of rare and common variants.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v491/n7422/fig_tab/nature11632_F2.html
Full Report:
An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v491/n7422/full/nature11632.html
X Marks the Spot ***
https://dna-explained.com/2012/09/27/x-marks-the-spot/
This article explains how mtDNA, and Y Dna is inherited to females and males. And explains how x chromosome is not the same as mtDNA.
Understanding DNA
https://www.familytreedna.com/understanding-dna.aspx
Mythbusting – Women, Fathers and DNA
https://dna-explained.com/2013/06/23/mythbusting-women-fathers-and-dna/
CURRENT HUMAN BEINGS ARE NON-AFRICAN CRO-MAGNON C1 HG, AND POSSIBLY F HG AS WELL. A AND B HG'S ARE DESCENDANTS OF AFRICAN MONKEYS, APES, GORRILLA, AND ARCHAIC AFRICAN HYBRIDS. A HG IS A MIX OF THE GODS(ESS') OR ARCHAIC MAN WITH THE APE, MONKEY,AND GORRILA. B HG IS A FURTHER MIX OF THE HUMAN WITH MONKEYS, AND OTHER PRIMATE HYBRIDS.
NO EVIDENCE THAT C HG EVOLVED FROM THE A OR B HG MONKEY PEOPLE.
THE FOLLOWING MAP SHOWS A HYPOTHETICAL GENETIC BRIDGE FROM AFRICA TO CENTRAL ASIA. PROBLEM IS THERE IS NO FACTUAL PROOF OF THIS. THE ONLY PROOF IS THAT C IS NON AFRICAN WITH NO EVIDENCE C IS RELATED TO AFRICAN MONKEYS.
C IN EUROPE IS FURTHER DEBATED AS TO ITS TIMEFRAME WITH SOME SAYING C WAS FIRST IN WEST EUROPE WHILE OTHERS SAY K2 IS FIRST IN WEST EUROPE. OR THEY BOTH MAY HAVE MIGRATED TOGETHER WITH C NOT SURVIVING AND K2 BECOMES THE FIRST FOUNDING RACE OF WEST EUROPE OF WHICH R1b DESCENDS FROM...
Haplogroup C-V20
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_C-V20
Haplogroup C-V20 (also known as Haplogroup C1a2) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. It is one of two primary branches of Haplogroup C1a, one of the descendants of Haplogroup C1 (The other is C1a1 in Japan with an average amount of 5%). Haplogroup C-V20 is now distributed in Europe, North Africa, West Asia, and South Asia with very low frequency. Distribution map of current human beings (Cro-Magnon)...This is considered to be almost synonymous with the born of Haplogroup C1.
Haplogroup C1a2 (V20) has been discovered in the remains of Palaeolithic people in Czech Republic (30,000 years ago), Belgium (35,000 years ago), and the Sunghir archaeological site near Vladimir, Russia. Regarding more recent prehistory, Haplogroup C-V20 has been found in the remains of a male (died ca. 7,000 years ago) associated with a late group of the Alföld Linear Pottery culture at Kompolt-Kigyósér, Hungary whose mtDNA belonged to haplogroup J1c1, the remains of a male (died ca. 7,000 years ago) associated with the LBK Culture at Apc-Berekalja (I.), Hungary whose mtDNA belonged to haplogroup K1a3a3, and the remains of a male (died ca. 7,000 years ago) associated with Mesolithic culture at La Braña-Arintero, León, Spain whose mtDNA belonged to haplogroup U5b2c1. It has also been found in ancient DNA from Anatolia, specifically in the remains of an Anatolian hunter-gatherers dating from 13.642-13.073 BCE and belonging to mitochondrial haplogroup K2b.
Haplogroup C-V20 Y-DNA also has been found in a small number of modern Europeans, Algerian Berbers, Armenians, and Nepalis. It includes many Y-DNA samples associated with the oldest currently known population of anatomically modern humans in Europe (Cro-Magnons), and it is considered to be a carrier of the Upper Paleolithic Aurignacian culture that began 40,000 years ago.[citation needed]
Haplogroup P1 is the only ancestor for both haplogroups Q and R. Q and R are brothers. R is the most common in Europe, while Q is found in very small quantity in Europe. Haplogroup Q is found predominantly in Central Siberia, Central Asia and among Native Americans. Thus, contrary to proposed origin it is more likely that P1 is of Siberian/Polar origin. Then the R people migrated west and south while Q migrated east and south....
Haplogroup P1 (Y-DNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_P1_(Y-DNA)
The only primary subclades of P1 are Haplogroup Q (Q-M242) and Haplogroup R (R-M207). These haplogroups now comprise most of the male lineages among Native Americans, Europeans, Central Asia and South Asia, among other parts of the world.
...basal P1* (P1xQ,R) is now most common among individuals in Eastern Siberia and Central Asia.
Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA)
http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_Q_Y-DNA.shtml
Haplogroup Q is found predominantly in Central Siberia, Central Asia and among Native Americans....
Haplogroup Q is thought to have originated in Central Asia or North Asia during of shortly after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 26,000 to 19,000 years ago). Q descends from haplogroup P, which is also the ancestor of haplogroups R1a and R1b. Haplogroup Q quickly split into two main branches: Q1a and Q1b. The northern Q1a tribes expanded over Siberia as the climate warmed up after the LGM. Some Q1a crossed the still frozen Bering Strait to the American continent some time between 16,500 and 13,000 years ago. Q1b tribes stayed in Central Asia and later migrated south towards the Middle East.
Siberian & Native American Q1a:
Many of clades of haplogroup Q1a are believed to have been brought by the Huns, the Mongols and the Turks, who all originated in the Altai region and around modern Mongolia. ... Among those, the M25 subclade has been found in the North Caucasus (1000 year-old BZ640 subclade), in Poland and Hungary (1750 year-old BZ1000 subclade), in northern Ireland (YP1669 subclade), in Turkey, Iran and Pakistan (Y16840 subclade) and in Arabia (F5005 subclade).
Q1a is also the main paternal lineage of Native Americans. The testing of the genome of 12,600 year-old boy (known as Anzick-1) from Clovis culture in the USA confirmed that haplogroup Q1a2a1 (L54) was already present on the American continent before the end of the Last Glaciation. The vast maority of modern Native Americans belong to the Q1a2a1a1 (M3) subclade. As this subclade is exclusive to the American continent and the Anzick boy was negative for the M3 mutation, it is likely that M3 appeared after Q1a2a1 reached America.
Scandinavian Q1a:
The oldest evidence to date of the presence of haplogroup Q is Europe is a single sample from the Khvalynsk culture (5200-4000 BCE), excavated in the middle Volga region...This individual belonged to Q1a2-Y4827 (under L527), a subclade now found almost exclusively in Scandinavia or in places settled by the Vikings or other Scandinavian tribes...The Khvalynsk culture is ancestral to the Yamna culture,...
The maternal equivalents of that Siberian Q1a2 in prehistoric Eastern Europe are probably mtDNA haplogroups C4a and C5, which have been found Mesolithic Karelia (north-western Russia), in the Neolithic Dnieper-Donets culture in Ukraine, and in the Bronze Age Catacomb culture in the Pontic Steppe. Nowadays mtDNA C is mostly found among Siberians, Mongols and Native Americans, who happen to share Y-haplogroup Q1a2 on the paternal side. The analysis of prehistoric genomes from Eastern Europe did confirm the presence of a small percentage of Amerindian-related autosomal admixture....
Oddly enough, the L804 branch, which descends from the same Northeast Siberian branch as the Native American M3, is now found exclusively in Germanic countries, including Scandinavia, Germany, Britain and northern France. ... At present it remains unclear when and how Q1a2-L804 reached Europe in the first place, but it might have been a very long time ago, during the late glacial period or the Mesolithic period. It may well have arrived at the same time as Q-Y4827. Alternatively, L804 might have come as a minor lineage accompanying haplogroup N1c1 from Mongolia until it reached Northeast Europe during the Neolithic period, some 7,000 years ago.
Central Asian & Indo-Iranian Q1b1:
While Q1a is more Mongolian, Siberian and Native American, Q1b1 (F1213) appears to have originated in Central Asia and migrated early to South Asia and the Middle East. The highest frequency of Q1b1 in Europe is found among Ashkenazi Jews (5%) and Sephardic Jews (2%), suggesting that Q1b was present in the Levant before the Jewish disapora 2,000 years ago. In fact, Jewish Q1b all belong to the Y2200 subclade, which was formed some 2,600 years ago. Other subclades of Q1b1 are found throughout the Middle East, including, Armenia, Turkey, Iraq, Lebanon (2%), and in isolated places settled by the Phoenicians in southern Europe (Crete, Sicily, south-west Iberia). This means that Q1b must have been present in the Levant at latest around 1200 BCE, a very long time before the Hunnic migrations...
Q1b1 was probably not one of the original lineages of Proto-Indo-European speakers of the Pontic-Caspian Steppe since it is almost completely absent from Balto-Slavic and Germanic countries. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that Q1b1 was indigenous to the Ural mountains or Central Asia ...
South Asian Q1b2:
In contrast with Q1b1, Q1b2 (Y1150) is found almost exclusively in the Indian subcontinent. The two Q1b branch split from each others some 15,000 years ago, during the Late Paleolithic period. Data is still sparse about this subclade, but is it reasonable to assume that it has been in South Asia at least since the end of the last Ice Age, long before the Indo-European migrations.
Haplogroup Q-M242
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_Q-M242
Q-M242 is the predominant Y-DNA haplogroup among Native Americans and in some regions of Central Asia and Northern Siberia...Q-M242 is believed to have arisen around the Altai Mountains area (or South Central Siberia), approximately 17,000 to 31,700 years ago. However, the matter remains unclear due to limited sample sizes and changing definitions of Haplogroup Q ...
Q-M242 is distributed across most European countries at low frequencies, and the frequencies decrease to the west and to the south...In Central- Eastern Europe, Q-M242 comprises about 1.7% of males.... The Caucasus region shows a frequency at 1.2%...
In Northern Europe, haplogroup Q comprises about 2.5% of males...The highest frequency of Q is shown at 20% in Halland County, followed by 14.3% in Jönköping, 12.5% in Kronoberg County, 12.5% in Västmanland, 8.7% in Gävleborg County, 4.3% in Västra Götaland County, 4% in Stockholm, 3.9% in Skåne County(Scania), and so on.[102] If recalculated by county-population weights, the frequency of Q in Sweden reaches 4.7%....
In Western Europe, Q-M242 is observed at very low frequencies, around 0.5% in most of the countries, such as Germany, France, United Kingdom, etc., but some regions show a little higher. It is 2.1% in Switzerland, and it reaches 5.1% in Lyon (Rhône-Alpes) region of France. It is about 4% in Shetland of northernmost Britain, with a place in it showing the highest figure at 8%. Shetland has been known to be a settlement of Vikings. And, surprisingly, Q-M242 in Shetland (also in some areas of Scandinavia, Faroe Islands, Iceland, and the Great United Kingdom) has turned out to be generically closely linked to the Q-M242 in Central Asia, . Also, Shetland (Norse) Q-M242 is revealed to be linked to some Q-M242 of Azeris (Azerbaijan).
Southern Europe also shows low frequencies of Q around 0.5%~1%, but some regions exhibits different figures. It is 1.9% in mainland Croatia, but it reaches 14.3% (13/91) in Hvar Islands and 6.1% (8/132) in Korčula. Also, it is about 0.6% in Italy, but it rises to 2.5% (6/236) in Sicily, where it reaches 16.7% (3/18) in Mazara del Vallo region, followed by 7.1% (2/28) in Ragusa, 3.6% in Sciacca, and 3.7% in Belvedere Marittimo.
Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R_(Y-DNA)
Only one confirmed example of basal R* has been found, in 24,000 year old remains, known as MA-1, found at Mal'ta near Lake Baikal in Siberia....
R-M173 was historically known as R1 and has been common throughout Europe and South Asia since pre-history. It has many branches. It is the second most common haplogroup in Indigenous peoples of the Americas following haplogroup Q-M242, especially in the Algonquian peoples of Canada and the United States (Malhi 2008). The origin of R-M173 among Native Americans is a matter of controversy:
Some descendant subclades have been found since pre-history in Europe, Central Asia and South Asia. ... Only one confirmed example of basal R* has been found, in 24,000 year old remains, known as MA1, found at Mal'ta–Buret' culture near Lake Baikal in Siberia.... It is possible that neither of the primary branches of R-M207, namely R1 (R-M173) and R2 (R-M479) still exist in their basal, undivergent forms, i.e. R1* and R2*. No confirmed case, either living or dead, has been reported in scientific literature. ...
Despite the rarity of R* and R1*, the relatively rapid expansion – geographically and numerically – of subclades from R1 in particular, has often been noted: "both R1a and R1b comprise young, star-like expansions". The wide geographical distribution of R1b, in particular, has also been noted. Hallast et al. (2014) mentioned that living examples found in Central Asia included: the "deepest subclade" of R-M269 (R1b1a1a2) – the most numerous branch of R1b in Western Europe,...
Y-haplogroup R-M207 is common throughout Europe, South Asia and Central Asia (Kayser 2003). It also occurs in the Caucasus and Siberia. Some minorities in Africa also carry subclades of R-M207 at high frequencies.
While some indigenous peoples of The Americas and Australasia also feature high levels of R-M207, it is unclear whether these are deep-rooted, or an effect of European colonisation during the early modern era.
R-M207:
Haplogroup R* Y-DNA (xR1,R2) was found in 24,000-year-old remains from Mal'ta in Siberia near Lake Baikal.
R1: R-M173, also known as R1, has been common throughout Europe and South Asia since pre-history. ... It is the second most common haplogroup in Indigenous peoples of the Americas following haplogroup Q-M242...
R2: (R-M479) The paragroup for the R-M479 lineage is found predominantly in South Asia, although deep-rooted examples have also been found among Portuguese, Spanish, Tatar (Bashkortostan, Russia), and Ossetian (Caucasus) populations ...
How common are the unique Y haplogroups in European Countries?:
Distribution of European Y-chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups by country in percentage
http://www.eupedia.com/europe/european_y-dna_haplogroups.shtml
Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosome_haplogroups_in_populations_of_the_world
Haplogroup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup
Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of Europe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-DNA_haplogroups_in_populations_of_Europe
Y-DNA haplogroups in indigenous peoples of the Americas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-DNA_haplogroups_in_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas
Are Turkic people really descendants of She Wolf, or is it myth only? Some people believe humans are descended from apes and monkeys. Some DNA studies show similarities between humans and non human species. It is evident that subsaharan Africans have the highest rhesus positive, and the Europeans have the lowest rhesus positive. If there is any real link to that with descending from apes and monkeys I really doubt that. A similarity does not make a person a descendant.
Found this while browsing and thought it was interesting. Not sure how they got this answer as humans share primate ABO blood types. Canines are classified differently using the DEA blood types....
What blood type do wolves have?
http://www.answers.com/Q/What_blood_type_do_wolves_have
Answered by The WikiAnswers® Community: ab negative
Blood type (non-human) Canine blood groups
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type_(non-human)
Over 13 canine blood groups have been described. Eight DEA (Dog Erythrocyte Antigen) types are recognized as international standards. Of these DEA types, DEA 4 and DEA 6 appear on the red blood cells of ~98% of dogs. ...The most important canine blood type is DEA 1.1.... Other than DEA blood types, Dal is another blood type commonly known in dogs.
U mt-HG BRANCHED OFF OF EURASIAN N mt HG. THESE U HG FEMALES MIGRATE MOST PROBABLY WITH THE MALE Y DNA R HG. U DEVELOPS INTO U5 IN EUROPE, AND U6 TRAVEL FROM IBERIA INTO THE MAGREB. PART OF THE U6 MIGRATE WEST AND SOME EAST BUT MOST REAMIN IN THE MAGREB. AS THE ICE AGE RETREATS SOME U5 AND U6 MIGRATE INTO NORTHWEST EUROPE FROM THEIR IBERIAN AND/OR MAGREBIAN HOMELANDS...
The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents
http://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109
U6d (16311), represented by its subgroups U6d1 (16261) and U6d3 (16174), both of western Mediterranean adscription.
Table 1 U6d Most probable geographic origins and their frequencies in the regions analyzed
Adscription region: Maghreb.
(Footnotes: U6d=U6b'd with 16174 or 1626)
Azores Archipelago = 33.3
Madeira Islands = 20.0
Mainland Portugal = 13.3
Central Mediterranean = 13.3
Hispanic US Americans = 12.5
Spain = 10.9
West Africa = 3.9
Iberoamerica = 2.9
Morocco = 2.2
Canary Islands= 1.2
FIGURE 1: https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109/figures/1
U6d is the bottom most right graphic. It shows a single concentration located on the north part of Iberia. Second most being a more wider spread in Moracco but, nothing compared to North Iberia. Then just a light spread throughout the lands.
As secondary branch of the Eurasian macro-haplogroup N, phylogenetically, U6 is a non-African lineage and represents a back-migration to Africa. According to haplogroup U geographic radiation, it was suggested that the most probable origin of the U6 ancestor was in western Asia with a subsequent movement into Africa. ...
Ages ranged from 33.5 ky to 45.1 ky , but with broad credibility boundaries that largely overlap. Our own estimate of the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for U6, using the current enlarged set of complete sequences, is 35.3 (24.6 - 46.4) ky. This period coincides with the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, but cold and dry enough to force a North African coastal route.
With less accuracy, information from HVI sequences also provides a phylogeographic perspective of U6 in Europe (Table 1). The largest U6 Maghreb component in Europe is found in Portugal (69.9%), then in Spain (50.0%) and Italy (53.0%), and decreases sharply in the Eastern Mediterranean (25.0%). ...All four identified U6 HVI components have representatives in Atlantic Europe.
The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109#Fig1
As secondary branch of the Eurasian macro-haplogroup N, phylogenetically, U6 is a non-African lineage... According to haplogroup U geographic radiation, it was suggested that the most probable origin of the U6 ancestor was in western Asia with a subsequent movement into Africa. ... Our own estimate of the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for U6, using the current enlarged set of complete sequences, is 35.3 (24.6 - 46.4) ky. This period coincides with the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, but cold and dry enough to force a North African coastal route.... the place of origin of macrohaplogroup U within Eurasia.... U6 is predominant in the Maghreb and scarce in Egypt, while M1 shows the opposite trend...
Several possible Y-chromosome counterparts of this backflow have been also described. Thus, in a phylogeographic analysis of Y-chromosome binary haplotypes, it was proposed that the Eurasian haplogroup R characterized by M173/M207 SNPs expanded from its origin, reaching Europe, the Middle East and India. Later it was found that a branch of this haplogroup also penetrated into Africa, strongly resembling the mtDNA U2, U5 and U6 trifurcation....
The U branch of macro-haplogroup N spread radially from somewhere in western Asia around 39–52 kya. This reached Europe, signaled by haplogroup U5, North Africa by haplogroup U6, and India by haplogroup U2. Coalescence age for U5 correlates closely with the spread of Aurignac culture in Europe and, from an archaeological perspective, it has been argued that Central Asia, not the Levant, was the most probable origin of this migration. In absolute agreement with this vision, we propose that, in parallel, U6 reached the Levant with the intrusive Levantine Aurignacian around 35 kya, coinciding with the coalescence age for this haplogroup.
U6 spreads into Africa: This first African expansion of U6a in the Maghreb was suggested in a previous analysis. This radiation inside Africa occurred in Morocco around 26 kya (Table 2) and, ruling out the earlier Aterian, we suggested the Iberomaurusian as the most probable archaeological and anthropological correlate of this spread in the Maghreb....the Maghreb as the place with the oldest implantation of the Iberomaurusian culture, which is coincidental with the U6 radiation from this region proposed in this and previous studies....
U6 Hg: The Phoenician Hypothesis: An mtDNA Note re the phylogeographic occurances of mtDNA Haplotype U6b as related to the Results found in Mitochondrial DNA testing by Family Tree DNA
http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~donegalstrongs/u6b.htm#Colonies
Haplogroup N (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)
All mtDNA haplogroups found outside of Africa are descendants of either haplogroup N or its sibling haplogroup M.... both N and M later evolving outside the continent.... haplogroup N is by far the predominant haplogroup in Western Eurasia, and haplogroup M is absent in Western Eurasia, but is predominant in India and is common in regions East of India. ...
The hypothesis of Asia as the place of origin of haplogroup N is supported by the following:
Haplogroup N is found in all parts of the world but has low frequencies in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to a number of studies, the presence of Haplogroup N in Africa is most likely the result of back migration from Eurasia. The oldest clades of macrohaplogroup N are found in Asia and Australia.... N1 is the only sub-clade of haplogroup N that has been observed in Africa. However N1a is the only one in East Africa: this haplogroup is even younger and is not restricted to Africa, N1a has also been detected in Southern Siberia and was found in a 2,500-year-old Scytho-Siberian burial in the Altai region.... The distribution of the earliest branches within haplogroups M, N, and R across Eurasia and Oceania provides additional evidence for a three-founder-mtDNA scenario ...
Haplogroup N is the ancestral haplogroup to almost all clades today distributed in Europe and Oceania, as well as many found in Asia and the Americas. It is believed to have arisen at a similar time to haplogroup M. Haplogroup N subclades like haplogroup U6 are also found at high to low frequencies in northwest and northeast Africa due to a back migration from Europe or Asia during the Paleolithic ca. 46,000 ybp, the estimated age of the basal U6* clade. The haplogroup N descendant lineage U6 has been found among Iberomaurusian specimens at the Taforalt site, which date from the Epipaleolithic....
Haplogroup N's derived clades include the macro-haplogroup R and its descendants, and haplogroups A, I, S, W, X, and Y. ...
Mitochondrial Eve
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_Eve
According to current nomenclature, Mitochondrial Eve's haplogroup was within mitochondrial haplogroup L because this macro-haplogroup contains all surviving human mitochondrial lineages today, and she must predate the emergence of L0. ...
along any particular line of descent, mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations at the rate of approximately one every 3,500 years per nucleotide. A certain number of these new variants will survive into modern times and be identifiable as distinct lineages. At the same time some branches, including even very old ones, come to an end, when the last family in a distinct branch has no daughters.
Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent common matrilineal ancestor for all modern humans. Whenever one of the two most ancient branch lines dies out, the MRCA will move to a more recent female ancestor ...
Not the only woman:
One common misconception surrounding mitochondrial Eve is that since all women alive today descended in a direct unbroken female line from her, she must have been the only woman alive at the time. However, nuclear DNA studies indicate that the size of the ancient human population never dropped below tens of thousands. Other women living during Eve's time have descendants alive today but not in a direct female line...
Not a fixed individual over time:
The definition of mitochondrial Eve is fixed, but the woman in prehistory who fits this definition can change. That is, not only can our knowledge of when and where Mitochondrial Eve lived change due to new discoveries, but the actual mitochondrial Eve can change. The mitochondrial Eve can change, when a mother-daughter line comes to an end by chance. It follows from the definition of Mitochondrial Eve that she had at least two daughters who both have unbroken female lineages that have survived to the present day. In every generation mitochondrial lineages end – when a woman with unique mtDNA dies with no daughters. When the mitochondrial lineages of daughters of mitochondrial Eve die out, then the title of "Mitochondrial Eve" shifts forward from the remaining daughter through her matrilineal descendants, until the first descendant is reached who had two or more daughters who together have all living humans as their matrilineal descendants. Once a lineage has died out it is irretrievably lost and this mechanism can thus only shift the title of "Mitochondrial Eve" forward in time.
Because mtDNA mapping of humans is very incomplete, the discovery of living mtDNA lines which predate our current concept of "Mitochondrial Eve" could result in the title moving to an earlier woman. This happened to her male counterpart, "Y-chromosomal Adam," when older Y lines from Africa were discovered.
Not necessarily a contemporary of "Y-chromosomal Adam":
A recent study (March 2013) concluded however that "Eve" lived much later than "Adam" – some 140,000 years later. (Earlier studies considered, conversely, that "Eve" lived earlier than "Adam".) More recent studies indicate that mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam may indeed have lived around the same time....
To some extent the studies have already revealed that the archaic Homo sapiens present in Northwest Africa (Jebel Irhoud) were not likely part of the contiguous modern human population. Better defined is the genetic separation among Neanderthals, Flores hobbit, Java man, and Peking man. In 1999 Krings et al. eliminated problems in molecular clocking postulated by Nei, 1992 when it was found that the mtDNA sequence for the same region was substantially different from the MRCA relative to any human sequence. Currently there are 6 fully sequenced Neanderthal mitogenomes, each falling within a genetic cluster less diverse than that for humans, and mitogenome analysis in humans has statistically markedly reduced the TMRCA range so that it no longer overlaps with Neandertal/human split times. Of all the non-African hominids, European archaics most closely resembled humans, indicating a wider genetic divide with other hominids...
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_DNA_haplogroup
While Bryan Sykes claimed there were seven "daughters" – or major mitochondrial lineages – among modern Europeans, other scientists now put the number at 10–12. The additional "daughters" are generally said to include haplogroups I, M and W.
A 2012 paper suggested that the haplogroups most common in modern European populations were: H, J, K, N1, T, U4, U5, V, X and W.
Distribution maps of mitochondrial haplogroups in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa
http://www.eupedia.com/europe/maps_mtdna_haplogroups.shtml
No Fruit Fly Evolution Even after 600 Generations
http://www.icr.org/article/no-fruit-fly-evolution-even-after-600/
Evolution was not observed in fruit fly genetic manipulations in 1980, nor has it been observed in decades-long multigenerational studies of bacteria and fruit flies. The experiments only showed that these creatures have practical limits to the amount of genetic change they can tolerate. When those limits are breached, the creatures don't evolve—they just die.
Haplogroup X2b4 is European, Not Native American
https://dna-explained.com/2016/09/14/haplogroup-x2b4-is-european-not-native-american/
there are no Native American mitochondrial DNA matches for haplogroup X2b or X2b4 in either contemporary testers or ancient burials...
haplogroup X was born 31,718 years ago plus or minus 11,709 years, so most likely 31,718 years ago, but sometime between 20,639 and 42,979 years ago....
X2, on the other hand, was born roughly 19,000 years ago. We do know that haplogroup X2a is indeed Native[American], as is X2g and possibly X2e.
So some of haplogroup X2 went east, incurring mutations that would become Native American haplogroup X2a, X2g and possibly X2e while others went west, winding up in Europe and incurring mutations that would become haplogroup X2b and subclades....
haplogroup X project that includes all of haplogroup X and all subclades, we see that haplogroup X is found widely in Europe, including X, X2 and X2b, among other subclades....
Dr. Behar’s paper dating the birth of haplogroup X2b4 to approximately 5500 years ago, the Genographic Project X2b4 locations and other X2b and X2b4 haplogroup project members’ matches in Europe, it’s impossible for X2b4 to be Native American....
The myth of the single monkey ancestor Adam who came out of Africa to populate the entire world with people is either a lie, a joke, a myth, a scam, or just a misguided direction due to incomplete facts and/or lack of complet understanding of the origins of all mankind.
Science does not identify Neanderthal Haplogroups. Why?
If only Ydna passes to males, and only mt DNA passes to females, did this hold true when Neanderthals interbred with sapiens? IF Neanderthal did not share its Y and mt DNA how did the male Neanderthal pass Y to the female and how did the female pass the mt DNA to the male offspring when Neanderthal and sapiens interbred? What was the Y and mt DNA of Neanderthal? Since we know Neanderthal interbred with Europeans then the Y dna must be the male neanderthal, and not out of africa. It must be Y dna specific to the male neanderthal. Since genetics have stated Neanderthal is non-African then sapiens from Africa would not share the same haplogroups. To theorize that neanderthals came out of Africa would contradict facts.
Thus, an often overlooked theory is that not all mankind has come out of Africa, and that we all do not share a common single ancestor. Some share a common ancestor out of Africa while some other people share a common ancestor from elswhere say for example Europe, while other people share another common ancestor elsewhere say for example Siberia, and another from Greenland, and still another somewhere in Southeast Asia, etc. etc.... Each representing their own unique haplogroup evolving from their own different common ancestor, and not from a single Adam ancestor representing all people of the world.
By accepting the "out of Africa" myth as the only possible explanation too many questions go unanswered. By accepting more than one single common ancestor named Adam to represent all mankind what we have in reality are several common ancestors for different peoples who originally never were related nor ever came from the same ancestry.
But, as people migrated and interbred the Y and mt DNA being passed only through its own male and female lines represent today the mixed and original haplogroups of these first ancestors. So the non-Africans received some Neanderthal Ydna (mtDNA of Neanderthal became extinct by infertility of the offspring (as hypothesized)). And the Denisovan shared with other peoples in Asia. In Africa Adam passed his Y, and Eve passed her mt DNA's to their own people in Africa. Then the migrations spread it around the globe through interbreeding.
Many of the original peoples have long since become extinct. Possibly because of these migrations gene sharing making the offspring infertile causing the mixed people to die off as with Neanderthal, while those we see today survived.
So although Adam theory may be correct to explain a single lineage from that particular ancestor in Africa, it does not account for all people's who have lived elsewhere, or who are still living. Adam may be present mixed today with other people, but, in my opinion Adam is not the sole source of all haplogroups. The haplogroups we see today were originally from their own original ancestor who have origins in various places of the globe never from Africa, and have become mixed through the timeline of all mankind in various degrees.
Thus, if neanderthal Y dna did not survive in his son's dna, and mt dna is not passed by the male where did the Y dna come from if the mother does not have any Y dna to pass on? If Europeans have 1% to 4% Neanderthal then they must have Neanderthal Y dna, or they would not even exist other than some 100% mt dna freak that could not pass on any Y dna because he would have none to pass on. In fact, if this were true he would die out at that very generation.
Y-chromosomal Adam
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Adam
In human genetics, the Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (Y-MRCA, informally known as Y-chromosomal Adam) is the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all currently living people are descended patrilineally. The term Y-MRCA reflects the fact that the Y chromosomes of all currently living males are directly derived from the Y chromosome of this remote ancestor. The analogous concept of the matrilineal most recent common ancestor is known as "Mitochondrial Eve" (mt-MRCA, named for the matrilineal transmission of mtDNA), the most recent woman from whom all living humans are descended matrilineally. As with "Mitochondrial Eve", the title of "Y-chromosomal Adam" is not permanently fixed to a single individual, but can advance over the course of human history as paternal lineages become extinct....
As of 2015, estimates of the age of the Y-MRCA range around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, roughly consistent with the emergence of anatomically modern humans. Y-chromosomal data taken from a neanderthal from El Sidrón, Spain produced a Y-T-MRCA of 588,000 years ago for neanderthal and Homo sapiens patrilineages, dubbed ante Adam and 275,000 years ago for Y-MRCA....
Although the informal name "Y-chromosomal Adam" is a reference to the biblical Adam, this should not be misconstrued as implying that the bearer of the chromosome was the only human male alive during his time. His other male contemporaries also have descendants alive today, but not, by definition, through solely patrilineal descent....
The revision of Y-chromosomal phylogeny since 2011 has affected estimates for the likely geographical origin of Y-MRCA as well as estimates on time depth. By the same reasoning, future discovery of presently-unknown archaic haplogroups in living people would again lead to such revisions. In particular, the possible presence of between 1% and 4% Neanderthal-derived DNA in Eurasian genomes implies that the (unlikely) event of a discovery of a single living Eurasian male exhibiting a Neanderthal patrilineal line would immediately push back T-MRCA ("time to MRCA") to at least twice its current estimate. However, the discovery of a neanderthal Y-chromosome by Mendez et al. suggests the extinction of neanderthal patrilineages, as the lineage inferred from the neanderthal sequence is outside of the range of contemporary human genetic variation. Questions of geographical origin would become part of the debate on Neanderthal evolution from Homo erectus.
Do Adam and Eve Fit into the Evolutionary Story?
‘Adam’ lived 135,000 years ago.... David Poznik has explained that the term ‘Genetic Adam’ is misleading, however, because this ancestral man was not solitary – other men also existed during his time, their Y chromosomes were just lost over time as their male lineages died out....
“It is obvious that modern humans did not interbreed with hominins living over 500,000 years ago. It is also clear that there was no single 'Adam' and 'Eve' but rather groups of 'Adams and Eves' living side by side and wandering together in our world.”
Origins: Middle East
Haplogroup IJ
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_IJ
Haplogroup IJ (M429/P125) is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup, an immediate descendant of Haplogroup IJK ... The immediate descendants of IJ are Haplogroup I and Haplogroup J....
Both of the primary branches of haplogroup IJ – I-M170 and J-M304 – are found among modern populations of the Caucasus, Anatolia, and Southwest Asia. This tends to suggest that Haplogroup IJ branched from IJK in West Asia and/or the Middle East....
An inference may also be made that both IJ (M429) and its sole sibling, Haplogroup K (M9) diverged from the parent Haplogroup IJK closer to the Middle East than to East Asia, due to the evolutionary distance of IJK from its direct ancestor, haplogroup HIJK.
IJ split in a typical, disjunctive, almost mutually-exclusive geographical pattern, with J-M304 far more common on the Arabian Plate (hence Arabid) and I-M170 far more common in Continental Europe (hence Europid); the age of IJ and its subclades suggest that IJ probably entered Europe through the Balkans, some time before the last glacial maximum (about 26,500 years BP)....
Origins: Balkans
Haplogroup I (M170)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_I-M170
Haplogroup I (M170)... is a subgroup of haplogroup IJ,... Subclades can be found in most present-day European populations,... I-M170 represents up to one-fifth of the male population of Europe, being the continent's second major Y-DNA haplogroup (behind Haplogroup R).
The haplogroup reaches its maximum frequency in the Balkans... Haplogroup I appears to have arisen in Europe, so far being found in Palaeolithic sites throughout Europe (Fu 2016), but not outside it. It diverged from common ancestor IJ* about 43,000 years B.P. (Karafet 2008). Early evidence for haplogroup J has been found in the Caucasus and Iran. In addition, living examples of the precursor Haplogroup IJ* have been found only in Iran, among the Mazandarani and ethnic Persians from Fars. This may indicate that IJ originated in South West Asia....
As of 2015, the earliest light eyes and light hair of hominid (Homo sapiens) individuals after the long extinct Neanderthals have been documented in 8,000-year-old remains in Motala, Sweden, belonging to subclades of Haplogroup I2 and mitochondrial Haplogroup U5. An I2a1 carrier was a carrier of red hair and others of genes of blond/light hair, while all the Motala hunter-gatherers were light-skinned and blue-eyed males. (Light-skin genes, but not those for blond/red hair, have been found in Siberia on a 17,000-year-old carrier of Haplogroup R*, as well as 8,000–9,000-year-old R1a remains from Karelia.)...
Origins: Middle East
Haplogroup J YDNA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_J_(Y-DNA)
The clade spread from there during the Neolithic, primarily into North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Socotra, the Caucasus, Southeast Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, South Asia....It is most closely related to the haplogroup I-M170, as both lineages are haplogroup IJ subclades.... This proof of common ancestry suggests that ancestral Hgs IJ-M429* probably would have entered Europe through the Balkan track sometime before the LGM. They then subsequently split into Hg J and Hg I in Middle East and Europe in a typical disjunctive phylogeographic pattern.... both IJ-M429 and KT-M9 arose closer to the Middle East than central or eastern Asia.
Haplogroup J-M304 is found in its greatest concentration in the Arabian peninsula. Outside of this region, haplogroup J-M304 has a significant presence in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. It also has a moderate occurrence in Southern Europe, especially in central and southern Italy, Malta, Greece and Albania....
Haplogroup J-M267 ...is in modern times most frequent in the Arabian Peninsula... to some extent, the frequency of Haplogroup J-M267 collapses at the borders of Arabic/Semitic-speaking territories with mainly non-Arabic/Semitic speaking territories,...
ISOGG states that J-M267 originated in the Middle East....
Haplogroup J-M172 is found in the highest concentrations in the Caucasus and the Fertile Crescent/Iraq and is found throughout the Mediterranean (including the Italian, Balkan, Anatolian and Iberian peninsulas and North Africa)....
DNA Tool Allows You To Trace Your Ancient Ancestry
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/dna-ancient-ancestry-0011322
identify ancient Eurasian populations, which can be used to test an individual's similarity to ancient people who once roamed the earth. ... Ancient Ancestry Informative Markers (aAIMs) - a group of mutations that are sufficiently informative to identify and classify ancient populations. ... you can ask what part of your genome is from Roman Britons or Viking, or Chumash Indians, or ancient Israelites, etc. ...
ALTHOUGH H IS MOST ABUNDANT TODAY IN EUROPE SHE IS NOT THE MOTHER OF EUROPE. U IS MOTHER OF EUROPE AND U IS THE VERY FIRST PEOPLE IN EUROPE AFTER NEANDERTHAL.
H mtDNA IS A NEOLITHIC PEOPLE WHO CAME TO WEST EUROPE BY THE NEAR EAST FARMER. H IS VIRTUALLY ABSENT AMONG THE MESOLITHIC HUNTER GATHERERS SUCH AS SAAMI. SOME H SUBCLADES MIXED IN WITH THE WHG AROUND 10,000 YBP IN THE WHG SW EUROPE REFUGIA. H RAPIDLY EXPANDED IN EUROPE REPLACING THE FIRST PEOPLES OF U, U2, U5, AND U6 (AT LEAST 50,000 YBP) WHICH WERE THE MOST DOMINANT PRIOR TO THE NEAR EAST FARMER TAKEOVER....
H mtDNA Haplogroup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)
Haplogroup H is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. The clade is believed to have originated in Southwest Asia, around 20,000 to 25,000 years ago. Mitochondrial haplogroup H is today predominantly found in Europe, and is believed to have evolved before the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). It first expanded in the northern Near East and Southern Caucasus soon, and later migrations from Iberia suggest that the clade reached Europe before the Last Glacial Maximum. The haplogroup has also spread to parts of Africa, Siberia and inner Asia. Today, around 40% of all maternal lineages in Europe belong to haplogroup H. ...
Haplogroup H has also been found among Iberomaurusian specimens dating from the Epipaleolithic at the Taforalt and Afalou prehistoric sites....MtDNA H had frequancy of 19% among Neolithic Early European Farmers and virtually absent among Mesolithic European hunter gatherers.... Haplogroup H is the most common mtDNA clade in Europe. It is found in approximately 41% of native Europeans. The lineage is also common in North Africa and the Middle East....
H1 encompasses an important fraction of Western European mtDNA lineages, reaching its local peak among contemporary Basques (27.8%). The clade also occurs at high frequencies elsewhere in the Iberian Peninsula, as well as in the Maghreb (Tamazgha). The haplogroup frequency is above 10% in many other parts of Europe (France, Sardinia, parts of the British Isles, Alps, large portions of Eastern Europe), and surpasses 5% in nearly all of the continent. Its H1b subclade is most common in eastern Europe and NW Siberia. As of 2010, the highest frequency of the H1 subclade has been found among the Tuareg inhabiting the Fezzan region in Libya (61%)....
H3 is found throughout the whole of Europe and in the Maghreb but does not exist in the Far East[vague], and is believed to have originated among Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in south-western Europe between 9 000 and 11 000 years ago. H3 represents the second largest fraction of the H genome after H1 and has a somewhat similar distribution, with peaks in Portugal, Spain, Scandinavia and Finland....
H5 may have evolved in West Asia, where it is most frequent and diverse in the Western Caucasus. ... The H2, H6 and H8 haplogroups are somewhat common in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. They may be the most common H subclades among Central Asians...
H4 and H13, along with H2 account for 42% of the hg H lineages in Egypt....
Haplogroup H10 is subclade which came into existence between 6,300 and 10,900 years ago. ...
Haplogroup H (mtDNA)
https://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_H_mtDNA.shtml
Haplogroup H is the most common and most diverse maternal lineage in Europe, in most of the Near East and in the Caucasus region. The Saami of Lapland are the only ethnic group in Europe who have low percentages of haplogroup H, varying from 0% to 7%. The frequency of haplogroup H in Europe usually ranges between 40% and 50%. The lowest frequencies are observed in Cyprus (31%), Finland (36%), Iceland (38%) as well as Belarus, Ukraine, Romania and Hungary (all 39%). The only region where H exceeds 50% of the population are Asturias (54%) and Galicia (58%) in northern Spain, and Wales (60%)....
H1 and H3 only came with Neolithic farmers from the Near East. The oldest incontrovertible evidence of the presence of H1 and H3 in Europe comes from the 5,000-year-old site of Treilles in Languedoc, France....
The development of the Neolithic lifestyle in the Fertile Crescent was about to bring a wave of Near Eastern immigrants that would change dramatically the genetic landscape of Europe....Another Neolithic expansion started off from the Balkans, commencing in Thessaly circa 6500 BCE and spreading at first (6300-5800 BCE) to modern Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Serbia. It is likely that this Thessalian Neolithic was conducted not only by Near Eastern immigrants (Y-haplogroups G2a, and to a lower extent C1a2, H2 and T1a), but also increasingly by local hunter-gatherers assimilated in Southeast Europe (Y-haplogroups E-M78, I*, I1, I2a1, I2a2, I2c)....
PRE-V WAS A LATER PEOPLE WHO MIXED WITH THE FIRST PEOPLE U5 AND U6 IN THE SW REFUGIA BECOMING V ABOUT 14,000 YBP. PRE-V AND V TENDED TO FOLLOW THE FIRST PEOPLES OF U5 AND U6 BEING PUSHED OUT BY THE NEAR EAST FARMER INVASIONS. AS ICE AGE RETREATS V MIGRATES WITH THE U5 SAAMI PEOPLE EASTWARD AND NORTH. SEVERAL THEORIES WHERE PRE-V OR V CAME FROM EURASIA, NEAR EAST, AFRICA, ...? V ARE NOT THE SAAMI. BUT, THEIR HIGH FREQUENCY AMONG THE SAAMI INDICATES THEY HAVE PARTNERED UP SINCE THE SW REFUGIA AND REMAIN AMONG THE SAAMI TODAY WHILE SOME REMAINED WITH THE BASQUE AND THE AMAZIGH. SIMILARLY THE N1c1 MIXED IN WITH SAAMI ONLY 2,500 YEARS AGO MIXING WITH THE SAAMI THEN REPLACING THE ORIGINAL SAAMI MALES. MY THEORY IS SAME THING HAPPENED TO AMAZIGH WHERE THE E HG HAS REPLACED THE R HG WITHIN THOSE FIRST PEOPLE. BUT, BASQUE HAS HELD ON TO THEIR R1b. jmo...
Haplogroup V (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_V_(mtDNA)
Possible time of origin: Over 14,000 YBP. Possible place of origin Near East...
In 1998 it was argued that V spread over Europe from an Ice Age refuge in Iberia. However more recent estimates of the date of V would place it in the Neolithic....
Haplogroup V is a relatively rare mtDNA haplogroup, occurring in around 4% of native Europeans. Its highest concentration is among the Saami people of northern Scandinavia (~59%). It has been found at a frequency of approximately 10% among the Maris of the Volga-Ural region, leading to the suggestion that this region might be the source of the V among the Saami. Additionally, haplogroup V has been observed at higher than average levels among Cantabrian people (15%) of northern Iberia, and among the adjacent Basque (10.4%). Haplogroup V is also found in parts of Northwest Africa....
MtDNA haplogroup V has been reported in Neolithic remains of the Linear Pottery culture at Halberstadt, Germany c. 5000 BC and Derenburg Meerenstieg, Germany c. 4910 BC... Haplogroup V has also been found among Iberomaurusian specimens dating from the Epipaleolithic at the Taforalt prehistoric site 14,000 years BP....
Haplogroups HV0 and V (mtDNA)
https://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_V_mtDNA.shtml
Haplogroups HV0 and V are remarkably evenly distributed across all Europe and North Africa, with a frequency ranging from 2% to 8% in practically all countries and regions. The only populations with substantially higher incidence of HV0 or V are the Sami (42%) of northern Scandinavia and Finland, and the Cantabrians (19%), isolated in mountains in northern Spain. Overall, HV0/V are slightly more common in around the Baltic, in Iberia and in the Maghreb than elsewhere....
haplogroup V would have arisen in the Late Glacial period, some time between 16,000 and 12,000 years ago. Their places of origin remain highly controversial and could be anywhere in Europe, North Africa, or the Near East.... The extremely high prevalence of haplogroup V among the Sami, who have very little Neolithic farmer admixture, and maintained a hunter-gathering lifestyle throughout the ages, is the best evidence that haplogroup V did not originate in the Near East but in Mesolithic Europe. Another argument is that HV0 and V are much rarer in the Near East than in Europe, and practically absent in the Arabian peninsula, Mesopotamia and Georgia, three of the regions with the highest ancestry derived from the Neolithic Fertile Crescent...
In the 10,000 years between the end of the Last Glacial Maxium and the arrival of Near Eastern Neolithic farmers in Europe, HV0 and V lineages would have had time to spread across most of Europe and even to cross into Northwest Africa with haplogroup H1, H3 and U5b. The absence of clear geographical dispersal pattern within HV0 and V subclades is consistent with the nomadic lifestyle of hunter-gatherers, who would have roamed all around Europe in the Late Glacial and postglacial period....
What is certain for now is that both HV0 and V start to show up in the archeological record in Neolithic cultures. However, neither lineage has yet been found among the numerous Anatolian or Levantine Neolithic samples... a considerable amount of intermingling occured between early farmers and local European hunter-gatherers from the very beginning.
Consequently, the most likely scenario at present is that haplogroups HV0 and V, were already present in southern Europe at least from the Mesolithic period. Like several J1c and T2 subclades, they may have spent the Last Glacial Maximum in the Anatolian refugium, then re-expanded to the Balkans in the late glacial period. This is probably also the case for the majority of subclades of haplogroup H - except notably H5, H13 and H14, which are clearly Middle Eastern...
The Sami are the only European who do not possess any Caucasian, West Asian, Southwest Asian or African autosomal admixture. They also have the highest level of Mesolithic European and Ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Their matrilinear lineages are surprisingly undiversified, possessing 48% of U5b1b1 and 42% of V (V1a1a and V5), two haplogroups that they strangely share with some Berber groups from Northwest Africa and the Fulbe people from Senegal (although these two ethnic groups carry much lower percentages of U5b and V diluted among other lineages) U5b1b1 and V are also found together in the Iberian peninsula, especially among Cantabrians, who have 11% of U5b and 19% of V.
The Sami appear to be descended from a merger of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from southern and central Europe (respectively represented by their two main maternal lineages: V and U5b). These Mesolithic nomads would have been pushed always further north and west by the wave of Neolithic farmers... Only appoximately 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, did the Uralic speakers from northern Russia move into northern Fennoscandia with their herds of reindeers, bringing a semblance of Neolithic lifestyle. They carried the Y-chromosomal haplogroup N1c1 ...
Haplogroup V has not been found in prehistoric sites in Northeast Europe, nor in any Indo-European burial in the Eurasian steppe or Central Asia. This is particularly strange since it is present everywhere in Europe today, and its frequency is higher than the European average in north-western Russia (> 5%)....
Haplogroup V has also been found in most Uralic and Altaic populations in North Asia, and even at trace frequencies as far as east as Mongolia. Some V lineages could have been absorbed by the expansion of Ural-Altaic populations (Y-haplogroup N) in North Asia, which would explain its high frequency among the Finns and Sami.
More intriguingly, haplogroup V is one of the four Eurasian haplogroups found among the Fulani people of Central Africa, who have high percentages of haplogroup R1b-V88. It is not clear if this is because V was one of the original haplogroups of R1b people, or because the Fulani intermarried with Berbers from Northwest Africa who also carry haplogroup V. Unfortunately no data is available on the V subclades of the Fulani at present....
A Signal, from Human mtDNA, of Postglacial Recolonization in Europe
https://www.cell.com/ajhg/pdf/S0002-9297(07)61139-2.pdf
two major subsets of mtDNAs. One is haplogroup V proper, and the other has been termed “pre-V,” since it predates V phylogenetically. The rather uncommon pre-V tends to be scattered throughout Europe (and northwestern Africa), whereas V attains two peaks of frequency: one situated in southwestern Europe and one in the Saami of northern Scandinavia. Geographical distributions and ages support the scenario that pre-V originated in Europe before the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM), whereas the more recently derived haplogroup V arose in a southwestern European refugium soon after the LGM. The arrival of V in eastern/central Europe, however, occurred much later, possibly with (post-)Neolithic contacts. The distribution of haplogroup V mtDNAs in modern European populations would thus, at least in part, reflect the pattern of postglacial human recolonization from that refugium, affecting even the Saami....
Age estimates were calculated for the different subsets of pre-V. The two subsets of pre-V, with and without the MseI site at np 15904, gave age estimates of 26,400 years +/- 11,100 years, and 14,800 years +/-5,700 years...For V, a somewhat younger time depth of 11,200 +/- 2,700 years was estimated when all populations were included. This value, however, progressively increased when the potential outlier populations—first the Saami, then the Croatians, and, finally, the Basques—were ex-cluded, eventually reaching 14,600+/- 3,600 years....
Haplogroup C-M130
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_C-M130
Haplogroup C: Possible time of origin 53,000 years BP. Possible place of origin unknown (Southwest Asia or greater Central Asia). Ancestor CF. It is one of two primary branches of Haplogroup CF alongside Haplogroup F. Haplogroup C is found in ancient populations on every continent except Africa and is the predominant Y-DNA haplogroup among males belonging to many peoples indigenous to East Asia, Central Asia, Siberia, North America and Australia as well as ancient and modern populations in Europe, the Levant and Japan.... Haplogroup C-M130 attains its highest frequencies among the indigenous populations of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the Russian Far East, Polynesia, Australia, and at moderate frequency in Korea and Manchu people....Males carrying C-M130 are believed to have migrated to the Americas some 6,000-8,000 years ago, and was carried by Na-Dené-speaking peoples...
Asia is also the area in which Haplogroup D-M174 is concentrated. However, D-M174 is more closely related to haplogroup E than to C-M130 and the geographical distributions of Haplogroups C-M130 and D-M174 are entirely and utterly different... The ancient Jōmon people of Japan and paleolithic and neolithic Europeans belonged exclusively to the branch C1a. Whereas Haplogroup D is found at high frequencies only amongst Tibetans, Japanese peoples, and Andaman Islanders, and has been found neither in India nor among the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas or Oceania. According to Sakitani et al., haplogroup C-M130 originated in Western Asia and spread from there into other parts of Eurasia and into parts of Australia. It is suggested that C-M130 belonged to a Caucasoid-related group and was also commonly found in Cro Magnon hunter gatherers as well as in ancient samples of West and Southwest Asia....
C* (M130) was also identified in prehistoric remains, dating from 34,000 years BP, found in Russia and known as "Kostenki 14" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostyonki-Borshchyovo_archaeological_complex 1) Kostenki-12 circa 30,000 BP mtDNA haplogroup U2...patrilineal Y-DNA haplogroup C1* (C-F3393)...He was buried in an oval pit in a crouched position and covered with red ochre. 2) A male from Kostenki-14 (Markina Gora) 35–40,000 BP, mtDNA haplogroup U2. His Y-DNA haplogroup was C1b* (C-F1370). The Kostenki-14 genome represents early evidence for the separation of Western Eurasian and East Asian lineages. It was found to have a close relationship to both "Mal'ta boy" (24 ka) of south-east Siberia (Ancient North Eurasian) and to the later Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Europe and western Siberia, as well as with a basal population ancestral to Early European Farmers, but not to East Asians.... [MALTA BOY HG WAS AN R YDNA / U mtDNA].
Low levels of C-M130* are carried by males: from the Indian subcontinent, Sri Lanka and South East Asia, and; in Europe among males with the surname Llach originating from Garrotxa, Catalonia, Spain (but not males with the same surname from other areas). Found at low concentrations in Eastern Europe, where it may be a legacy of the nvasions/migrations of the Huns, Turks and/or Mongols during the Middle Ages....The highest frequencies of Haplogroup C-M217 are found among the populations of Mongolia and Far East Russia, where it is the modal haplogroup. ...C-V20 (C1a2; previously C6) is found at low frequencies amongst Southern Europeans. The 7,000-year-old remains of a hunter-gatherer from La Braña (modern Asturias, Spain) carried it, and C1a2 was also present in Hungary at around the same time. In 2016, a 35,000-year-old remains of a hunter gatherer from the Goyet Caves (Namur, Belgium) and a 30,000-year-old remains of a hunter gatherer from Dolni Vestonice (Moravia, Czech Republic) were found with this haplogroup....
Global distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroup C reveals the prehistoric migration routes of African exodus and early settlement in East Asia
https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg201040
The regional distribution of an ancient Y-chromosome haplogroup C-M130 (Hg C) in Asia provides an ideal tool of dissecting prehistoric migration events. We identified 465 Hg C individuals out of 4284 males from 140 East and Southeast Asian populations. We genotyped these Hg C individuals using 12 Y-chromosome biallelic markers and 8 commonly used Y-short tandem repeats (Y-STRs), and performed phylogeographic analysis in combination with the published data. The results show that most of the Hg C subhaplogroups have distinct geographical distribution and have undergone long-time isolation, although Hg C individuals are distributed widely across Eurasia. Furthermore, a general south-to-north and east-to-west cline of Y-STR diversity is observed with the highest diversity in Southeast Asia. The phylogeographic distribution pattern of Hg C supports a single coastal ‘Out-of-Africa’ route by way of the Indian subcontinent, which eventually led to the early settlement of modern humans in mainland Southeast Asia. The northward expansion of Hg C in East Asia started ∼40 thousand of years ago (KYA) along the coastline of mainland China and reached Siberia ∼15 KYA and finally made its way to the Americas.
Introduction: The Y-chromosome lineages in East Asian populations have been examined extensively. It has been shown that several dominant Y-chromosome haplogroups, such as O-M175, D-M174 and C-M130, and several relatively rare Y-chromosome haplogroups, such as F-M89, K-M9, P-M45 and N-M231, constitute the East Asian Y-chromosome gene pool. The ethnically diversified populations in East Asia have been suggested as the descendants of ancient modern humans of African origin, having a significant role in subsequent migrations into Siberia and the Americas. However, the migration routes of ancient modern humans into East Asia have long been debated, although two major routes have been proposed: the southern route and the northern route....
Hg C-M130 has a wide distribution across Asia, and Oceania, less frequent in Europe, and the Americas, and absent in Africa. As a non-African lineage, Hg C is highly informative in tracing the migration route of the African exodus in prehistory. However, when and where Hg C occurred, migrated and expanded is yet to be disclosed. At present, most of the archaeological and genetic evidence supports that the earliest African exodus went out of Africa via the Red Sea and then rapidly migrated to mainland Southeast Asia through the Indian coastline, and eventually reached Oceania.... A previous study has suggested that Hg C migrated into East Asia via both the northern route and the southern route approximately 45–50 KYA. However, it was also suggested that Hg C in Central Asia had a Mongol origin. On the other hand, the fossil records in East Asia indicate that the earliest record of modern humans was ∼40 KYA. In addition, the inference based on the dental traits suggested that the earliest East Asians were the direct descendants of Southeast Asians and migrated into East Asia via the Sunda shelf...
Conclusions: We demonstrated the phylogeographic distribution of one of the most ancient non-African Y-chromosome lineages, from which we inferred the prehistoric migration and expansion of the Hg C lineage. We propose that Hg C was derived from the African exodus and gradually colonized South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania and East Asia by a single Paleolithic migration from Africa to Asia and Oceania, which occurred more than 40 KYA. The prehistoric northward migration of Hg C in mainland East Asia likely followed the coastline and is consistent with the northward migration of other East Asian Y-chromosome haplogroups.
Haplogroup C (Y-DNA)
https://www.eupedia.com/europe/origins_haplogroups_europe.shtml#C
Haplogroup C is an extremely old lineage thought to have appear before or soon after the first migration of Homo Sapiens outside Africa, some 70,000 years ago. Men belonging to haplogroup C would have departed from East Africa during the Ice Age and followed the coasts of Indian Ocean, settling in the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia, north-east Asia and Oceania.
The first group to split away was C-Z1426, which colonised the Middle East and South Asia. One branch (CTS11043) might have moved north to Central Asia, then split into two: one tribe moving west to Europe (haplogroup C-V20) while the other migrated to East Asia and survives only in Japan today (haplogroup C-M8). Haplogroup C-V20 probably represents the first migration of Homo Sapiens to Europe 45,000 years ago, and would therefore have been the first to come into contact with European Neanderthals, although Homo sapiens are likely to have interbred with Neanderthals in the Middle East before that. The second branch of C-Z1426 spread around South Asia, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia, where it is found at low frequencies nowadays (haplogroup C-M356).
During that time, other C tribes continued their eastward migration to south-east Asia, where they split in four main regional clusters. The first branch colonised Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (haplogroup C2-M38). A second branch would have gone south to Australia, where they became the Aborigenes (haplogroup C4-M347). Another settled in the highlands of New Guinea (haplogroup C-P55). The fourth branch went all the way up the north-east Asia (haplogroup C3-M217) and is found nowadays chiefly among the Mongols, tribes descended from the Mongols (Kalmyks, Hazaras) including Turkic people (Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Tuvans, Yakuts), East Siberian tribes (Buryats, Chukchi, Itelmens, Nivkh, Tungusic peoples), Chinese (Han, Hui, Manchus, Oroqens, Tujia), Koreans and Japanese (especially the Ainus), but also among several indigenous peoples of North America, including some Na-Dené-, Algonquian-, or Siouan-speaking populations.
Haplogroup C is a very rare lineage in Europe. The few Europeans who belong C either belong to the European C-V20, the Middle Eastern C-M358, or the Mongolian C3-M217. Haplogroup C3 has also been identified in one Hunnic skeleton from the Iron Age in present-day Mongolia. Its presence in Europe can therefore be linked to the Hunnic and Mongolian invasions, like haplogroup Q1a.
F YDNA IS NOT A EUROPEAN HG. WHAT LITTLE IS IN EUROPE CAME FROM THE NEOLITHIC NEAR EAST FARMER, AND LATER MIGRATIONS 16TH-19TH CENTURY...
Haplogroup F-M89
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_F-M89
Ancestor CF... Haplogroup F, also known as F-M89 and previously as Haplogroup FT is a very common Y-chromosome haplogroup. The clade and its subclades constitute over 90% of paternal lineages outside of Africa. It is primarily found throughout South Asia, Southeast Asia and parts of East Asia.... It is estimated that the SNP M89 appeared 38,700–55,700 years ago, most likely in South Asia.... The location of this lineage's first expansion and rise to prevalence appears to have been in the Indian Subcontinent, or somewhere close to it, and most of the descendant subclades and haplogroups appear to have radiated outward from South Asia and/or neighbouring parts of the Middle East and South East Asia....
A lack of precise, high resolution testing in the past makes it difficult to discuss F*, F1, F2* and F3* separately. ISOGG states that F(xG,H,I,J,K) has not been well studied, occurs "infrequently" in modern populations and peaks in South Asia, especially Sri Lanka. It also appears to have long been present in South East Asia....
Neolithic migration into Europe from Southwest Asia, by first wave of farmers in Europe has been put forward as the source of F and G2a found in European Neolithic remains, dating from circa 4000 BCE. These remains, according to Herrerra et al. (2012) showed a "greater genetic similarity" to "individuals from the modern Near East" than to modern Europeans.... Some cases reported amongst modern populations of Europeans, Native Americans and Pacific Islanders may be due to migration and admixture of F(xG,H,I,J,K), as a result of contact with South and/or South East Asia, during the early modern era (16th–19th Century)...
V mtDNA IS ONLY 12,000 TO 13,000 YRS OLD ORIGINATING FROM EITHER IBERIA, OR N.AFRICA. V IS EITHER A SISTER TO H, OR IS A DAUGHTER OF H. H ORIGINATED IN THE NEAR EAST 25,000 TO 30,000 YRS AGO. H HAS ONLY BEEN IN WEST EUROPE ABOUT 14,000 TO 15,000 YRS AGO. SAAMI REPLACED MUCH OF THEIR OWN ORIGINAL U5 FEMALE WITH THE V FEMALE AFTER LEAVING WEST EUROPE ON THEIR MIGRATION THRU EUROPE UPTO THEIR PRESENT DAY SCANDINAVIAN HOMELAND WHERE THE SAAMI R1b MALE WAS ALSO REPLACED BY THE I, N, AND R1a MALES IN THAT JOURNEY. CLEAR EVIDENCE OF NEOLITHIC NEAR EAST PEOPLE REPLACING THE FIRST INDIGENOUS R1 MALES AND U CLADE FEMALES IN EUROPE. AMAZIGH ARE FIRST PEOPLES OF NW AFRICA AND BASQUES AND SAAMI MAY BE THE FIRST OF WEST EUROPE ALL ORIGINALLY WERE (R1) HG MALES AND U HG SUBCLADE FEMALES SUCH AS U8, U5, U6, ETC. ALL OTHER HG's IN EUROPE AND N.AFRICA TODAY ARE FROM MORE RECENT MIGRATIONS THOUSANDS OF YEARS AFTER THE R/U FIRST PEOPLE...
mtDNA Analysis Reveals a Major Late Paleolithic Population Expansion from Southwestern to Northeastern Europe
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1377079/
a major Paleolithic population expansion from the “Atlantic zone” (southwestern Europe) occurred 10,000–15,000 years ago, after the Last Glacial Maximum. As an mtDNA marker for this expansion we identified haplogroup V, an autochthonous European haplogroup, which most likely originated in the northern Iberian peninsula or southwestern France at about the time of the Younger Dryas. Its sister haplogroup, H, which is distributed throughout the entire range of Caucasoid populations and which originated in the Near East
~25,000–30,000 years ago, also took part in this expansion, thus rendering it by far the most frequent (40%–60%) haplogroup in western Europe. Subsequent migrations after the Younger Dryas eventually carried those “Atlantic” mtDNAs into central and northern Europe.
This scenario, already implied by archaeological records...
The survey of Caucasoid mtDNAs revealed the presence of the 16298C mutation in virtually all western, central, and northern European populations... However, mutation 16298C in all these HVS-I sequences was never associated with the HVS-I motifs that define other European haplogroups. In addition, we observed that np 16298 is not a fast-evolving site. Indeed, a survey of the 407 African HVS-I sequences reported by Watson et al. (1997) revealed only one subject, from Nigeria, harboring this mutation. In contrast, mutation 16298C is commonly observed in Asian/Native American mtDNAs. However, all these Asian/Native American mtDNAs harbor the distinguishing motifs 16223T–16298C, 16223T–16298C–16327T, and 16223T–16298C–16325C–16327T and share mutation 16298C by descent. The latter two motifs characterize the Asian/Native American–specific haplogroup C, whereas the former motif is considered to be the ancestral Asian prehaplogroup C motif...
We found 25 different types of haplogroup V sequences, encompassing a total of 129 mtDNAs. Sequence type 1, defined only by mutation 16298C is by far the most common (61.2% of all haplogroup V mtDNAs) and is central to the phylogeny of the haplogroup. Thus, it appears that 16298C is the founding motif of the haplogroup V HVS-I sequences. The motif 16298C–16153A (sequence type 2) is also common (12.4%) and is shared among populations. Its presence in the Berbers, Germans, Finns, Volga Finnics, and Saami could indicate that it predated the geographical diffusion of haplogroup V and that motifs 16298C and 16298C–16153A were carried together by the same expanding population(s)....
Haplogroup H has two candidate founding haplotypes (haplotypes 1 and 2) distinguished by the hypervariable HaeIII site at np 16517. Haplotypes 1 and 2 together represent >50% of haplogroup H mtDNAs and are central to the phylogeny of the remaining haplotypes.... Haplogroup H characterized 50.0% of the Basques, 45.8% of the Sardinians, 40.5% of the Swedes, 40.8% of the Finns, 21.6% of the central Italians, 30.0% of the Adygei, 13.3%of the Druzes, 2.6%of theYemenites, and 9.8% of the Yakuts of Siberia...
These observations reveal that haplogroups V and H are closely related to each other and suggest two possible explanations for this relatedness. They may be two sister groups that originated from a common ancestor only defined by 14766C and 73A. Alternatively, haplogroup V could have originated from a haplogroup H mtDNA, which has again acquired the AluI site at np 7025. The latter possibility is, however, less parsimonious than the first, since it requires one additional mutational event. Moreover, screening for the MseI-site loss at np 14766 has revealed that some mtDNAs with the sequence features of the common ancestor of haplogroups V and H are still present in Druzes, central Italians, Sardinians, and Finns....
For haplogroup V...the age of the haplogroup is estimated to be 12,200 +/- 3,700 years/13,000 +/- 3,900 years...
For haplogroup H...corresponds to an age of 19,800–26,100 years, when the mtDNA evolution rate of 2.2%–2.9%/myr is used....The age of haplogroup H in western Europe then would be estimated to be 14,100 +/- 2,000 years/15,100 +/- 2,200 years, whereas the age of haplogroup H in the rest of Eurasia is estimated to be 27,700 +/- 4,300 years/29,600 +/- 4,600 years. However, the age estimate for the expansion time of haplogroup H in western Europe could be even lower....Although this node is not represented in this sample, HVS-I data does indeed support its existence in Spain and among the Basques. If we include this as a potential root, then the rRFLP would be reduced to a value of 0.518 +/- 0.079, giving an age estimate of 12,600 +/- 1,900 years/13,500 +/- 2,100 years for the expansion time of haplogroup H. Averaging over the age estimates for haplogroup V (both RFLPs and HVS-I sequences) and the western branch of haplogroup H, we obtain an age of 12,300 years/13,200 years... Appreciating the sampling error for 0.057), all resulting age estimates fall into the range of 11,100–14,400 years.
Haplogroup H is the most common haplogroup in all European populations and reaches its highest frequencies (40%–60%) in western and northern Europe. This haplogroup is also common in the Caucasoid populations of the Near East and North Africa and is also observed in northern India and among the Yakuts. Even though this haplogroup is more common in Europe than in the Near East, analysis of sequence divergence appears
to indicate that haplogroup H harbors a much higher diversity in the Near East than in Europe . These divergence values suggest that haplogroup H originated in the Near East ~25,000–30,000 years ago and expanded into Europe before the Second Pleniglacial (15,000–20,000 years ago; Otte 1990). The Turkish sequences belonging to haplogroup H (characterized by 73A) could serve to provide an upper time boundary for the expansion of haplogroup H into Europe. These sequences yield an HVS-I value of 1.200 +/- 0.346, which correspond to 24,200 +/- 7,000 years/25,800 +/- 7,500 years. The origin of haplogroup H in the Near East is in agreement with a Near East origin for most of the European gene pool and is compatible with its presence also in India and central Asia. However, an expansion of haplogroup H into Europe 20,000–25,000 years ago would place this expansion at a time that is intermediate between the appearance of modern Homo sapiens in Europe (>40,000 years ago) and the Neolithic expansion (starting ~10,000 years ago) and suggests that haplogroup H could represent a second Paleolithic wave that was contemporary with the diffusion of the Gravettian technology (20,000–25,000 years ago).
Haplogroup V has a much more limited geographical distribution, and it is observed only in northwestern Europe and North Africa. It reaches high frequencies in some Iberian populations, is also very common among the Berbers of North Africa, but showed its highest frequencies (40.9%) among the Scandinavian Saami. Thus, this distribution indicates that, in contrast with haplogroup H, haplogroup V did not originate in the Near East but either in Europe or North Africa. In addition, the sequence divergence estimates suggest that haplogroup V is more recent than haplogroup H and originated only 12,200 +/- 3,700 years/13,000 +/- 3,900 years ago. The observed frequency values of haplogroup V could be interpreted to suggest three most likely origins for this haplogroup: North Africa, the Iberian peninsula, and the Saami....
that haplogroup H arrived in Europe from the Near East before the Second Pleniglacial. This haplogroup is common in all European populations but reaches the highest frequencies (50%–60%) among the Basques.... Thus, it is most likely that haplogroup H was the most common haplogroup in the populations living in southwestern Europe during the Second Pleniglacial and that it expanded again into central-northern Europe together with
haplogroup V, during the Bo¨lling/Allero¨ d period. Indeed, a particularly high incidence of haplogroup H in this expanding population fits with the observation that all modern central-northern European populations harboring haplogroup V mtDNAs are also defined by very high frequencies (40%–50%) of haplogroup H....
Our study shows that >40% of modern Saami harbor mtDNAs belonging to haplogroup V and that this haplogroup is found only in western and northern European populations. However, this high incidence of haplogroup V in the Saami is associated with very low sequence variation and with only the two most common HVS-I sequences (nos. 1 and 2; table 4), encompassing virtually all subjects. These findings suggest that the Saami have acquired haplogroup V recently from some other northern European population(s) and that the introduction of this haplogroup has been associated with a strong founder event in the maternal lineage. Sajantila et al. (1995) observed that, in addition to the motif defined by 16298C (haplogroup V), the Saami also are characterized by a very high incidence (37%) of the motif16144C–16189C–16270T. This Saami motif is a direct derivative of the motif 16189C–16270T, which is observed in a wide range of European populations and defines a subset of Haplogroup U. Thus, two limited subsets (haplogroup V and a subgroup of haplogroup U) of the European mtDNA variation appear to encompass >78% of the Saami mtDNAs... An almost completely European origin of the Saami mtDNAs is also supported by the data from Lahermoet al. (1996), which have shown that <6.3% of the Saami mtDNAs are members of Asian superhaplogroup M. The European origin of mtDNA is even clearer for the Finns. This population harbors all nine European mtDNA haplogroups at frequencies that are very similar to those observed in other central-northern European populations,and only 2.0% of their mtDNAs belong to haplogroup M...
Thus, Y-chromosome data indicate that the Saami, the Finns, and other Uralic
speaking populations share part of their gene pool with western-central Asian populations, but the almost complete absence of Asian mtDNAs in the Finns and the Saami also suggests that the gene flow between the proto–Uralic-speaking population(s) and the ancestors of some western-central Asian populations could have been mainly male-mediated.
To confirm this hypothesis, it was necessary to determine whether the Yakut mtDNAs belonged to either European or Asian haplogroups. In the course of this study, we have observed that European haplogroups encompass only 17.6% of the Yakut mtDNAs. In addition to haplogroup H (9.8%), the Yakuts also harbor low frequencies of mtDNAs belonging to haplogroups J (3.9%), T (2.0%), and U (2.0%). In contrast, the various subsets of superhaplogroup M, including haplogroups C and D, encompass 66.7% of the Yakut mtDNAs. Thus, in contrast with the Finns and the Saami, a large majority of the Yakut mtDNAs are of Asian origin. This finding further supports a western European origin of the Saami and the Finnish mtDNAs....
we show that a population living in the Iberian peninsula/southern France before the Younger Dryas has contributed substantially to the gene pool of all modern populations of central-northern Europe, including the Saami and the Finns. This late Paleolithic population
expansion from southwestern to northeastern Europe is not only supported by mtDNA data but also by Y-chromosome and autosomal data and by archaeological records.
THIS ARTICLE FROM 2010.
FROM THE AGE TREES OF THE Y AND mt DNA APPEARS IJ, I, AND E1b1b1 WOULD BE THE EARLIEST MALE HG's IN EUROPE AT 30 TO 40 KYA.
AND EARLIEST EUROPEAN FEMALES WOULD BE U8 AT 53 KYA, N2 AT ABOUT 48KYA, AND U5 AT 37 KYA.
U6 IN N.AFRICA AT 45 KYA.
INTERESTINGLY NO MALES ARE IN EUROPE WITH U8, OR N2? FROM THE AGE TREES ONLY K, F, OR CDEF COULD HAVE BEEN THE ONLY MODERN MAN IN EUROPE ELSE THE U, R, AND N FEMALES WOULD HAVE BEEN ACCOMPANIED INTO EUROPE BY A DIFFERENT HOMININ SUCH AS NEANDERTHAL.
IF U6 IS IN N.AFRICA 45KYA THEN ACCORDING TO THESE AGE TREES SHE WAS NOT WITH R OR R1 MALES. SHE WOULD BE WITH K THE ANCESTOR OF R AT THAT TIME.
E1b1 OR E1 IS IN EAST AFRICA 45KYA MAKING IT POSSIBLE U6 HOOKS UP WITH THE E MALES IN EAST AFRICA THEN MIGRATES TO NW AFRICA LATER ON. BUT THAT IS IN DISAGREEMENT WITH ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS THAT PLACE U6 IN NW AFRICA 45KYA BUT E MALES NOT IN NW AFRICA UNTIL THE NEOLITHIC. SO WHO WAS THE MALE COMPANION OF U6 IN NW AFRICA?
OTHER ARTICLES CLAIM R1 IS THE FIRST MODERN MALE INTO WEST EUROPE WHEREAS THIS ARTICLE PLACES R1 IN EUROPE MUCH LATER.
BASED ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ALONE PROVES THIS ARTICLE IS IN ERROR IN PART AS R1 WAS IN EUROPE AT LEAST 30 KYA TO 40 KYA....
The Archaeogenetics of Europe
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209020697
Here, we review the new chronology and compare mtDNA with Y-chromosome
patterns, in order to summarize what we have learnt from archaeogenetics concerning five episodes over the past 50,000 years which significantly contributed to the settlement history of Europe: the pioneer colonisation of the Upper Palaeolithic, the Late Glacial re-colonisation of the continent from southern refugia after the Last Glacial Maximum, the postglacial re-colonization of deserted areas after the Younger Dryas cold snap, the arrival of Near Easterners with an incipient Neolithic package, and the small-scale migrations along continent-wide economic exchange networks beginning with the Copper Age....
Around 1.1 million years or so ago members of the genus Homo first set foot in Europe. Most of the events that took place in Europe since are beyond the reach of archaeogenetics— the application of genetic techniques to the studyof the human past. For a start, nothing from before around 45 thousand years ago (kya) survives, at least in the signatures of the non-recombining genetic marker systems, the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the paternally inherited Y chromosome. The genetic past is thus very much our past, as archaeogenetics relies primarily on the variation in present-day populations, such that only the ancestral lineages of living subjects are available for inferences. Lineages that became extinct in the past are usually hidden, and there is thus a progressive reduction of information the further back in time we go. Both uniparental genetic systems, furthermore, suggest complete replacement of archaic hominin lineages by those of anatomically modern humans. Anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals are thought to have co-existed in Europe from around 45 kya until c. 30 kya and perhaps even more recently— but if interbreeding took place, as occasionally suggested on the basis of fossil evidence, its genetic consequences have since been lost, at least from these marker systems. Ancient mtDNA studies have shown us a few glimpses of Neanderthal variation, diverging from modern humans around 550 kya...
Europeans share their basic pattern of mtDNA variation — in other words, the range of major basal clades, or ‘haplogroups’— with people in Southwest Asia, and to some extent also in Central Asia, as well as —with a substantial reduction in diversity— in North Africa.
This is partly true also for the Y chromosome, but with some complications....
Anatomically modern humans, apparently with shell-bead ornamentation, appeared briefly in the Near East c. 130–75 kya only to be replaced by Neanderthals by c. 75–45 kya, so they presumably became extinct or retreated back into Africa as the climate deteriorated.
Initial Upper Palaeolithic toolkits, characterised primarily by high proportions of blades, appear in the Levant 50 kya and in Europe from 41–45 kya...
According to the new mtDNA clock, the settlement of Eurasia was indeed initiated by a single rapid burst, around 60–70 kya, rather than 45–50 kya, and appears to have taken place along the tropical ‘southern coastal route’ from the Horn of Africa via Arabia and South Asia to Southeast Asia and Australasia. The settlement of the continental interior took place later, as the coast-dwelling populations began to move up the major rivers. Arrival in the Near East and Europe did not take place until 50 kya, in line with the archaeological evidence. Most likely, the route from the jumping-off point on the southern route (the Arabian Gulf,say) into the Levant was blocked by desert until the climatic amelioration of c. 50 kya. There seem to have been dispersals from the Near East both north-west into Europe and south-west into North Africa, marked by different subbranches of haplogroup U: U5 in Europe and U6 (together with M1) in North Africa....
The most ancient mtDNA lineages in Europe belong to haplogroup U5 and U8, which appear to have originated within Europe from the root of haplogroup U. U8 appears to have an age of c. 50,000 years in Europe, although its subclade K appears in the Near East around 30 kya. U5’s presently estimated age of c. 37,000 years may be an underestimate due to dramatic post-LGM expansions of its major sub-branches and is too imprecise to be informative. Indeed, the arrival could have taken place at any time between the current age of the U5 root and that of the ancestral haplogroup U node (c. 56 kya). Effectively, given various approaches to dating and their associated 95% ranges, the age of colonisation based on mtDNA can only be narrowed to 30–55 kya....
The next major change occurred in the wake of the LGM, 25–19.5 kya. During this time, human populations became increasingly concentrated in refugial areas in south-west Europe, along the Mediterranean, in the Balkans and the Levant, and on the east European plain. It is not clear to what extent this involved extinction or migration, or both. In addition, there were probably cryptic refugia in the tundra zone that may have served as stages for leap-frog migration from one part of the continent to another. Several lines of evidence have indicated that the major signal in the modern European mtDNA pool is the re-expansion and resettlement of central and northern Europe in the wake of the major warming phase after 15 kya. The majority of control-region lineages date roughly to this period in the founder analysis of European mtDNAs, and haplogroup V, H1, H3, H5 and U5b1 all appear to have originated in south-west Europe and to have expanded after the Ice Age, with several possible dispersal routes back into western, central and northern Europe. There seems likely to have been both an Atlantic route into Norway and a central European route into eastern Fennoscandia.
The discovery of links (especially within haplogroups V and U5b1b1) between Saami in northern Europe and Berbers in North Africa, at opposite extremes of this expansion, provides a particularly striking illustration of the power of the phylogeographic approach, and has exposed the weakness of alternative approaches to genetic data. Nevertheless, the details of the expansion process have remained a little cloudy. Archaeologically, there is a strong signal of both range and size expansion from around 15 kya as the Magdalenian industry spread from the south-west into western, central and northern Europe. The picture is complicated, however, by the fact the Magdalenian does not seem to have any antecedents in the previous Solutrean, the industry of the LGM in the western refugia. Rather, it seems to have emerged from the Badegoulian, which arose in eastern Europe at the LGM and appears to have then spread into the western refugia, perhaps via the aforementioned cryptic refugia. This seems to tie in with the genetic evidence because, similarly, the lineages that evidently expanded from western refugia also appear to have their antecedents in the east. Haplogroup H, the most frequent mtDNA haplogroup in Europe at 45% in modern Europeans on average, seems likely to have arisen in the Near East c. 18 kya. Its founder age in Europe is currently estimated at c. 15,000 years ago, suggesting an entry after the LGM. Because of the more recent founder effect, however, both values may underestimate the true time depth. Similarly, haplogroup V — a sister clade of H — which also re-expanded from the south-west after the LGM, has an ancestry within Europe, but likely arose ultimately from HV lineages evolving further to the east. However, fresh analyses of the present database of almost 2000 complete mtDNAs from European lineages suggest postglacial rather than Late Glacial expansion times for most of the lineages spreading from south-west Europe. Although H5 (13.9 ky) and U5b3 (13.0 ky) seem to date to the Late Glacial, haplogroups V, H1 and H3 all date to 11–11.5 kya—the end of the Younger Dryas glacial relapse, after which temperatures stabilised at levels similar to today.
It is striking that at present — with the minor exception of the rare haplogroup U5b3, which most likely expanded from the glacial refuge in the Italian Peninsula — the mtDNA evidence points to resettlement of much of western and central Europe only from the Franco-Cantabrian/Iberian refugia. It has been argued that several lineages that are most prominent in eastern Europe, in particular within U4, may be the result of expansions from an eastern refuge, perhaps in the Ukraine. The earlier coalescence times (immediately after the LGM) of these lineages tend to support this notion. Broadly, though, eastern European mtDNAs do not differ dramatically from those of western and central Europeans, although with a small increase in lineages from the Caucasus, Near East and Central Asia, unlike for the Y chromosome. Y-chromosome distributions may indeed point to other refugia albeit tentatively at present. Again, Y-chromosome haplogroups implicated in Late Glacial or postglacial expansions form the majority of lineages in the continent today...
More surprising is the status of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1, which, unlike mtDNA haplogroup I, is not indigenous to West Eurasia but appears to have originated in South Asia, possibly in the early settlements associated with the southern route dispersal. This appears better substantiated than the alternative suggestion of a Central Asian origin. Two major subclades of R1 appear in Europe: R1b in the west and R1a in the north-east. It has been suggested that R1b mirrors mtDNA haplogroup H and the forerunner of V in arriving from the east shortly after the LGM. Then, with the Late Glacial, its main subclade R1b1b2 expanded into western and central Europe, with a possible expansion at the same time from Anatolia. R1a might then represent an expansion from an eastern refuge, perhaps in the Ukraine, although it might also have been the result of more recent dispersals.... Nevertheless, for Europe, the Mesolithic and its antecedents appear to have left by far the largest mark on present-day mtDNA and Y-chromosome variation....
The Natufian people — who could be regarded as the Mesolithic people of the Near East...by 12 kya were beginning to adopt cereal agriculture,...The first domestic plants are unequivocally attested in the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B from 10.5 kya, with the first domestic animals documented later... the two main lineages of Y-chromosome haplogroup J in the Near East might correlate with the development of agriculture in the wetter northern zone (J2) and pastoralism in the drier south (J1)...J2 is thought to be the most important Y-chromosome marker for the spread of farming into southeast Europe...
Founder analysis of mtDNAs in Europe, which essentially subtracts ancestral Near Eastern source diversity from line ages in Europe in order to estimate arrival times, suggested that less than 15% of European lineages were contributed from the Near Eastern Neolithic component, with the vast majority dating back to Late Glacial/postglacial times. This suggested small groups of Near Eastern people settling Europe and wide-scale adoption of agricultural technology by indigenous Mesolithic populations. An initial Y-chromosome analysis (without any founder analysis) reached a similar conclusion, with a figure of 22%, comprising largely haplogroups J and E1b1b1 [66], but this figure was gradually eroded as it became clear that many of these lineages arrived from the Near East, or from North Africa, at times other than the Neolithic, as was the case for mtDNA. Subsequently, fine-grained studies of the Y chromosome have indeed resolved lineages dispersing from both the Near East and North Africa, providing a much more complex picture. The scale of immigration proposed has been further lessened and a number of distinct episodes, including migration from Northeast Africa and expansion of acculturated indigenous hunter-gatherers in the Balkans, or even younger expansions, have been proposed. Studies of western European mtDNA and Y-chromosome variation supported this picture, with a largely Mesolithic ancestry not only for the Basques—traditionally regarded as isolated from any Neolithic ‘wave of advance’ as they speak a non-Indo-European language — but throughout Iberia, the British Isles and Scandinavia. These regions may still have received Neolithic immigrants, but of autochthonous European rather than Near Eastern ancestry. Though not directly contradicting classical analyses, these results imply a lower level of Near Eastern immigration. Some analyses based on simple admixture models suggested much higher levels of immigration, especially into south-western Europe. However, these models departed from untenable
ad hoc hypotheses (effectively assuming a pre-Neolithic genetic homogeneity across Europe), and accounted neither for back-migration from Europe into the Near East (known to be high from the mtDNA results, as well as from archaeological and literary evidence) nor for subsequent post-Neolithic immigration, lumping all similarities between Europe and the Near East as Neolithic....
Even more recently, ancient DNA work on Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic human specimens has been taken to imply large-scale Neolithic replacement in northern and eastern Europe, but the data may rather suggest, similar to our re-dating of H and V lineages above, that Mesolithic dispersals from the south and west arrived rather late in northern and eastern Europe....
seems clear from the mtDNA control-region and Y-chromosome results that, first, the Neolithic most likely dispersed into Europe by human migration, accompanied by a spread of domestic plants and animals beyond the migrants; second, the immigration from the Near East was minor, and there was substantial adoption of farming by indigenous groups in many parts of Europe; third, internal European migrations from the Eneolithic (Copper Age) onward may have later considerably reshaped the genetic landscape....
~97% Amerind mtDNA's are HG's A-D. ~3% are mtDNA X HG. Age of X in North America is 12kya-36kya supports X as the original founder of Amerinds. X hg represents ~4% of European mtDNA. 25% Ojibwa, 15% Sioux, 11% Nuu-Chah-Nulth, 7% Navajo, and 5% Yakima. X is not found in Asians nor in Siberians. Amerind X and European X separated 23kya to 36kya. Amerind and European X are very different and only connected thru the ancient common ancestor, and are continent specific imply ancient pre Columbian arrival in America. Entry time of X into Americas assuming single founder root coalescence age 23kya-36kya, but possible more than one founder motif. A coalescence time of 12kya-17kya may indicate reexpansion during Na-Dene expansion, or an independant late arrival. X appears to originate in west Asia coalescence time in Caucasians 30kya-40kya...
mtDNA Haplogroup X: An Ancient Link between Europe/Western Asia
and North America?
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707616292
~97% of Native American mtDNAs belong to one of four major founding mtDNA lineages, designated haplogroups “A”–“D.” It has been proposed that a fifth mtDNA haplogroup (haplogroup X) represents a minor founding lineage in Native Americans. Unlike haplogroups A–D, haplogroup X is also found at low frequencies in modern European populations.... Among Native Americans, haplogroup X appears to be essentially restricted to northern Amerindian groups, including the Ojibwa, the Nuu-Chah-Nulth, the Sioux, and the Yakima, although we also observed this haplogroup in the Na-Dene–speaking Navajo. Median network analysis indicated that European and Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs, although distinct, nevertheless are distantly related to each other. Time estimates for the arrival of X in North America are 12,000–36,000 years ago, depending on the number of assumed founders, thus supporting the conclusion that the peoples harboring haplogroup X were among the original founders of Native American populations. To date, haplogroup X has not been unambiguously identified in Asia, raising the possibility that some Native American founders were of Caucasian ancestry....
Apparent non–haplogroup A–D mtDNAs can result from reversion of key A–D markers, recent admixture with non–Native Americans, or represent additional Native American founding mtDNA lineages. A striking example of the presence of non–haplogroup A–D genotypes in Native Americans can be seen in the Ojibwa, an Amerindian population from the Great Lakes region of North America.... A recent survey of European mtDNAs has demonstrated the presence of the same “other” haplotype motif in modern European populations, in which it is called “haplogroup X.” Haplogroup X represents ~4% of European mtDNAs and has been found to be further characterized by CrT transitions at nucleotide position (np) 16223 and np 16278 of the CR...
The network suggests that European and Native American haplogroup XmtDNAs are separated into two major branches. Nearly all Native American mtDNAs are encompassed by the branch harboring the 16213A and 200G variants, whereas all European mtDNAs are included within the branch that lacks these mutations. The reduced median network further suggests that np 153 mutated more than twice (possibly even five times). This mutation has indeed arisen multiple times in human mtDNA, being found in Caucasians and Asians... However, np 225 appears to be stable, since this variant has never been seen in populations from Asia, Central and South America or Africa. It has been detected in 4/167 European mtDNAs, each time on a haplogroup X background including the 16223T, 16278T, 153G, and 195C mutations, which renders 225A a marker for a major part of haplogroup X.... Overall, the sequence data and phylogenetic analysis suggest that the Native American and the European haplogroup X mtDNAs share a common maternal ancestor but also suggest that they diverged from each other long ago....
the age of haplogroup X is >23,000 years. For CR HVS-I data, the presence, in both Europe and the Americas...suggests that this is the founder motif that originated in the Old World and moved to the Americas. When this motif was used as the root sequence, the coalescence time was estimated to be 31,000–36,000 years ago....
Our analysis confirmed that haplogroup X is present in both modern Native American and European populations. For the Native Americans, this haplogroup encompasses ~25% of the Ojibwa, 15% of the Sioux, 11%–13% of the Nuu-Chah-Nulth, 7% of the Navajo, and 5% of the Yakima. Thus, with the exception of the Na-Dene–speaking Navajo, the distribution of this haplogroup among the Native Americans appears to be restricted to northern Amerindian populations....
Recent European genetic admixture cannot explain the presence of haplogroup X in the Amerindians. First, if the occurrence of haplogroup X were the result of female gene flow from Europeans, then other, more common European mtDNA haplogroups should also be present in the northern Native Americans, and they are not. Second, the Native
American and European mtDNAs are very different and are connected only through an ancient common ancestor. Hence, Native American and European haplogroup X mtDNAs diverged long ago. Finally, Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs encompass substantial continent-specific diversity, implying an ancient arrival in America. Thus, haplogroup X represents a fifth founding mtDNA haplogroup for the Native Americans. An ancient arrival of haplogroup X in the Americas could be corroborated by the presence of haplogroup X in pre-Columbian human remains...However, in the absence of either more-complete CR sequence or RFLP data, it is not possible to definitively assign these pre-Columbian mt DNAs to haplogroup X....demonstrating the presence of haplogroup X in the Americas prior to European introgression. Since haplogroup X appears to be a pre-Columbian, founding Native American mtDNA lineage, the question remains: Where did this haplogroup originate? Thus far, haplogroup X has not been detected in numerous Asian/Siberian populations... Thus, to date, haplogroup X mtDNAs have not been unambiguously identified in Asians.... the Navajo have acquired haplogroup X through admixture with northern Amerindian populations. This could have occurred during or after the recent migration (1,000 years ago)...
The time of entry of haplogroup X into the Americas, calculated from both RFLP and CRHVS-I sequence data and on the assumption that there is a single founder root for Native American mt DNAs, yielded a coalescence age, in the New World, of 23,000–36,000 years ago. However, it is possible that there was more than one founder motif.... A coalescence time of 23,000–36,000 years ago would suggest that haplogroup X arrived in the Americas during the initial major Amerindian migration 20,000–30,000 years ago. A coalescence time of 12,000–17,000 years ago could be interpreted as a rapid reexpansion of haplogroup X mtDNAs near the time of the Na-Dene expansion, or, alternatively, as an independent and late arrival of haplogroup X mtDNAs into the Americas.
Given the apparent absence of haplogroup X in modern eastern and northern Asia, it is difficult to define a source population for haplogroup X in the Americas. The similarity between the western Asian/European and Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs appears to indicate a western Asia origin of this haplogroup. Indeed, on the basis of limited RFLP data, the coalescence time for haplogroup X in Caucasians is estimated to be 30,000–40,000 years ago, compatible with both a Near Eastern origin of haplogroup X and its subsequent spread, probably at a low frequency, into Europe and Asia. If this is the case, then it is possible that this mtDNA was brought to Beringia/America by the eastward migration of an ancestral Caucasian population, of which no trace has so far been found in the mtDNA gene pool of modern Siberian/eastern Asian populations.
In conclusion, we have described the occurrence, variation within, and population distribution of haplogroup X mtDNAs in Native Americans. This haplogroup appears, on the basis of archaeological data, to be pre-Columbian and may have arrived in the Americas either 12,000–17,000 years ago or 23,000–36,000 years ago. Haplogroup X is remarkable in that it has not been found in Asians, including Siberians, suggesting that it may have come to the Americas via a Eurasian migration. However, a more extensive survey of Asian mtDNAs, as well as additional characterization of European and Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs, will be necessary to fully deduce the origin of haplogroup X in North America.
Q AND R HG's ARE ANCIENT BROTHER HAPLOGROUPS FROM GREAT FATHER P. Q AND R DEVELOPED 40KYA. THEY DID NOT MIGRATE NORTHWARD FROM AFRICA. THEY MIGRATED FROM THE NORTH TO SOUTH SIBERIA FROM WEST EURASIA. Q1a3a-M3 IS NATIVE AMERIND SPECIFIC WHO ENTERED AND DEVELOPED IN NORTH AMERICA 13.8+/-3.9KYA. THEY WERE A PART OF THE WORLDWIDE NEOLITHIC/POST GLACIAL EXPANSION. R1b-M73 FOUND IN ALL TURKIC SPEAKING PEOPLE BUT, R2-M124 IS FOUND ONLY IN MONGOL SPEAKING PEOPLE. R1b1b1-M73 IS ANCIENT AT 40,000 YEARS OLD...
Ancient links between Siberians and Native Americans revealed by subtyping the Y chromosome haplogroup Q1a
121 M207- and M242-derived samples from 885 males of 16 .ethnic groups of Siberia and East Asia. As a result, the following Y chromosome haplogroups were revealed: R1b1b1-M73 (2.0%), R1b1b2-M269 (0.7%), R2-M124 (1.1%), Q1a*-MEH2 (0.5%), Q1a2-M25 (0.1%), Q1a3*-M346 (9.2%) and Q1a3a-M3 (0.2%). Despite the low coalescence age of haplogroup Q1a3*-M346, which is estimated in South Siberia as about 4.5±1.5 thousand years ago (Ka), divergence time between these Q1a3*-M346 haplotypes and Amerindian-specific haplogroup Q1a3a-M3 is equal to 13.8±3.9 KYA, pointing to a relatively recent entry date to America....
INTRODUCTION Recent studies of genome-wide autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) showed that Siberian populations are characterized by significant amount of West Eurasian admixture. This is consistent with results of mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA), and Y chromosome studies showing that North-Asian populations have a closer genetic relationship with Central Asian and West-Eurasian populations. The presence of West-Eurasian genetic components in North and East Asia can be interpreted either as the evidence of route ancient migration via the northern or simply as the reflection of recent population admixture. However, results of mtDNA analysis in northern Eurasian populations do not support a northern Asian migration route out of Africa, but they do predict that there were at least two migrations into South Siberia, one from East Asia and one from West Eurasia. West Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups found in gene pools of South Siberians (for example, N1e, I4, J1b2, N1a, U4 and X2e) demonstrate an obvious link between populations of Siberia and those of West Asia, the Caucasus and East Europe. It is noteworthy that complete mtDNA genome-based coalescence times for haplogroups X2e, J1b2 and N1a suggest their postglacial flow (about 12–15Ka) from the west.
Similarly, evidence of geographic distribution and Y chromosome short tandem repeat (Y-STR) diversity indicates that haplogroup Q1a3*-M346 (sister haplogroup of the Native American-specific haplogroup Q1a3a-M3), R1b-M343 and R1a1*-M17 probably migrated into North Asia and northern East Asia from the west. The age estimation of Y-STR variation within these Y chromosome haplogroups suggests the existence of such migrations in postglacial time (about 15–18Ka). In addition, ancient DNA studies demonstrate that West Eurasian admixture was present in South Siberia and Northwest China as early as the early Bronze Age, thus indicating that West Eurasian genetic input occurred earlier than the proposed relatively recent population admixture.
It is assumed that haplogroup P-92R7 consisting of subclades Q-M242 and R-M207 originated in Central Asia about 40Ka. Haplogroup Q-M242 is present in Eurasia, but it is most frequent in North Asia. It was suggested also that Q-M242 carriers migrated through the Altai/Baikal region of Siberia into the Americas. Haplogroup R-M207 consisting of two currently defined subclades R1-M173 and R2-M124 occurs at high frequencies in some regions of Eurasia. Haplogroup R1-M173 is estimated to have arisen during the height of the Last Glacial Maximum, most likely in Southwest Asia. This haplogroup includes two main subclades, R1a-M420 and R1b-M343, with distinctive Eurasian distribution. R1a-M420 is most frequently observed in East Europe, Altai region of Siberia and Southwest Asia.
R1b-M343 originated in West Asia consists of two most frequent subclades, R1b1b1-73 and R1b1b2-M269. Haplogroup R1b1b1-M73 is observed mainly in Asia, and haplogroup R1b1b2-M269 is frequent in Europe, especially on the west, but it is present in West Asia as well. Moreover, a recent study by Balaresque et al suggests a West Asian origin of R1b1b2-M269 and its Neolithic expansion. Haplogroup R2-M124 is most often observed in Asia, especially in South and Central Asia. Although the presence of haplogroups R-M207 and Q-M242 in South Siberia and neighboring regions has been reported earlier there has not been detailed examination of their substructure in Siberians, although this might be very important for providing new insights into the early migrations into the Americas. Therefore, in this study, we have performed phylogeographic analysis of subclades within haplogroups R-M207 and Q-M242 in different populations of Siberia and northern East Asia, based on high resolution genotyping of Y chromosomes using both SNPs and STR-based approaches....
Q is frequent in some Siberian populations studied. This haplogroup consists of four subgroups: Q1a*-MEH2, Q1a2-M25, Q1a3*-M346 and Q1a3a-M3. Haplogroup Q1a3*-M346 was found in Turkic-speaking Tuvinians (38%), Todjins (38.5%), Altaians (25.8%), Sojots (7.1%) and Khakassians (6.3%), and only once in Mongolic-speaking Kalmyks (1.1%). Rare haplogroup Q1a2-M25 previously detected mostly in Iranians, Turks, Uygurs, Uzbeks and Han was found also in Kalmyks (1.1%). Amerindian-specific haplogroup Q1a3a-M3 was present at a frequency of 3.2% only in Tungusic-speaking Evens inhabiting the Sea of Okhotsk coast. Four Koryak individuals (10.3%) from the same region belong to paragroup
Q1a* (xQ1a1, Q1a2, Q1a3, Q1a4, Q1a5, Q1a6). They are all characterized by similar Y-STR profiles and probably belong to a certain haplogroup, yet, unidentified by SNP marker.
Typing of Y chromosome marker M173 allowed us to define R1-structure in geographic region under investigation. We reported earlier phylogeographic pattern of haplogroup R1a1-M17 in Siberian populations, indicating that Shors and Teleuts had the highest frequency of this haplogroup (more than 50%), and that R1a1-M17 generally was more frequent in populations from Altai and eastern Sayan region than in the adjacent areas.
Subsequent SNP analysis demonstrates that two R1b haplogroups — R1b1b1-M73 and R1b1b2-M269 — are present in some Siberian populations. R1b1b2-M269 that is frequent in Europe is rarely observed in diverse set of Siberian populations: Evenks (2.4%), Buryats (0.7%), Mongols (4.3%) and Tofalars (6.7%). However, more interesting fact is the presence of haplogroup R1b1b1-M73 in the whole series of Turkic-speaking populations — Shors (13.2%), Teleuts (11.4%), Khakassians (3.2%), Tuvinians (1.9%), Altaians (1.1%), as well as in Mongolic-speaking Kalmyks (2.2%). Quite the contrary, the remaining R-haplogroup, R2-M124, is present only in Mongolic-speaking Buryats (2.7%) and Kalmyks (6.6%). Haplogroup R2-M124 has a predominant distribution in South Asia (in India and Pakistan) but it is also found in China (in Uygurs, Han, Hui) and Central Asia (in Tajiks and Kyrgyz) thus, its presence in some Siberian populations is likely a result of male influence from Central/East Asia....
Coalescence age of South Siberian Q1a3*-M346, based on the average squared difference in the number of tri- and tetranucleotide repeats, is 4.03 about ±1.25Ka, while the age of the Koryak Q1a*-MEH2 appears to be only 1.0+/-1.0Ka....
The coalescence age of R1b1b1-M73 in South Siberia, based on tri- and tetranucleotide repeats, is estimated as about 18.2±10.5Ka. The ages of subclusters A and B are amounted to 4.4±1.5 and 5.6+/-4.0Ka, respectively....
Previous studies have shown that haplogroup R1a1-M17 is present in South Siberia from the Holocene period (11.3±3.2Ka), while the oldest age estimates dating back to Mesolithic times (approximately 18Ka) were obtained for this haplogroup in South India and South Pakistan. Similarly, high estimation of the age has been received for haplogroup R1b1b1-M73 (22.9 ±9.3Ka), based on variation of tri- and tetranucleotide repeats in populations of the Caucasus, South Ural and East Europe. The age of this haplogroup in South Siberia is also high, about 18.2±10.5Ka. However, a much younger age was found for haplogroup Q1a3*-M346 in South Siberia (4.0±1.25Ka). One should note that the age of Q1a3*-M346 calculated from haplotypes detected in populations of China and North Pakistan
appears to be much higher— 17.8±4.1 Ka according to Zhong et al....
Haplogroup R1b1b1-M73 is characterized by the high intra-haplogroup variability and appears to be very ancient, being dated at about 40Ka. ... Coalescence time estimate for this haplogroup in South Siberia corresponds to about 20Ka, although its two phylogenetic STR-clusters (A and B) appear to be young (<4Ka), suggesting that their entrance in South Siberia occurred in relatively recent historical times or that evolution of this
Y chromosome lineages in South Siberia was associated with recent population bottlenecks....
haplogroup Q1a3*-M346, which is dated in South Siberia at 4.5Ka....Q* has been dated to 17.7Ka in South Siberia or either 15.4Ka in Mongolia. According to study by Zegura et al., divergence time estimate for the Altaian and North Asian Q* haplotypes versus the Native American Q1a3a-M3 haplotypes was 17.2±4.6Ka.... As a result, we found that,
despite the low current diversity of haplogroup Q1a3*-M346 in South Siberia, divergence time between Q1a3*-M346 and Q1a3a-M3 is equal to 13.81±3.88Ka, thereby pointing to a relatively recent entry date to America. One should note that similar divergence time was
estimated for the other Amerindian founder haplogroup C3b-P39—13.9±3.2Ka. In addition, complete mtDNA genome studies have shown that all pan-American mtDNA haplogroups reveal entry times of 15–18Ka, which are suggestive of a concomitant post-Last Glacial Maximum arrival from Beringia with early Amerindians. As for the question whether the
Q1a3*-M346 was present in South Siberia in the post-Last Glacial Maximum, we can report that divergence time estimate for South Siberian versus Chinese/North Pakistan Q1a3*-M346 haplotypes is 15.29±5.49Ka, thus supporting the idea for the real presence of Q1a3*-M346 in South Siberia in those times.
As for the presence of Amerindian-specific haplogroup Q1a3a-M3 in Evens, this finding is consistent with previous studies of Northeast Siberian populations. Earlier, haplogroup Q1a3a has been discovered, at a low frequency in Siberian Eskimos, Chukchi and Evens Karafet et al. have hypothesized that this haplogroup may have originated in the New World/eastern Beringia and that its infrequent presence in Northeast Siberian populations can be explained by back-migration from Alaska to Siberia.... favors back-migration hypothesis for the presence of Q1a3a-M3 haplotypes in Northeast Siberia....
ONLY ONE SUBCLADE OF Q MIGRATED TO AMERICA TO BECOME THE SPECIFIC NATIVE AMERIND Q1a3a-M3. THE OTHER Q SUBCLADES MIGRATED IN OTHER DIRECTIONS OVER THE YEARS IN VARIOUS DEGREES MIXING IN WITH VARIOUS ADMIXTURES....
Dispersals of the Siberian Y‑chromosome haplogroup Q in Eurasia
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5846874/
Subclade Q1a1a1-M120 was found specifically in the Han Chinese with a low frequency. Our results suggested that subclade Q1a1a1-M120 had migrated from Mongolia to China during the Neolithic period, and spread over China with the ancestors of Han Chinese. Previous studies showed that Q1a1a1-M120 had migrated from north-western China to the Central Plain as nomads, and merged into the northern Han Chinese farmers at approximately 2.5–3 KYA. Therefore, we supposed that the ancient nomads with Q1a1a1-M120 had migrated to south-eastward from north-western China and were assimilated by the Han Chinese farmers.
Subclade Q1a2a1-L54 was mainly found in Yeniseian (Ket) and Samoyedic (Enets and Selkup) speakers (ESM_1). Genetic evidence showed that Yeniseian and Samoyedic speakers had genetic affinities to northern Altaians with high frequencies of haplogroup Q-M242 (xL54), while southern Altaians had many L54 samples and showed similarities with Turkic-speaking populations....In view of the time estimates, we postulated that
Q1a2a1-L54 had migrated from the southern Altai region and was assimilated into Yeniseian- and Samoyedic-speaking populations during a recent historical period.
Both Q1a1b-M25 and Q1a2-M346 subclades were frequent in Turkic-speaking populations, and their time estimates were at approximately 3-5 KYA. According to Fig. 3 and Table 1, Q1a1b-M25 had spread from Central Asia to Western Asia and to Hungary in Central Europe (ESM_1); Q1a2-M346 had migrated from Southern Siberia to most parts of Eurasia and the Comoros Islands of Africa. The results coincided with Turkic nomadic migrations from Southern Siberia and Mongolia to Central and Western Asia, Caucasus, and Eastern Europe. Therefore, we suggested that Q1a1b-M25 and Q1a2-M346 probably migrated with Turkic nomads from Southern Siberia to most parts of Eurasia. A few Q1a1b-M25 and Q1a2-M346 samples in Mongolic-speaking populations probably indicated that Turkic nomads had overlapped with Mongolic-speaking populations when they lived in the present Mongolian territory. An ancient DNA study showed that the Hungarians probably originated from Central Asia–Southern Siberia at approximately 4 KYA, which was consistent with our time estimates. Therefore, we proposed that Q1a1b-M25 and Q1a2-M346 had migrated from Central Asia–Southern Siberia to Central Europe at least 4 KYA. Three individuals of Africa (the Comoros Islands) that belonged to Q1a2-M346 reaffirmed that Middle Eastern populations had a genetic influence on the Comoros Islands.
Subclades Q1a2a1a2-L804 and Q1a2b2-F1161 were the downstream of Q1a2-M346, both of which mainly distributed in Western and Northern Europe. Q1a2a1a2-L804 arrived in Western and Northern Europe as early as 5-7 KYA. Ancient DNA studies showed that first European farmers migrated from Central Europe to Western and Northern Europe between 5 and 7.5 KYA. Therefore, we supposed that Q1a2a1a2-L804 had spread from Central Europe to Western and Northern Europe with European early Neolithic farmers. The time estimate for Q1a2b2-F1161 was one thousand years later than its upstream clade Q1a2-M346, which seemed to be unrelated to the Neolithic transition of Europe. Since Q1a2-M346 spread across Europe at that time, it probably brought Q1a2b2-F1161 to Western and Northern Europe, and even to Western and Southern Asia.
Subclades Q1b1a-M378 and Q1b1a1-L245 were correlated with the Jewish people, both of which probably represented that some of the Jewish Diaspora populations had expanded into Europe within historical times. As seen in Fig. 3, the central clusters of Q1b1a-M378 and Q1b1a1-L245 mainly consisted of samples from Central and Eastern Europe. The results reaffirmed that some Jewish Diaspora populations had migrated from Central and
Eastern Europe, and finally settled in other parts of Europe. Previous Y-chromosome studies showed that haplogroups J, R and Q3a1 had certain proportions in Jewish populations and spread over Europe. Subclades Q1b1a-M378 and Q1b1a1-L245 probably spread over Europe with haplogroups J, R and Q3a1. The Q1b1a-M378 samples from Southern Asia might represent the descendants of Ashkenazi Jewish populations because its upstream haplogroup Q-P36 was regarded as minor Ashkenazi Jewish founding lineages in Southern Asia.
Our study of the human Y-chromosome haplogroup Q in Eurasia revealed a clear pattern of its migration routes during the past 10,000 years, especially in Han Chinese, Yeniseian-, Samoyedic-, Turkic- speaking and Jewish populations. It is clear that a higher resolution database will be helpful to draw more conclusions on the origins, migrations, and ethno-linguistic affiliations of haplogroup Q.
MY THOUGHTS:
WHAT IS EVIDENT IS R1 LINEAGE HAS HAD A PRESENCE IN THE PALEOLITHIC FROM ATLANTIC WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA. THIS R1 LINEAGE HAS MOVED AROUND WITHIN THIS GEOGRAPHICAL AREA SINCE AT LEAST PALEOLITHIC. AS THEY MOVE AROUND THEIR ADMIXTURES CAUSE GENETIC MUTATIONS TO FORM NEW SUBCLADES. THEN THESE NEW SUBCLADES ALSO MOVE AROUND WITHIN ITS AREA WHICH CREATE MORE SUBCLADES THROUGHOUT THE AGES. NEOLITHIC R1b PEOPLES MIX WITH PALEOLITHIC R1 AND/OR R1b, AND MESOLITHIC WITH NEO AND PALEO, THEN BRONZE AGE R1b MIXES WITH R1 AND R1b, AND DOWN TO PRESENT TIMES. SAME R1 LINEAGE BUT DIFFERENT AGES OF R1b. SOME R1 TRIBES WERE MORE ISOLATED AND DIDN'T MIX MAINTAINING THEIR SUBCLADE HIERARCHY.
THUS THE R1b HG IS DOMINATE IN WEST EUROPE BECAUSE R1 HAS HAD A PRESENCE IN EUROPE AND EURASIA SINCE PALEOLITHIC TIMES AND SINCE THEN R1 AND R1b TRIBES FROM THEIR ENTIRE RANGE OF IBERIA TO SIBERIA HAVE SINCE MIGRATED WESTWARD BRINGING IN MORE R1b SUBCLADES WHICH HAVE CREATED EVEN MORE R1b SUBCLADES IN WEST EUROPE.
THESE SUBCLADES THEN CAN BE USED TO TRACE THE TIME OF THEIR MOVEMENTS. BUT, ALTHOUGH THE SUBCLADE MAY BE TIMED TO THE PALEO, NEO, MESO, ETC. WITHIN THE SUBCLADES WILL CONTAIN OLDER SUBCLADES IN THEIR ADMIXTURE IN DIFFERENT DEGREES UNLESS THE PREVIOUS INHABITANTS WERE WIPED OUT ENTIRELY BY CERTAIN EVENTS.
OTHER ARTICLES EXPLAIN THIS ADMIXTURE OF R1b WITHIN ITSELF. SOME CLAIM NORTHWEST-EUROPEANS CONTAIN THE MOST PALEOLITHIC R1b DECREASING TOWARDS THE NEAR EAST WHICH IS MOSTLY ALL NEOLITHIC PEOPLES OF DIFFERENT HAPLOGROUPS.
FOR EXAMPLE: R-L21 WOULD BE THE FOUNDER OF THE IRISH / BRIT ISLES IN ITS PUREST EARLIEST FORM. AND ITS SUBCLADES WOULD BE THE MUTATED ADMIXED DESCENDANTS OF THE FOUNDER GROUP. BUT, R-L21 IS A DESCENDANT OF THE WEST EUROPEAN ATLANTIC P312, AND DESCEND ON DOWN TO THE PALEOLITHIC R1 LINEAGE.
R1 HAD AT LEAST TWO MAIN ICE AGE REFUGIAS, ONE IN IBERIA SW EUROPE AND ONE IN THE YAMNA AREA OF URAL CARPATHIAN AREA. IF R-M269 IS FROM THE YAMNA REFUGIA THEY WOULD HAVE MET UP WITH THEIR IBERIAN REFUGIA WHICH WERE PROBABLY WELL CONNECTED EVEN DURING THE PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC AND TIL TODAY. SAME R1 LINEAGE BUT THE NEOLITHIC CREATED AN EXPLOSION OF R1b SUBCLADES DUE TO THE MASSIVE INFLUX OF NEOLITHIC PEOPLES ESPECIALLY FOREIGN HAPLOGROUPS FROM THE NEAR EAST WHO INVADED R1 IBERIA TO SIBERIA TERRITORY...
Haplogroup R-M269
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269
Possible time of origin 4,500–9,000 BP
Possible place of origin Neolithic Expansion
Ancestor R1b1a1a (R-P297)
Haplogroup R-M269, also known as R1b1a1a2, is a sub-clade of human Y-chromosome haplogroup R1b. It is of particular interest for the genetic history of Western Europe. It is defined by the presence of SNP marker M269.... The R-L23 (R-Z2103) subclade has been found to be prevalent in ancient DNA associated with the Yamna culture.... European R1b is dominated by R-M269. It has been found at generally low frequencies throughout central Eurasia, but with relatively high frequency among the Bashkirs of the Perm region (84.0%) and Baymaksky District (81.0%)....
The frequency is about 92% in Wales, 82% in Ireland, 70% in Scotland, 68% in Spain, 60% in France (76% in Normandy), about 60% in Portugal, 45% in Eastern England, 50% in Germany, 50% in the Netherlands, 42% in Iceland, 43% in Denmark, and 39% in Italy. It is as high as 95% in parts of Ireland. It is also found in some areas of North Africa, where its frequency peaks at 10% in some parts of Algeria. M269 has likewise been observed among 8% of the Herero in Namibia. The R-M269 subclade has been found in ancient Guanche (Bimbapes) fossils excavated in Punta Azul, El Hierro, Canary Islands, which are dated to the 10th century (~44%). In western Asia, R-M269 has been reported in 29.2% of Assyrian males from Iran. Haplogroup R1b1 and its subclades in Asia.[20] M269* (xL23) is found at highest frequency in the central Balkans notably Kosovo with 7.9%, North Macedonia 5.1% and Serbia 4.4%. Kosovo is notable in having a high percentage of descendant L23* or L23(xM412) at 11.4% unlike most other areas with significant percentages of M269* and L23* except for Poland with 2.4% and 9.5% and the Bashkirs of southeast Bashkortostan with 2.4% and 32.2% respectively. Notably this Bashkir population also has a high percentage of M269 sister branch M73 at 23.4%. Five individuals out of 110 tested in the Ararat Valley, Armenia belonged to R1b1a2* and 36 to L23*, with none belonging to known subclades of L23. Trofimova et al. (2015) found a surprising high frequency of R1b-L23 (Z2105/2103) among the peoples of the Idel-Ural. 21 out of 58 (36.2%) of Burzyansky District Bashkirs, 11 out of 52 (21.2%) of Udmurts, 4 out of 50 (8%) of Komi, 4 out of 59 (6.8%) of Mordvins, 2 out of 53 (3.8%) of Besermyan and 1 out of 43 (2.3%) of Chuvash were R1b-L23 (Z2105/2103), the type of R1b found in the recently analyzed Yamna remains of the Samara Oblast and Orenburg Oblast....
Sub-clades:
R-L23* (R1b1a1a2a*) is now most commonly found in Europe, Anatolia, the Caucasus.
R-L51* (R1b1a1a2a1*) is now concentrated in a geographical cluster centred on southern France and northern Italy.
R-L151 also known as R1b1a1a2a1, and its subclades, include most males with R1b in Western Europe.
(R-U106) It appears to represent over 25% of R1b in Europe. In terms of percentage of total population, its epicenter is Friesland, where it makes up 44% of the population. In terms of total population numbers, its epicenter is Central Europe, where it comprises 60% of R1 combined.
R-P312 better known as R-P312 (or R-S116) is one of the most common types of R-M269 in Europe, alongside R-U106. Myres et al. described it as originating in and spreading from the west of the Rhine basin.
R-M153 has been found mostly in Basques and Gascons, among whom it represents a sizeable fraction of the Y-DNA pool, though is also found occasionally among Iberians in general. The first time it was located it was described as H102 and included seven Basques and one Andalusian.
R-M167 is relatively common among Basques (13/117: 11%) and Catalans (7/32: 22%). Other occurrences were found among other French, British, Spaniards, Béarnais, and Germans...found mainly among Basques (19%), in lower frequencies among French (5%), Bavarians (3%), Spaniards (2%), Southern Portuguese (2%)...Further regional studies have located it in significant amounts in Asturias, Cantabria and Galicia, as well as again among Basques. Cases in the Azores have been reported.
R-L165 It is found in England, Scandinavia, and Scotland (in this country it is mostly found in the Northern Isles and Outer Hebrides). It has been suggested, therefore, that it arrived in the British Isles with Vikings.
R-U152 "is most frequent (20–44%) in Switzerland, Italy, France and Western Poland, with additional instances exceeding 15% in some regions of England and Germany."... frequency peaks in Northern and Central Italy and France. Out of a sample of 135 men in Tyrol, Austria, 9 tested positive for U152/S28. Far removed from this apparent core area, Myres et al. also mention a sub-population in north Bashkortostan, where 71% of 70 men tested belong to R-U152. They propose this to be the result of an isolated founder effect....Ancient samples from the central European Bell Beaker culture, Hallstatt culture and Tumulus culture belonged to this subclade.
R-L21 is also known as R-M529 and R-S145...most common in Ireland, Scotland and Wales (25–50% of the whole male population).
R-M222 This subclade within R-L21 is defined by the presence of the marker M222 and is estimated to have arisen between 1400 and 2000 BCE. It is particularly associated with male lines which are Gaelic (Irish or Scottish), but especially north-western Irish. In this case, the relatively high frequency of this specific subclade among the population of certain counties in northwestern Ireland may be due to positive social selection, as it is suggested to have been the Y-chromosome haplogroup of the Uí Néill dynastic kindred of ancient Ireland, often referred to as that of the prominent Dark Age monarch Niall of the Nine Hostages. However, it is not restricted to the Uí Néill as it is associated with the closely related Connachta dynasties, the Uí Briúin and Uí Fiachrach. M222 is also found as a substantial proportion of the population of Scotland which may indicate substantial settlement from northern Ireland or at least links to it. Those areas settled by large numbers of Irish and Scottish emigrants such as North America have a substantial percentage of M222.
R-L159.2 This subclade within R-L21 is defined by the presence of the marker L159 and is known as L159.2 because of a parallel mutation that exists inside haplogroup I2a1 (L159.1). L159.2 appears to be associated with the Kings of Leinster and Diarmait Mac Murchada; Irish Gaels belonging to the Laigin. It can be found in the coastal areas of the Irish Sea including the Isle of Man and the Hebrides, as well as Norway, western and southern Scotland, northern and southern England, northwest France, and northern Denmark.
R-L193 This subclade within R-L21 is defined by the presence of the marker L193. Many surnames with this marker are associated geographically with the western "Border Region" of Scotland. A few other surnames have a Highland association. R-L193 is a relatively young subclade likely born within the last 2000 years.
R-L226 This subclade within R-L21 is defined by the presence of the marker L226, also known as S168. Commonly referred to as Irish Type III, it is concentrated in central western Ireland and associated with the Dál gCais kindred.
R-DF21 This subclade within R-L21 is defined by the presence of the marker DF21 aka S192. It makes up about 10% of all L21 men and is c.3000 years old.
R-L371 This subclade within R-L21 is defined by the presence of the marker L371, referred to as the Welsh modal and associated with ancient Welsh Kings and Princes.
WAMPANOAGS ARE NOT WAMPANOAGS. INSTEAD THEY ARE A 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY BASTARDIZED BLACK NIGGER WITH SOME WHITE NIGGER ADMIXED WITH NO WAMPANOAG BLOOD. THEY ARE A REPLACED PEOPLE WITH NOTHING ABOUT THEM BEING WAMPANOAG OTHER THAN THEIR NAME, AND THEIR LEGACY OF BEING BLACK NIGGER LOVER SLAVES.
MANY USA INDIAN TRIBES TODAY ARE NOT INDIAN. TODAYS WAMPANOAG ARE NOT INDIGENOUS WAMPANOAG NATIVE INDIANS. ALL THE INDIGENOUS WAMPANOAGS HAVE BEEN GENOCIDED BY RACIAL MIXING, AND TODAY WAMPANOAGS ARE A REPLACED BASTARD NIGGER MADE UP OF USA SLAVES SINCE THE 17TH CENTURY. THEY ARE MOSTLY SUBSAHARAN NIGGER WITH A MINORITY OF WHITE SLAVES AND MASTERS. IN FACT THE ONLY NATIVE BLOOD IS FROM A MALE CHEROKEE WHICH IS NON-NATIVE TO NEW ENGLAND.
THIS RAISES SOME QUESTIONS SUCH AS ARE THE TREATIES MADE STILL VALID IF THE ORIGINATING TRIBAL RACE IS EXTINCT? SHOULD TRIBAL PAYMENTS BE MADE TO A FOREIGN RACE WHO ARE NOT EVEN THE RACE OF THE TRIBE WHO MADE THE TREATY?
MANY PAST CIVILIZATIONS HAVE SEEN REPLACEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL FOUNDER RACE WITH FOREIGN RACES CONFUSING THE TRUE IDENTITY OF THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE...
Genetic Heritage and Native Identity of the Seaconke Wampanoag Tribe of Massachusetts
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20229500/
Archeological evidence suggests that the first Native Americans appeared in what is now New England between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago when the glacial ice sheets had started retreating....Our results indicate that the majority of their mtDNA haplotypes belongs to West Eurasian and African lineages, thus reflecting the extent of their contacts and interactions with people of European and African descent. On the paternal side, Y-chromosome analysis identified a range of Native American, West Eurasian, and African haplogroups in the population, and also surprisingly revealed the presence of a paternal lineage that appears at its highest frequencies in New Guinea and Melanesia....King Philip’s War, in particular, resulted in a dramatic reduction in the Wampanoag population—from over 5,000 to less than 400 individuals...By the early 1700s, what had once been a viable thriving culture began its descent into obscurity. During this same period, European powers introduced African slave labor into New World society...
Over time, the few Wampanoag people who survived began marrying people of African descent. In general, the reduction of Indian males through war, infectious diseases, and slavery led to significant intermarriage between native women and African males in the 18th century and afterward...By the 18th century, a new culture that embraced English, Wampanoag, and African elements was born out of necessity, resulting in the hybridized successive generations we see today....
mt DNA: The SNP analysis involved screening the samples for markers (C3594T, A8701G, T9540C, T10873C, C12705T, and G14783A) that identified the basal portions of the mtDNA phylogeny (L, M, N, and R)....
Y chromosome (NRY): The markers analyzed include LLY22g, M2, M3, M9, M12, M19, M20, M33, M35, M45, M69, M70, M75, M81, M89, M96, M102, M107, M123, M124, M130, M148, M168, M170, M172, M173, M174, M191, M194, M199, M201, M207, M230, M242, M253, M267, M285, M304, M343, M346, M410, P15, P25, P37.2, P215, P297, and PN2...
15 distinct mtDNA haplotypes in the 28 Seaconke Wampanoag participants. These haplotypes belonged to African and West Eurasian lineages, with African haplogroups encompassing the majority of their mtDNAs... Among the haplotypes belonging to African maternal lineages, haplogroups L0, L1, L2, and L3 were represented....Overall, mtDNAs belonging to sub-Saharan African mtDNA haplogroup L are prominent in African–American populations, comprising up to 86% of the mtDNAs in them... A minority of the Seaconke Wampanoag individuals mt DNAs belonging to West Eurasian haplogroups H and I. Most of them belonged to haplogroup H, the most common maternal lineage in European populations...
Y DNA: The analysis of NRY SNPs and STRs revealed 8 distinct haplogroups and 13 haplotypes in the 17 male participants. Similar to the mtDNA data, the paternal gene pool consisted of predominantly African and West Eurasian lineages. However, we also detected a small number of Native American haplotypes that belonged to haplogroup Q1a3a, which is widespread among Amerindian populations. A detailed evaluation of tribal genealogical data revealed that the Q1a3a haplotype (no. 9) had likely been introduced through intermarriage with an individual having Cherokee ancestry several generations ago. Further comparison of the STR profile of this Q1a3a haplotype with those from other North American Indian populations confirmed the existence of closely related haplotypes in the Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole populations from the US Southeast. Surprisingly, one of the NRY Seaconke haplotypes (no.8) that represented a primary male ancestor of the tribe possessed the M230 marker, which indicated that it belonged to haplogroup S. Haplotypes from this paternal lineage are commonly observed in different populations from Papua New Guinea and Melanesia...in light of the new information about his Y-chromosome haplotype, this man clearly appears to have had Melanesian paternal ancestry. Several individuals had Y-chromosomes that belonged to African haplogroup E1b1a, while another’s belonged to E1a. These haplogroups are among the most common paternal lineages seen in African populations with the highest frequencies of E1b1a being found in Bantu-speaking groups.... The remaining NRY haplotypes belonged to West Eurasian lineages. Haplogroups E1b1b1, G2a, and J2a were represented by single haplotypes, and R1b1b2 was detected in four paternally unrelated tribal members, whose haplotypes differed by their STR profile. R1b1b2 (formerly R1b3) is delineated by the presence of M269 marker, and is a common lineage in Western Europe although it appears at its highest frequencies in the Iberian Peninsula and Ireland. By contrast, haplogroup G occurs frequently in the Caucasus, Turkey, and Near East, while J2 is ubiquitous in the Near East and Mediterranean region...
Genetic analysis of members of the Seaconke Wampanoag Tribe, who claim ancestry from Indian populations that traditionally inhabited New England, reveals a complex mixture of maternal and paternal lineages of Native American, Melanesian, African, and European derivation. The high frequency of nonnative haplotypes in this population, along with the paucity of Native American haplotypes, reveals the substantial changes in the
genetic composition of the Seaconke Wampanoag Tribe in post-contact American history. This pattern has also been observed in other Native American tribes of North America. While our study did not find any maternal Native American lineages in the Seaconke Wampanoag tribe, we did detect a Q1a3a paternal haplotype in this group. How closely this Q1a3a haplotype resembles those originally present in Wampanoag groups or other Algonquian populations is not entirely clear, as the individual possessing this haplotype had male descendants from a Cherokee community to the south. Both cultural and linguistic evidence indicate that the Cherokee recently migrated to southern Appalachia from the lower Great Lakes region, where Algonquian populations reside... In any case, the shift in the genetic composition of Indian tribes from the northeastern US may reflect both the demographic impact of European colonization and historical admixture involving marriage with persons from nonnative communities, resulting in the replacement of Native American mtDNA and NRY lineages with nonnative ones... Overall, the observed pattern of genetic diversity in the Seaconke Wampanoag tribe indicates that most of its NRY haplotypes and all of its mitochondrial haplotypes are nonindigenous in origin.... Together, these sources of information have allowed us to trace the familial connections of the Seaconke Wampanoag community back to the early 18th century....
King Philip's War: The Most Important American War You've Never Heard Of
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNXDplgft_g
THE SAME ANCIENT NORTH EURASIAN (ANE) FOUND IN EURASIANS AND EUROPEANS ARE THE SAME ANE FOUND IN NATIVE AMERICANS. SOME OF THE ANE PEOPLE ADMIXED WITH NORTH EAST ASIANS (NEA) WHEN COMING TO AMERICA OVER THE BERING STRAIT. THIS ANE PEOPLE WERE OF THE BROTHERS R AND Q CLADES OF YDNA HG'S. R1b IS DOMINATE TODAY NATIVE WEST EUROPE, R1a DOMINATE NATIVE EAST EUROPE, AND Q1a IS DOMINATE NATIVE AMERICAN....
Found! The Deepest Link Between Siberians and the First Americans
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/first-americans-0013740
Using human population genetics, ancient pathogen genomics, and isotope analysis, a team of researchers assessed the population history of the Lake Baikal region, finding the deepest connection to date between the Upper Paleolithic Siberians and the first Americans....Modern humans have lived near Lake Baikal since the Upper Paleolithic , and have left behind a rich archaeological record. Ancient genomes from the region have revealed multiple genetic turnovers and admixture events, indicating that the transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age was facilitated by human mobility and complex cultural interactions. The nature and timing of these interactions, however, remains largely unknown. ...19 newly sequenced ancient human genomes from the region of Lake Baikal , including one of the oldest reported from that region....
Past studies have indicated a connection between Siberian and American populations, but a 14,000-year-old individual analyzed in this study is the oldest to carry the mixed ancestry present in Native Americans....This individual from southern Siberia, along with a younger Mesolithic one from northeastern Siberia, shares the same genetic mixture of Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) and Northeast Asian (NEA) ancestry found in Native Americans, and suggests that the ancestry which later gave rise to the first Americans in North- and South America was much more widely distributed than previously assumed. Evidence suggests that this population experienced frequent genetic contacts with NEA populations, resulting in varying admixture proportions across time and space....
In addition to this transcontinental connection, the study presents connectivity within Eurasia...The presence of Eastern European steppe-related ancestry is evidence of contact between southern Siberian and western Eurasian steppe populations in the preamble to the Early Bronze Age, an era characterized by increasing social and technological complexity....the strains of Y. pestis the pair carried is most closely related to a contemporaneous strain identified in an individual from the Baltic region of northeastern Europe, further supporting the high mobility of those Bronze age pathogens and likely also people.
U mt DNA AND HER SUBCLADES ARE AMONG THE FOUNDERS OF EUROPE AND SW ASIA. HER AND HER SUBCLADES WERE THE FIRST FEMALES INTO EUROPE, AND NORTH AFRICA IN THE PALEOLITHIC. MOST U SUBCLADES ARE 30KY TO 60KY OLD EXCEPT U7 IS THE BABY AT 16KY TO 19KY OLD. U7 ORIGNATES IN NEAR EAST OR SOUTH ASIA...
Origin and spread of human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U7
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep46044
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U is among the initial maternal founders in southwest Asia and Europe and one that best indicates matrilineal genetic continuity between late Pleistocene hunter gatherer groups and present-day populations of Europe. While most haplogroup U subclades are older than 30 thousand years, the comparatively recent coalescence time of the extant variation of haplogroup U7 (~16–19 thousand years ago) suggests that its current distribution is the consequence of more recent dispersal events, despite its wide geographical range across Europe, the Near East and South Asia. Here we report 267 new U7 mitogenomes that – analysed alongside 100 published ones – enable us to discern at least two distinct temporal phases of dispersal, both of which most likely emanated from the Near East. The earlier one began prior to the Holocene (~11.5 thousand years ago) towards South Asia, while the later dispersal took place more recently towards Mediterranean Europe during the Neolithic (~8 thousand years ago). These findings imply that the carriers of haplogroup U7 spread to South Asia and Europe before the suggested Bronze Age expansion of Indo-European languages from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe region....
major population turnovers in Europe during the Holocene and the late Pleistocene...
Haplogroup (hg) U – a sub-branch of hg R – shows a wide distribution in both regions. Its Upper Palaeolithic presence in Europe was initially recognized on the basis of modern-day population data, and confirmed by aDNA studies, which revealed that various subclades of hg U encompassed the vast majority of European mitogenomes during the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic, and that most of the other (non-U) mtDNA lineages appeared only later in the Holocene...
hgs U1 and U3 are largely restricted to the Near East, U4 and U5 to Europe, U6 to the circum-Mediterranean region, with a frequency peak in North Africa, while U8 is more prevalent in the Near East and Europe, and U9 is rare with only sporadic occurrences in Arabia, Ethiopia and India. Hg U2 harbours frequency and diversity peaks in South Asia, whereas its subclades U2d and U2e are confined to the Near East and Europe...
hg U7 are rather obscure. This haplogroup is characterized by generally low population frequencies and limited sequence diversity, despite a geographic distribution ranging from Europe to India. Recently, it has been detected in skeletal remains from Southwest Iran dated ~six thousand years ago (kya) as well as in remains from the Tarim Basin in Northwest China (3.5–4.0 kya)....
Consistent with previous studies, we found that three major branches, U7a–c, capture most (96%) of the U7 mitogenomes. Besides these three previously known branches, we identified three additional clades, hereby designated as U7d, U7e, and U7f. These were exclusively seen in Iran and the Caucasus. Finally, two mitogenomes – also from Iran and the Caucasus – did not cluster with any of hgs U7a–f and remained as unlabelled single lineages.
In agreement with previous observations, U7c appears to be restricted to South Asia. In contrast, U7a is the dominant branch of U7 throughout the Near East and South Asia with subclades specific to Central Asia (U7a12–15), Mediterranean and Southeast Europe (U7a17 and U7a19; U7b exhibits a higher frequency than U7a in Europe with elevated levels of diversity in the Mediterranean and southeastern regions. It is distributed also in the Near East, South and Central Asia. We estimated a coalescence time for hg U7 at ~15.6–18.6 kya... U7 is the youngest major clade within the macro-hg U and the only one with the most recent common ancestor after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), presumably resulting from a severe glacial bottleneck. All other hg U subclades (U1, U2, U3, U4' 9, U5, U6, and U8) display considerably older ages (~30–43 kya)...
U7b (the predominantly European subclade of hg U7) occurs much later, ~8–5 kya... U7a3 is both the oldest (~19 kya)...U7a1, U7a2 and U7a10 are older than 12 kya....
Yamnaya herders of the Steppe so far analysed show no traces of U7, and U7 is rarely found in this region today... frequency and distribution of U7b lineages indicate an origin of this clade in the Near East, whilst for U7a these statistics cannot differentiate between South Asia and the Near East (including the Caucasus) as a possible homeland. Within the Near East hg U7 is most frequent and diverse in Iran, whilst in South Asia its frequency and diversity peaks are in the Indus Valley region...
recent aDNA studies have revealed a significant shared ancestry between Neolithic populations from the Zagros Mountains in Iran and contemporary populations from South Asia, suggesting eastward migration of people from that region to South Asia already at least in the Neolithic time frame...
In conclusion, the Near East is the most likely ancestral homeland of U7. Our analyses reveal two temporally and geographically distinct signals of U7 expansion that disseminated from this region. The first signal dates shortly after the LGM and this dispersal is responsible for the spread of U7 towards South and Central Asia prior to the Holocene, while the more recent expansion explains its spread in Mediterranean Europe most probably during the early Holocene. These dispersals of hg U7 towards South Asia and Europe preclude any major association of U7 with the putative Bronze Age expansion of the Indo-European language family to these regions.
ABOUT 23KYA YDNA I HG BREAK OFF OF IJ HG WHO ARE A MIDDLE EAST HG.
THE I HG INVADERS APPEAR FOR THE FIRST TIME IN THE BALKANS. THEY FORM A SPLIT INTO R1b AND R1a COUNTRY OF CENTRAL EUROPE AFTER THE LGM FROM THEIR BALKAN HABITATION UP TO SCANDINAVIA. THEY ALSO SPREAD OUT SOMEWHAT WITH SOME I1a REACHING IBERIA AROUND EARLY HOLOCENE POST LGM. AS THE IBERIAN REFUGE EXPANDS WITH NATIVE FIRST PEOPLE EUROPEANS OF R1b/U_ HG, ALONG WITH THE NEOLITHIC PEOPLES WHO HAD MIXED IN, I1a TRAVELS TO SCANDINAVIA FROM IBERIA ALONG WITH SOME SAAMI U5 FEMALES. I1b REMAINS MOSTLY IN ITS BALKAN REFUGIA. I1c TRAVEL TO NW EUROPE FROM IBERIA WHO WERE SAME AS THE I1a PEOPLE. ALTHOUGH I HG AND HIS SUBCLADES IS AN INDIGENOUS EUROPEAN GROUP THEY ARE ONLY SO BECAUSE THEY DIVERGED FROM THEIR IJ MIDDLE EAST ANCESTORS IN THE BALKANS WHERE THEY REMAINED UNTIL AFTER THE LGM NOT EXPANDING UNTIL ABOUT 10 TO 11KYA IN THE EARLY HOLOCENE FORMING A NOTICEABLE BELT THRU CENTRAL EUROPE FROM THE BALKANS TO SCANDINAVIA. I HG ARE NOT SAAMI. THE ORIGINAL SAAMI MALE WAS R1b. THE I HG HAD ONLY MIXED IN WITH THE PALEO NATIVE EUROPEANS AS THEY WERE EXPANDING OUT OF THEIR IBERIAN ICE AGE REFUGIA....
Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup I Reveals Distinct Domains of Prehistoric Gene Flow in Europe
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707620023
Subclade I1a accounts for most of Hg I in Scandinavia, with a rapidly decreasing frequency toward both the East European Plain and the Atlantic fringe, but microsatellite diversity reveals that France could be the source region of the early spread of both I1a and the less common I1c. Also, I1b*, which extends from the eastern Adriatic to eastern Europe and declines noticeably toward the southern Balkans and abruptly toward the periphery of northern Italy, probably diffused after the Last Glacial Maximum from a homeland in eastern Europe or the Balkans. In contrast, I1b2 most likely arose in southern France/Iberia....
Haplogroup (Hg) I-M170 is a component of the European Y-chromosome gene pool, accounting, on average, for 18% of the total paternal lineages. Its virtual absence elsewhere, including the Near East, suggests that it arose in Europe, likely before the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Previous studies revealed that Hg I reached a frequency of ~40%–50% in two distinct regions—in Nordic populations of Scandinavia and, in southern Europe, around the Dinaric Alps—each showing different background STR modal haplotypes. In addition, subclade I-M26 reaches a very high frequency in Sardinia, particularly in the “archaic area”...
Hg I accounts for more than one-third of paternal lineages in two distinct regions of Europe: among Scandinavian populations and in the northwestern Balkans. Relatively high frequencies are also characteristic of some French regions, like Low Normandy and southern France.... M253 (I1a), P37 (I1b), and M223 (I1c) markers, account for 95% of the Hg I Y chromosomes, and the remaining subhaplogroups belong to paragroup I*. Subhaplogroup I1a is mostly found in northern Europe, with its highest frequencies in Scandinavian populations, where it accounts for 88%–100%...
Although Hg I occurs in the Ukraine at a higher incidence (22%) than in western Europe (11% in France), the virtual absence in Scandinavia of the most represented eastern European I1b* subclade, together with the higher I1a microsatellite diversity background, point to western Europe as the source of the Scandinavian I1a chromosomes...
subhaplogroup I1b*, which is the most frequent clade in eastern Europe and the Balkans. It reaches its highest incidences in Croatia (31%) and Bosnia (40%), encompassing almost 80%–90% of I. In western Europe, its subclade I1b2 (M26) is found at a very low frequency... similar to I1a, I1b* also may have expanded from a glacial refuge area. However, this area was most likely located in eastern Europe or the Balkans.
In central and eastern Europe, subhaplogroups I1a and I1b show overlapping frequency gradients, although with opposite post-LGM spreading. The divergent distributions of I1b2 and I1b* suggest that their separation occurred before the LGM and that the M26 mutation arose in a I1b Y chromosome from western Europe, most likely in a population in Iberia/southern France. The exceptionally high incidence of I1b2 in the archaic zone of Sardinia can be explained by the presence of I1b2 chromosomes among the first humans who colonized the island, ~9,000 years ago, followed by isolation and genetic drift. The extremely low frequency of I1b2 in the Scandinavian Peninsula, where the “western European” I1a Y chromosomes account for the large majority of Hg I, suggests, in addition, that the ancestral western European population(s), characterized by the M26 mutation, probably played a minor role in the colonization of that region. A geographic and genetic subdivision within the broad western refuge area, together with differences in initial sample size, genetic drift, and expansions, could also explain the quite different distribution of Hg I subhaplogroups with respect to the west-east decreasing gradient displayed by R1b, the most frequent subhaplogroup in western Europe.
The high STR diversity of the I1b* lineages in Bosnia supports the view that the P37 SNP might have been present in the Balkan area before the LGM... I1a are highest near Iberia... For I1b*, conversely, the highest h values are in the Balkan populations—among Bosnians (0.93) and Croats (0.85)...
Subhaplogroup I1c covers a wide range in Europe, with the highest frequencies (~5%–12%) in northwestern Europe...subhaplogroups I1a and I1c may be part of a single monophyletic clade whose deep biallelic mutations are still undefined and that they probably share a common history of expansion.... Anatolia is at the easternmost fringe of the spread of haplogroup I, where it is found at higher frequencies in the regions that are geographically closer to Europe. This observation, combined with a low haplotype diversity in Turkey plus exact haplotype matches with Europe, suggests that haplogroup I Y chromosomes in Turkey are due to migrations from Europe...
The age of STR variation for I* was estimated as 24,000 +/- 7,100 years, a value that is very close to the population divergence time (23,000 +/- 7,700 years). This finding supports the earlier suggestion that haplogroup I originated from a pool of European pre-LGM, middle Upper Paleolithic Y chromosomes. Our time estimates hint that its initial spread in Europe may be linked to the diffusion of the largely pan-European Gravettian technology ~28,000–23,000 years ago... Thus, it appears that I1a, I1b, and I1c all diverged from I* in the Late Upper Paleolithic/Mesolithic period, possibly during the recolonization of Europe after the LGM. However, the expansion phase of I1a and I1b, displaying contrasting phylogeographies, seems to have occurred later, around the early Holocene.... the I1a data in Scandinavia are consistent with a post-LGM recolonization of northwestern Europe from Franco-Cantabria, whereas the expansion of I1b* in the east Adriatic–North Pontic continuum probably reflects demographic processes that began in a refuge area located in that region.
Table 3. AGE ESTIMATE OR DIVERGENCE TIME HAPLOGROUP I SUBCLADE
I* I1a I1b* I1b2 I1c
Subclade divergence 15.9 +/- . 5.2 10.7 +/- . 4.8 9.3 +/- . 7.6 14.6 +/- . 3.8
Age of STR variation 24.0 +/- . 7.1 8.8 +/- . 3.2 7.6 +/-. 2.7 8.0 +/-. 4.0 13.2 +/- . 2.7
Population divergence 23.0 +/- . 7.7 6. +/-8 . 1.9 7.1 +/-. 2.5 7.9 +/- . 3.6 11.2 +/- . 2.3
. The times, in thousands of years.
THIS ARTICLE CLAIMS I HG IS THE OLDEST HG IN EUROPE AT ABOUT 25KYA IN THE BALKANS OF SE EUROPE. IF SO IT WAS CONFINED TO SE EUROPE. HOWEVER, R1 LINEAGE IS THE OLDEST FOUNDER OF EUROPE 30KYA TO 40KYA. THE BASE OF THE PALEOLITHIC R1b ANCESTORS FOUND IN BELGIUM DATES TO 30KYA. THE I HG's WERE CONFINED TO THE BALKANS UNTIL MESOLITHIC TIME AS THE ICE AGE RETREATS THEN I HG's EXPAND INTO FORMERLY R1 TERRITORY WHICH EXTENDS FROM WEST EUROPE ATLANTIS TO SIBERIA EAST EURASIA. THE I HG IN GENERAL MIXED WITH PALEOLITHIC R1 SUBCLADES IN R1 ICE AGE REFUGIA'S IN IBERIA AND UKRAINE. IF I HG WAS THE FIRST THEN HOW DID R1b ALREADY HAVE THESE PALEOLITHIC ICE AGE REFUGIA'S ALREADY ESTABLISHED WHEN I HG"S ARRIVED. I HG"s EXPAND NORTH AND OUTWARDS EVENTUALLY TAKING OVER R1 TERRITORY IN CENTRAL EUROPE FROM THE BALKANS TO SCANDINAVIA ABOUT 10KYA. I HG IS ANOTHER NON AFRICAN HG WHICH EVOLVES FROM CF HG (A HYPOTHETICAL MAN THAT NEVER EXISTED SOMEWHERE IN THE MID EAST SOMETIME WHEN MONKEY MAN MIGRATES OUT OF AFRICA) WHICH SUPPOSEDLY EVOLVED FROM THE ADAM MONKEY MAN IN AFRICA...
I2a1b (I-M423) Y-DNA Genetic Ancestral Journey
https://www.academia.edu/23187714/I2a1b_I-M423_Y-DNA_Genetic_Ancestral_Journey?auto=download
Haplogroup I... arrived from the Middle East as haplogroup IJ around 35,000 years ago, and developed into haplogroup I approximately 25,000 years ago....Haplogroup I2 might have originated in southeastern Europe some 17,000 years ago...I2a2a could make it as much as 13,000 years old.
Haplogroup I2 (Y-DNA) is Continental Europe's Mesolithic paternal lineage.... originated in Southeastern Europe some 15,000 - 17,000 years ago and developed into three main subgroups : I-M438*, I-L460, and I-L1251. Haplogroup I-P37.2 has been identified in neolithic human remains in Europe....east Pyrenees shore on France's southern border, dated to about 3000 BC...
Recent studies report that Y-chromosomal Adam lived as early as around 142,000 years ago. Mitochondrial Eve who is thought to have lived earlier, about 190,000–200,000 years ago. Y-chromosomal Adam and Mitochondrial Eve need not have lived at the same time.... Y-chromosomal Adam is named after the Biblical Adam. This may lead to a misconception that he was the only living male of his times, even though he co-existed with plenty of men around, including his own father who was not the "most recent"....
haplogroup A's oldest sub-clades are exclusively found in Central-Northwest Africa, where it, and consequently Y-chromosomal Adam, is believed to have originated about 140,000 years ago...
Haplogroup BT is descended from Haplogroup A about 75,000 years bp, possibly originating in western North Africa - central West Africa....
Haplogroup CT (M168): Time of Emergence: 70,000 BP... Eurasian Adam probably lived in the region of the Rift Valley in northeast Africa, perhaps in present-day Ethiopia, Kenya or Tanzania. Over time, a few thousand of his descendants migrated out of Africa, across the Bab el-Mandeb – the outlet of the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean – at a time when the water was low enough to allow safe passage in small boats or even over dry land....
Haplogroup CF (also known as CF(xDE)) is a Y-DNA Haplogroup defined by the SNP P143....Time of Emergence: 57,000 BP... Along with and parallel to Haplogroup DE, it is a descendant of Haplogroup CT. As its compound name implies, it is the ancestral haplogroup to both Haplogroup C and Haplogroup F. The haplogroup is hypothetical because no male in haplogroup CF* has yet been discovered.... Many of the grassland hunters of the P143 lineage traveled east along this steppe highway and eventually peopled much of Asia. Others set a different course. They went west, moving into Europe, trading their familiar grasslands for forests and high country. Though their numbers were small, genetic traces of their journey are still found today....
Haplogroup F (M89) Time of Emergence: 48,000 BP... This supercluster contains mainly lineages that are not typically found in sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting that its ancestral CF chromosome may have been carried out of Africa very early in the modern human diaspora, and F may have appeared 48,000 (38,700-55,700) years ago, probably in Eurasia....
Haplogroup IJK is a descendant branch of the macrohaplogroup F with haplogroup IJ and haplogroup K as its attested descendants....haplogroup IJK's relationship with haplogroup F1 through F4 is unknown....
Haplogroup IJ (M429) Time of Emergence: 38,500 BP Middle East...Haplogroup IJ is a descendant branch of Haplogroup IJK which in turn derives from the greater Haplogroup F. Descendants are Haplogroup I and Haplogroup J.... .The existence of the Haplogroup IJ node has been inferred from the fact that certain mutations are shared in common among all Y-chromosomes belonging to the descendant haplogroups I and J.... Both Haplogroup I and Haplogroup J are found among modern populations of the Caucasus, Anatolia, and Southwest Asia tends to support the hypothesis that Haplogroup IJ derived from Haplogroup IJK in the Middle East and subsequently spread throughout Western Eurasia. The TMRCA (time to most recent common ancestor) for the IJ clade, expressed in ky (confidence interval), is 38.5 (30.5-46.2).
Haplogroup I (M170): Occupying the Balkans: Time of Emergence: 24,000 BP Place of Origin: Southeastern Europe. Gravettian culture of the Upper Paleolithic. The I2a2a ancestors were part of the M89 Middle Eastern Clan that continued to migrate northwest into the Balkans and eventually spread into Central Europe. These people may have been responsible for the expansion of the prosperous Gravettian culture, which spread through northern Europe from about 21,000 to 28,000 years ago.
But this improvement in the climate would not endure. Early occupation of Europe was arrested then reversed, as another prolonged period of severe cold gripped the continent—the last Ice Age. It continued for thousands of years; it’s most severe stage is called the Last Glacial Maximum, or LGM, which encompassed the furthest extent of the ice sheets upon the land. Mankind could do little more than survive, and was forced to retreat south to a few scattered enclaves in Asia and Europe. Iberia was one, the Ukraine another. The M89 lineage sought refuge in the Balkans, likely concentrated in the Southern Carpathian Mountains, where it survived through the LGM. Scientists speculate that human enclaves favored the high ground because it provided commanding views of the territory below and maximized sunlight by avoiding the shadows of the valleys. At this time our species numbered in the hundreds of thousands, but the earth could not support an increase in Homo sapiens sapiens. The emphasis was merely on survival. During this time, it isn’t possible to venture too far north within Europe as the ice sheets cover much of northern Europe and tundra exists for several miles beneath them. The humans in this part of the world are relatively recent visitors and are not so adapted to the colder climes as are the people of Siberia.
The man who gave rise to marker M170, was born about 20,000 years ago and was heir to this heritage. He was probably born in one of the isolated refuge areas people were forced to occupy during the last blast of the Ice Age in the Balkans. As the ice sheets covering much of Europe began to retreat around 15,000 years ago, his descendants likely played a central role in repopulating northern Europe.
Haplogroup I2 (S31, P215, M438) Time of Emergence: 22,000 BP Place of Origin: Serbia... This line was one of the haplogroups in the vanguard of this recolonization process, and in fact he represented Northern Europe’s main internal migrating male Mesolithic-Neolithic component. He proposes a specific area to which this gene group might have migrated, and he identifies it - quite logically - as a locale in southeastern Europe known to have later been populated by ancient civilizations. The restricted immediate post-LGM Balkans location would place the source and highest frequency of this group at the centre of the oldest European Neolithic cultural zone, including the Starcevo, and allied Balkan Neolithic cultures, Körös, Cris and Karanovo. Simply stated, this group came down from the mountains and settled along the Danube River basin. Starcevo is a site located on the north bank of the Danube, opposite Belgrade in Serbia. The location is also indicated by the concentration of the marker among present-day DNA donors. The name of the town means “the place of the old man” in Serbian. This marker is called S31 by EthnoAncestry, P215 by Family Tree DNA and M438 by Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation. Over the generations, more mutation markers sprang up in the DNA of this line. Geneticists have decided these markers define subclades within the gene group, and over the span of a few thousand years this group splintered into a handful of these subclades. Over time they became geographically dispersed, but the frequency of Haplogroup I in any location was never very great. One subclade made its way southwest along the coast of the Mediterranean, one went north to Scandinavia, one moved northeast into Russia. And one line proceeded northwest, following natural features such as river basins, eventually settling in modern-day Germany. Later, this line moved north and west along the Danube (taking the same northern route used by early man) and eventually made his way into Germany.
Haplogroup I2a (L460) Time of Emergence: 21,000 BP, Place: Along the Danube...
Haplogroup I2a is the most common paternal lineage in former Yugoslavia, Romania, Bulgaria and Sardinia, and a major lineage in most Slavic countries....
Haplogroup I2a1 P37.2 Time of Emergence: 8,000 BP, Place: Southeastern Europe
Haplogroup I2a1 is by far the largest branch of I2 and the one most strongly linked to Neolithic cultures in south-east, south-west and north-west Europe.
Haplogroup I2a1b M423 Time of Emergence: 5,100 BP, Place: Southern Ukraine
This branch is found overwhelmingly in Slavic countries. Its maximum frequencies are observed among the Dinaric Slavs (Slovenes, Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, Montenegrins and Macedonians) as well as in Bulgaria, Romania, Moldavia, western Ukraine and Belarus....
After being Indo-Europeanized, I2a-L621 would have become the dominant paternal lineage among southern Slavs, while R1a remained dominant among northern Slavs.
The presence of I2a-L621 in Romania and Bulgaria could be attributed to the migration of the ancient Dacians and Thracians, who emerged as a mixture of of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans (in this case, essentially R1a-Z280) sometime between 3300 and 1500 BCE. The Illyrians, who conquered the territory of former Yugoslavia circa 1200-1000 BCE, might have been an offshoot from the Dacians or the Thracians, or a closely related tribe from the Carpathian basin.
The second great expansion of I2a-Din took place with the Slavic migration in the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages. I2a-Din had started to mix with Proto-Indo-Euroepan R1a around Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus and Poland during the Corded Ware period (2900-2400 BCE), then disseminated more uniformly across Proto-Slavic tribes during the Bronze and Iron Ages. After Germanic tribes living in eastern Germany and Poland, like the Goths, the Vandals and the Burgundians, invaded the Roman Empire, the Slavs from further east filled the vacuum. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Slavs moved in the Dinaric Alps and the Balkans. By the 9th century the Slavs occupied all modern Slavic-speaking territories, apart from the eastern Balkans under the control of the Turkic-speaking Bulgars.
Nowadays northern Slavic countries have between 9% (Poland, Czech republic) and 21% (Ukraine) of I2a-L621, while southern Slavs have between 20% (Bulgaria) and 50% (Bosnia). The higher percentage of I2a-Din in the south owes to the cumulative effect of Bronze Age and Early Iron Age migrations (Dacians, Thracians, Illyrians) and the medieval Slavic migrations. The relatively high percentage of of I2a-L621 in non-Slavic people like the Hungarians (15% ), Albanians (12%) and Greeks (9%) dates from the Bronze Age and population movement inside the Roman Empire which redistributed I2a beyond the original Daco-Thracian and Illyrian territories. Based on these frequencies, and the distribution of R1a subclades, it can be assessed that the Daco-Thracians and Illyrians carried approximately two to three times more I2a-Din than R1a, while the Early Slavs must have had roughly twice more R1a than I2a-Din. The higher proportion of R1a in many northern Slavic countries today is due to earlier migrations of R1a during Bronze Age (such as L260 among West Slavs and Z92 and Z93 among Russians and Belarussians).
DURING THE PALEOLITHIC R1 IS FOUND FROM SIBERIA TO AS FAR WEST AS ATLANTIS AND WEST COAST EUROPE. ABOUT 25KYA AN EASTERN R1 MALE BRANCHES OFF INTO R1a. R1b IS INDIGENOUS TO WEST EUROPE FROM THE WEST R1 MALE. R1a FROM THE EAST R1 MALE. AND/OR R1b MIGRATES TO WEST EUROPE FROM THIS EASTERN R1 BIFURCATED MALE 25KYA MIXING WITH WEST R1 ANCESTORS AT LEAST 20KYA TO 25KYA. FOCUS HERE IS ON R1a WHICH HAS TWO MAJOR GROUPS ONE IN EAST EUROPE AND THE OTHER IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH ASIA. R1a ARISES IN IRAN OR EAST TURKEY AND IS NOT FOUND IN EUROPE UNTIL ~4600 YBP. EUROPEAN R1a IS MOSTLY Z282, AND THE CENTRAL/SOUTH ASIAN R1a IS MOSTLY Z93, AND M746. THIS BRANCHING OF R1a OCCURRED ABOUT 5800 YA...
The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a
Whole Y-chromosome sequence analysis of eight R1a and five R1b individuals suggests a divergence time of ~25000 (95% CI:21300–29000) years ago and a coalescence time within R1a-M417 of ~5800 (95% CI: 4800–6800) years. The spatial frequency distributions of R1a sub-haplogroups conclusively indicate two major groups, one found primarily in Europe and the other confined to Central and South Asia. Beyond the major European versus Asian dichotomy, we describe several younger sub-haplogroups. Based on spatial distributions and diversity patterns within the R1a-M420 clade, particularly rare basal branches detected primarily within Iran and eastern Turkey, we conclude that the initial episodes of haplogroup R1a diversification likely occurred in the vicinity of present-day Iran....
Y-chromosome haplogroup R (hg R) is one of 20 that comprise the 14 standardized global phylogeny. It consists of two main components: R2-M479 and R1-M173. Within R1-M173, most variation extant in Eurasia is confine to R1a-M420 and R1b-M343. In Europe, R1a is most frequent in the east, and R1b predominates in the west. It has been suggested that this division reflects episodic population expansions during the post-glacial period... More than 10% of men in a region extending from South Asia to Scandinavia share a common ancestor in hg R1a-M420, and the vast majority fall within the R1a1-M17/M198 subclade. Although the phylogeography of R1b-M343 has been described, especially in Western and Central Europe, R1a1 has remained poorly characterized....
a schism between European and Asian R1a chromosomes has emerged. We have evaluated this division in a larger panel of populations, estimated the split time, and mapped the distributions of downstream sub-hgs within seven regions: Western/Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, Central/South Europe, the Near/Middle East, the Caucasus, South Asia, and Central Asia/Southern Siberia....
Of the 2923 hg R1a-M420 samples, 2893 were derived for the M417 mutations (1693 non-Roma Europeans and 1200 pan-Asians), whereas the more basal subgroups were rare....
Of the 1693 European R1a-M417 samples, more than 96% were assigned to R1a-Z282, whereas 98.4% of the 490 Central and South Asian R1a lineages belonged to hg R1a-Z93. Both of these haplogroups were found among Near/Middle East and Caucasus populations comprising 560 samples....
Among R1a-Z282 subgroups, the highest frequencies (~20%) of paragroup R1a-Z282* chromosomes occur in northern Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. The R1a-Z284 subgroup is confined to Northwest Europe and peaks at ~20% in Norway, where the majority of R1a chromosomes (24/26) belong to this clade. We found R1a-Z284 to be extremely rare outside Scandinavia. R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 have similar distributions, with the highest frequencies observed in Central and Eastern Europe. R1a-M458 exceeds 20% in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Western Belarus. The lineage averages 11–15% across Russia and Ukraine and occurs at 7% or less elsewhere. Unlike hg R1a-M458, the R1a-M558 clade is also common in the Volga-Uralic populations. R1a-M558 occurs at 10–33% in parts of Russia, exceeds 26% in Poland and Western Belarus, and varies between 10 and 23% in the Ukraine, whereas it drops 10-fold lower in Western Europe.
In general, both R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 occur at low but informative frequencies in Balkan populations with known Slavonic heritage. The rarity of R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 among Central Asian and South Siberian R1a samples (4/301) suggests low levels of historic Slavic gene flow.
In the complementary R1a-Z93 haplogroup, the paragroup R1a-Z93* is most common (>30%) in the South Siberian Altai region of Russia, but it also occurs in Kyrgyzstan (6%) and in all Iranian populations (1–8%). R1a-Z2125 occurs at highest frequencies in Kyrgyzstan and in Afghan Pashtuns (>40%). We also observed it at greater than 10% frequency in other Afghan ethnic groups and in some populations in the Caucasus and Iran. Notably, R1a-M780 occurs at high frequency in South Asia: India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Himalayas. The group also occurs at >3% in some Iranian populations and is present at >30% in Roma from Croatia and Hungary, consistent with previous studies reporting the presence of R1a-Z93 in Roma. Finally, the rare R1a-M560 was only observed in four samples: two Burushaski speakers from north Pakistan, one Hazara from Afghanistan, and one Iranian Azeri....
Owing to the prevalence of basal lineages and the high levels of haplogroup diversities in the region, we find a compelling case for the Middle East, possibly near present-day Iran, as the geographic origin of hg R1a....
we note that the earliest R1a lineages (genotyped at just SRY10381.2) found thus far in European ancient DNA date to 4600 years before present (YBP), a time corresponding to the Corded Ware Culture whereas three DNA sample extracts from the earlier Neolithic Linear Pottery Culture (7500–6500 YBP) period were reported as G2a-P15 and F-M89(xP-M45) lineages. This raises the possibility of a wide and rapid spread of R1a-Z282-related lineages being associated with prevalent Copper and Early Bronze Age societies that ranged from the Rhine River in the west to the Volga River in the east including the Bronze Age Proto-Slavic culture that arose in Central Europe near the Vistula River. It may have been in this cultural context that hg R1a-Z282 diversified in Central and Eastern Europe. The corresponding diversification in the Middle East and South Asia is more obscure. However, early urbanization within the Indus Valley also occurred at this time and the geographic distribution of R1a-M780 may reflect this....
we estimate the bifurcation of R1 into R1a and R1b to have occurred ~25100 years ago (95% CI: 21300–29000)....
we estimate the splintering of R1a-M417 to have occurred rather recently, ~5800 years ago (95% CI: 4800–6800)....
all fully sequenced R1a individuals share SNPs from M420 to M417. Below branch 23 in Figure 5, we see a split between Europeans, defined by Z282 (branch 22), and Asians, define by Z93 and M746...
We caution against ascribing findings from a contemporary phylogenetic cluster of a single genetic locus to a particular pre-historic demographic event, population migration, or cultural transformation. The R1a TMRCA estimates we report have wide confidence intervals and should be viewed as preliminary...
CONCLUSION
Our phylogeographic data lead us to conclude that the initial episodes of R1a-M420 diversification occurred in the vicinity of Iran and Eastern Turkey, and we estimate that diversification downstream of M417 occurred ~5800 years ago....
OLDEST NORTH AMERICAN DNA IS mtDNA B2 CAME ACCROSS THE PACIFIC FROM SE ASIA TO SOUTH AMERICA THEN UP NORTH TO ARIZONA...
Montana man's DNA oldest found on the continent, testing company says
Crawford had his DNA tested through CRI Genetics, which aims to provide customers with a "biogeographical ancestry," a description of where their genes fit into the overall story of the species. For Crawford, the company traced his line back 55 generations with a 99% accuracy rate. That's rare because the ancestry often is clouded that far back, according to the company.... Crawford understood from school that his Blackfeet ancestors must have come to the new world on the Bering Land Bridge during the Ice Age. Perhaps that's true for some Blackfeet. But Crawford's DNA story suggests his ancestors came from the Pacific, traveled to the coast of South America and traveled north, according to CRI. That's a theory anyway. He's part of mtDNA Haplogroup B2, which has a low frequency in Alaska and Canada and originated in Arizona about 17,000 years ago. That group is one of four major Native American groups that spread across the continent. They're called clans and traced back to four female ancestors, Ai, Ina, Chie and Sachi. Crawford's DNA says he's a descendant of Ina. The DNA group’s closest relatives outside the Americas are in Southeast Asia.... Crawford called blood quantum another form of genocide, an attempt by the federal government to “breed us out.”... "Sooner or later we would be marrying our cousin. So they stole women from other tribes. Otherwise, they'd be inbred."...
U8 MAY BE THE OLDEST mtDNA IN WEST EUROPE. K ORIGINATES IN WEST EUROPE FROM HER MOTHER U8. AS THE INCREASE IN NEOLITHIC AND MORE RECENT mtDNA's IN WEST EUROPE HAS CAUSED A SURGE IN NEAR EASTERN DNA IN WEST EUROPE. THIS CAUSED PALEOLITHIC PEOPLES TO DECREASE ESPECIALLY FEMALES AS THE NEOLITHIC NEAR EAST PEOPLE INCREASED. THE LGM BRINGS SOME WEST EUROPEANS SOUTHWARDS AND EAST MIXING WITH MORE NEAR EAST MIGRATIONS WESTWARD. THE ARAB/JEW SLAVE TRADERS ALSO BROUGHT ALOT OF NATIVE EUROPEANS INTO THE NEAR EAST AS SLAVES, AND THEY MIXED WITH ALOT OF NATIVE FEMALES IN EUROPE AS WELL....
Haplogroup K (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_K_(mtDNA)
Possible time of origin: 26,700 ± 4,300 years ago.
Possible place of origin: Possibly West Asia. Ancestor: U8b'K
Origin: Haplogroup K is believed to have originated in the mid-Upper Paleolithic, between about 30,000 and 22,000 years ago.... originate from Western Europe..
Analysis of the mtDNA of Ötzi, the frozen mummy from 3300 BC found on the Austrian-Italian border, has shown that Ötzi belongs to the K1 subclade....
A woman buried some time between 2650 and 2450 BC in a presumed Amorite tomb at Terqa (Tell Ashara), Middle Euphrates Valley, Syria carried Haplogroup K....
two individuals separately dated to 7288-6771 BCE and 7605-7529 BCE buried in Theopetra cave, Greece, the oldest known human-made structure, and both individuals were found to belong to mtDNA Haplogroup K1c.
Haplogroup K has also been observed among ancient Egyptian mummies excavated at the Abusir el-Meleq archaeological site in Middle Egypt, which date from the Pre-Ptolemaic/late New Kingdom and Roman periods. Fossils excavated at the Late Neolithic site of Kelif el Boroud in Morocco, which have been dated to around 3,000 BCE, have likewise been observed to carry the K1 subclade.... Queen Tiye wife of AmenhotepIII and mother of AkhenAten who was King Tut's father was K. Tutankhamun's mother "the younger lady" was K. ...
Evolution: Speciation in the presence of gene flow
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210113120737.htm
Spatial isolation is known to promote speciation -- but researchers at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich have now shown that, at least in yeast, the opposite is also true. New ecological variants can also evolve within thoroughly mixed populations.... Geographic isolation of populations is often regarded as a necessary condition for ecotypes to diverge and eventually form new species.... Whether or not speciation can occur under conditions in which gene flow between two populations is possible -- such that genetic mixing can still occur -- remains controversial....
Having obtained these genetically differentiated populations, the researchers proceeded to mix them in various proportions and monitored their subsequent evolution. "We first observed what would be expected according to the classical isolation model, when the top and bottom populations were kept strictly separated from one another," says Wolf. Under these conditions, the two 'geographically' isolated populations continued to adapt to the demands of their respective niches and rapidly diverged from each other, becoming clearly distinct with time....
In the next step, Wolf and his colleagues simulated the effects of migration between the two populations. They did so by first adding approximately 1% of the minority population to the dominant fraction, and then progressively increasing the proportion of the former in each succeeding generation until the two populations had been thoroughly mixed. Theoretical models suggest that mixing should lead to a homogenization of the gene pool, and should therefore lead to a reduction in the diversity of the mixed population. This effect was in fact observed at intermediate levels of mixing. Although such mixtures continue to evolve and their members can increase their fitness relative to the ancestral population, distinctly different variants can no longer be discerned within them.
"But to our surprise, when the populations had been thoroughly mixed over time, we found very marked differences in phenotype," says Wolf. "When the tap is turned on fully, so to speak, one suddenly finds that mixtures contain two distinct variants, a generalist and a specialist." The generalist can survive equally well in the top or bottom compartment. This is not true of the specialist. But it divides at a faster rate than the generalist, and can therefore compensate for its lack of versatility. In Wolf's view, the emergence of these two classes can be regarded as the first step in a speciation process which takes place in the presence of maximal gene flow....
THIS STUDY LOOKS AT 223 PEOPLE IN SE EUROPE BEGINNING IN THE MESOLITHIC 12000BCE AND RUNS TO 500BCE. SE EUROPE AS A GENETIC CONTACT ZONE MIXING HUNTER GATHERERS EAST AND WEST, FARMERS NEOLITHIC NW ANATOLIAN, AND YAMNAYA STEPPE....
The Genomic History of Southeastern Europe
https://www.academia.edu/48759781/The_Genomic_History_Of_Southeastern_Europe
Farming was first introduced to southeastern Europe in the mid 7th millennium BCE
brought by migrants from Anatolia who settled in the region before spreading throughout Europe.... we analyze genome-wide ancient DNA data from 223 individuals who lived in southeastern Europe and surrounding regions between 12000 and 500 BCE. We document previously uncharacterized genetic structure, showing a West-East cline of ancestry in hunter-gatherers, and show that some Aegean farmers had ancestry from a different lineage than the northwestern Anatolian lineage that formed the overwhelming ancestry of other European farmers. We show that the first farmers of northern and western Europe passed through southeastern Europe with limited admixture with local hunter-gatherers, but that some groups mixed extensively, with relatively sex-balanced admixture compared to the male biased hunter-gatherer admixture that prevailed later in the North and West. Southeastern Europe continued to be a nexus between East and West after farming arrived, with intermittent genetic contact from the Steppe up to 2,000 years before the migration that replaced much of northern Europe’s population.
The southeastern quadrant of Europe was the beachhead in the spread of agriculture from its source in the Fertile Crescent of southwestern Asia. After the first appearance of agriculture in the mid-7th millennium BCE farming spread westward via a Mediterranean and northwestward via a Danubian route, and was established in both Iberia and Central Europe by 5600 BCE. Ancient DNA studies have shown that the spread of farming across Europe was accompanied by a massive movement of people closely related to the farmers of northwestern Anatolia but nearly all the ancient DNA from Europe’s first farmers is from central and western Europe, with only three individuals reported from the southeast. In the millennia following the establishment of agriculture in the Balkan eninsula, a series of complex societies formed, culminating in sites such as the mid 5th millennium BCE necropolis at Varna, which has some of the earliest evidence of extreme inequality in wealth, with one individual (grave 43) from whom we extracted DNA buried with more gold than is known from any earlier site. By the end of the 6th millennium BCE, agriculture had reached eastern Europe, in the form of the Cucuteni-Trypillian complex in the area of present-day Moldova, Romania and Ukraine, including “mega-sites” that housed hundreds, perhaps thousands, of people. After around 4000 BCE, these settlements were largely abandoned, and archaeological evidence documents cultural contacts with peoples of the Eurasian steppe. However, the population movements that accompanied these events have been unknown due to the lack of ancient DNA.
We generated genome-wide data from 223 ancient humans (214 reported for the first time), from the Balkan Peninsula, the Carpathian Basin, the North Pontic Steppe and neighboring regions, dated to 12,000-500 BCE.....
It has previously been shown that the great majority of European ancestry derives from three distinct sources. First, there is “hunter-gatherer-related” ancestry that is more closely related to Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from Europe than to any other population, and that can be further subdivided into “Eastern” (EHG) and “Western” (WHG) hunter-gatherer-related ancestry. Second, there is “NW Anatolian Neolithic-related” ancestry related to the Neolithic farmers of northwest Anatolia and tightly linked to the appearance of agriculture. The third source, “steppe-related” ancestry, appears in Western Europe during the Late Neolithic to Bronze Age transition and is ultimately derived from a population related to Yamnaya steppe pastoralists. Steppe-related ancestry itself can be modeled as a mixture of EHG-related ancestry, and ancestry related to Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers of the Caucasus (CHG) and the first farmers of northern Iran....
From present-day Ukraine, our study reports new genome-wide data from five Mesolithic individuals from ~9500-6000 BCE, and 31 Neolithic individuals from ~6000-3500 BCE. On the cline from WHG- to EHG-related ancestry, the Mesolithic individuals fall towards the East, intermediate between EHG and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from Sweden. The Neolithic population has a significant difference in ancestry compared to the Mesolithic, with a shift towards WHG...Unexpectedly, one Neolithic individual from Dereivka (I3719), which we directly date to 4949-4799 BCE, has entirely NW Anatolian Neolithic-related ancestry.
The pastoralist Bronze Age Yamnaya complex originated on the Eurasian steppe and is a plausible source for the dispersal of steppe-related ancestry into central and western Europe around 2500 BCE. All previously reported Yamnaya individuals were from Samara and Kalmykia in southwest Russia, and had entirely steppe-related ancestry. Here, we report three Yamnaya individuals from further West – from Ukraine and Bulgaria – and show that while they all have high levels of steppe-related ancestry, one from Ozera in Ukraine and one from Bulgaria (~3000 BCE) have NW Anatolian Neolithic related admixture, the first evidence of such ancestry in Yamnaya –associated individuals. Two Copper Age individuals (I4110 and I6561, Ukraine_Eneolithic) from Dereivka and Alexandria dated to ~3600-3400 BCE (and thus preceding the Yamnaya complex) also have mixtures of steppe- and NW Anatolian Neolithic related ancestry.
At Zvejnieki in Latvia we observe a transition in hunter-gatherer-related ancestry that is the opposite of that seen in Ukraine. We find that Mesolithic and Early Neolithic individuals (Latvia_HG) associated with the Kunda and Narva cultures have ancestry intermediate between WHG (~70%) and EHG (~30%), consistent with previous reports. We also detect a shift in ancestry between the Early Neolithic 224 and individuals associated with the Middle Neolithic Comb Ware Complex (Latvia_MN), who have more EHG-related ancestry (we estimate 65% EHG, but two of four individuals appear almost 100% EHG in PCA). The most recent individual, associated with the Final Neolithic Corded Ware Complex, attests to another ancestry shift, clustering closely with
Yamnaya from Samara, Kalmykia and Ukraine.
We report new Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic data from southern and western Europe. Sicilian (I2158) and Croatian (I1875) individuals dating to ~12,000 and 6100BCE cluster with previously reported western hunter-gatherers, including individuals from Loschbour (Luxembourg, 6100 BCE), Bichon (Switzerland, 11,700 BCE), and Villabruna (Italy 12,000 BCE). These results demonstrate that WHG populations were widely distributed from the Atlantic seaboard of Europe in the West, to Sicily in the South, to the Balkan Peninsula in the Southeast, for at least six thousand years....
Neolithic populations from present-day Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia and Romania cluster closely with the NW Anatolian Neolithic farmers (Figure 1), consistent with archaeological evidence. Modeling Balkan Neolithic populations as a mixture of NW Anatolian Neolithic and WHG, we estimate that 98% of their ancestry is NW Anatolian Neolithic-related.... Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in the Balkans were likely concentrated along the coast and major rivers such as the Danube...
In the Balkans, Copper Age populations (Balkans_Chalcolithic) harbor significantly more hunter-gatherer-related ancestry than Neolithic populations... This is roughly contemporary with the “resurgence” of hunter-gatherer ancestry previously reported in central Europe and Iberia and is consistent with changes in funeral rites, specifically the reappearance around 4500 BCE of the Mesolithic tradition of extended supine burial – in contrast to the Early Neolithic tradition of flexed burial. Four individuals associated with the Copper Age Trypillian population have ~80% NW Anatolian related ancestry, confirming that the ancestry of the first farmers of present-day Ukraine was largely derived from the same source as the farmers of Anatolia and western Europe. Their ~20% hunter-gatherer ancestry is intermediate between WHG and EHG, consistent with deriving from the Neolithic hunter-gatherers of the region....
The movements from the Pontic-Caspian steppe of individuals similar to those associated with the Yamnaya Cultural Complex in the 3rd millennium BCE contributed about 75% of the ancestry of individuals associated with the Corded Ware Complex and about 50% of the ancestry of succeeding material cultures such as the Bell Beaker Complex in central Europe. In two directly dated individuals from southeastern Europe, one (ANI163) from the Varna I cemetery dated to 4711-4550BCE and one (I2181) from nearby Smyadovo dated to 4550-4450 BCE, we find far earlier evidence of steppe-related ancestry. These findings push back the first evidence of steppe-related ancestry this far West in Europe by almost 2,000 years,...
We confirm that Mediterranean populations, represented in our study by individuals associated with the Epicardial Early Neolithic from Iberia, are closely related to Danubian populations represented by the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) from central Europe and that both are closely related to the Balkan Neolithic population. These three populations form a clade with the NW Anatolian Neolithic individuals as an outgroup, consistent with a single migration into the Balkan peninsula, which then split into two.
In contrast, five southern Greek Neolithic individuals (Peloponnese_Neolithic) – three one previously from Diros Cave and one from Franchthi Cave – are not consistent with descending from the same source population as other European farmers.... these “Peloponnese Neolithic” individuals dated to ~4000 BCE are shifted away from WHG and towards CHG, relative to Anatolian and Balkan Neolithic individuals.... thus there was gene flow into the region from populations with CHG-rich ancestry throughout the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. Possible sources are related to the Neolithic population from the central Anatolian site...
No evidence that steppe-related ancestry moved through southeast Europe into Anatolia. One version of the Steppe Hypothesis of Indo-European language origins suggests that Proto-Indo-European languages developed north of the Black and Caspian seas, and that the earliest known diverging branch – Anatolian – was spread into Asia Minor by movements of steppe peoples through the Balkan peninsula during the Copper Age around 4000 BCE. If this were correct, then one way to detect evidence of it would be the appearance of large amounts of steppe-related ancestry first in the Balkan Peninsula, and then in Anatolia. However, our data show no evidence for this scenario. While we find sporadic examples of steppe-related ancestry in Balkan Copper and Bronze Age individuals, this ancestry is rare until the late Bronze Age. Moreover, while Bronze Age Anatolian individuals have CHG-related ancestry, they have neither the EHG-related ancestry characteristic of all steppe populations sampled to date, nor the WHG-related ancestry that is ubiquitous in Neolithic southeastern Europe.
An alternative hypothesis is that the ultimate homeland of Proto-Indo-European languages was in the Caucasus or in Iran. In this scenario, westward movement contributed to the dispersal of Anatolian languages, and northward movement and mixture with EHG was responsible for the formation of a “Late Proto-Indo European”-speaking population associated with the Yamnaya Complex. While this scenario gains plausibility from our results, it remains possible that Indo-European languages were spread through southeastern Europe into Anatolia without large-scale population movement or admixture.
Our study shows that southeastern Europe consistently served as a genetic contact zone. Before the arrival of farming, the region saw interaction between diverged groups of hunter gatherers, and this interaction continued after farming arrived....
Figure 1: ... D: Supervised ADMIXTURE plot, modeling each ancient individual (one per row), as a mixture of populations represented by clusters containing Anatolian Neolithic (grey), Yamnaya from Samara (yellow), EHG (pink) and WHG (green). Dates indicate approximate range of individuals in each population.
Figure 3: Structure and population change in European populations with NW Anatolian
Neolithic-related ancestry. A: each population is modeled as a mixture of NW Anatolia
Neolithic, WHG, and EHG. Dashed lines show temporal relationships between populations
from the same geographic areas with similar ancestries...
K2 IS FOUND IN WEST EUROPEAN IN 35KYA BELGIUM. R1b DESCENDS FROM THIS K2 ANCESTOR WHICH IS THE FOUNDING BASE OF THE FIRST WEST EUROPEAN. THE SAME K2 IS ALSO FOUND AS FAR AWAY AS CHINA. K OR K2 FOUND FROM EUROPE TO CHINA. P WAS FOUNDER OF THE FIRST ALTAI INDUSTRY DESCENDS FROM K2. K ORIGINATES FROM BETWEEN CAUCUSUS AND INDIA. PH200 DESCENDS FROM PH155 WHICH DESCENDS DIRECTLY FROM THE EARLIEST R1b FATHER. PH155 IS NOT DESCENDED FROM R-L754 BUT MUST HAVE BEEN HIS BROTHER. PH155 IS RARE AND WIDESPREAD TODAY, AND IS NOT APART OF THE L754/M269 LINE BUT, MAY HAVE LATER MIXED IN THE STEPPES OR IN EUROPE WHEN M269 MIGRATED INTO EUROPE. DIFFERENT DIRECT LINE BUT, RELATED TO THE FIRST R1b...
Haplogroup R1b
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b
R1b has two primary branches: R1b1a-L754 and R1b1b-PH155. R1b1a1a2-M269, which predominates in Western Europe, and R1b1a2-V88, which is common in Central Africa, are both subclades of R1b-L754. R1b1b-PH155 is so rare and widely dispersed that it is difficult to draw any conclusions about its origins. It has been found in Bahrain, Bhutan, Ladakh, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Western China....
the Yamna culture, thought to have spoken some stage of Proto-Indo-European, carried R1b-L23....
Phylogeny within K2b
P P295/PF5866/S8 (also known as K2b2).
P1 M45 (a.k.a.K2b2a)
Q M242 (K2b2a1)
R M207 (K2b2a2)
R1 (M173)
R1a (M420)
R1b (M343) > L278 > L754 > L389 > P297 > M269 > L23 > L51 >
L151 > M405/U106/S21 > P312 > S1194 > A8051 [THESE ARE R1b1a1....]
The population believed to have the highest proportion of R-M343 (xM73, M269, V88) are the Kurds of southeastern Kazakhstan with 13%. However, more recently, a large study of Y-chromosome variation in Iran, revealed R-M343 (xV88, M73, M269) as high as 4.3% among Iranian sub-populations....
R1b1 (R-L278)... 3 cases amongst 1173 Italians, 1 out of 328 West Asians and 1 out of 156 East Asians. Varzari found 3 cases in Ukraine, in a study of 322 people from the Dniester–Carpathian Mountains region, who were P25 positive, but M269 negative....
R1b1a (R-L754)... R-L754 contains the vast majority of R1b. The only known example of R-L754* (xL389, V88) is also the earliest known individual to carry R1b: "Villabruna 1", who lived circa 14,000 years BP (north east Italy). Villabruna 1 belonged to the Epigravettian culture.
R1b1a1 (R-L389)... R-L389, also known as R1b1a1 (L388/PF6468, L389/PF6531), contains the very common subclade R-P297 and the rare subclade R-V1636.
R1b1a1a (R-P297)... The SNP marker P297 was recognised in 2008 as ancestral to the significant subclades M73 and M269, combining them into one cluster. This had been given the phylogenetic name R1b1a1a (and, previously, R1b1a). A majority of Eurasian R1b falls within this subclade, representing a very large modern population....
R1b1a1a1 (R-M73)... Subclades of R-M73 (R1b1a1a1) are rare overall, with most cases being observed in the Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia, and Mongolia.... R-M73 in 13.2% (5/38) of Shors, 11.4% (5/44) of Teleuts, 3.3% (2/60) of Kalmyks, 3.1% (2/64) of Khakassians, 1.9% (2/108) of Tuvinians, and 1.1% (1/89) of Altaians.... found R-M73 in 35.3% (6/17) of a sample of the Kumandin of the Altai Republic in Russia. Three of these six Kumandins share an identical 15-loci Y-STR haplotype, and another two differ only at the DYS458 locus, having DYS458=18 instead of DYS458=17. This pair of Kumandin R-M73 haplotypes resembles the haplotypes of two Kalmyks, two Tuvinians, and one Altaian whose Y-DNA has been analyzed by Malyarchuk et al. (2011). The remaining R-M73 Kumandin has a Y-STR haplotype that is starkly different from the haplotypes of the other R-M73 Kumandins, resembling instead the haplotypes of five Shors, five Teleuts, and two Khakassians.... most Bashkir males have been found to belong to U-152 (R1b1a1a2a1a2b) and some, mostly from southeastern Bashkortostan, belonged to Haplogroup Q-M25 (Q1a1b) rather than R1b; contra this, Myres et al. (2011) found a high frequency of R-M73 among their sample of Bashkirs from southeast Bashkortostan (77/329 = 23.4% R1b-M73), in agreement with the earlier study of Bashkirs.... 32% (8/25) of the HGDP sample of Pakistani Hazara should belong to haplogroup R-M478/M73.... R-M73 in the following samples: 10.3% (14/136) of Balkars from the northwest Caucasus, 9.4% (8/85) of the HGDP samples from northern Pakistan (these are the aforementioned Pakistani Hazaras), 5.8% (4/69) of Karachays from the northwest Caucasus, 2.6% (1/39) of Tatars from Bashkortostan,... R-M478/M73 in 11.1% (2/18) of Mongols from central Mongolia, 5.0% (1/20) of Kyrgyz from southwest Kyrgyzstan, 4.3% (1/23) of Mongols from southeast Mongolia, 4.3% (4/94) of Uzbeks from Jawzjan, Afghanistan, 3.7% (1/27) of Iranians from Gilan, 2.5% (1/40) of Kyrgyz from central Kyrgyzstan,... The Mongols as well as the individual from southwest Kyrgyzstan, the individual from Gilan, and one of the Uzbeks from Jawzjan belong to the same Y-STR haplotype cluster as five of six Kumandin members of R-M73... R-M73 in 37.5% (15/40) of a sample of Teleuts from Bekovo, Kemerovo oblast, 4.5% (3/66) of a sample of Uyghurs from Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, 3.4% (1/29) of a sample of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan, 2.3% (3/129) of a sample of Selkups, 2.3% (1/44) of a sample of Turkmens from Turkmenistan, and 0.7% (1/136) of a sample of Iranians from Iran. Four of these individuals (one of the Teleuts, one of the Uyghurs, the Kazakh, and the Iranian) appear to belong to the aforementioned cluster marked by DYS390=19 (the Kumandin-Mongol R-M73 cluster)...
R1b1a1a2 (R-M269)... R-M269, or R1b1a1a2 (as of 2017) amongst other names, is now the most common Y-DNA lineage in European males.... Specifically the R-L23 (R-Z2103) subclade has been found to be prevalent in ancient DNA associated with the Yamna culture.... the oldest samples classified as belonging to R-M269, have been found in Eastern Europe and Pontic-Caspian steppe, not Western Asia. Western European populations are divided between the R-P312/S116 and R-U106/S21 subclades of R-M412 (R-L51).... Distribution of R-M269 in Europe increases in frequency from east to west. It peaks at the national level in Wales at a rate of 92%, at 82% in Ireland, 70% in Scotland, 68% in Spain, 60% in France (76% in Normandy), about 60% in Portugal, 45% in Eastern England, 50% in Germany, 50% in the Netherlands, 42% in Iceland, and 43% in Denmark, 39% in Italy. R-M269 reaches levels as high as 95% in parts of Ireland. It has also been found at lower frequencies throughout central Eurasia, but with relatively high frequency among the Bashkirs of the Perm region (84.0%).... In western Asia, R-M269 has been reported in 40% of Armenian males....
Apart from basal R-M269* which has not diverged, there are (as of 2017) two primary branches of R-M269: R-L23 (R1b1a1a2a; L23/PF6534/S141) and R-PF7558 (R1b1a1a2b; PF7558/PF7562.)...
R1b1a2 (R-V88)... [THIS IS R1b1a2 AND R1b1c-] ... Studies in 2005–08 reported "R1b*" at high levels in Jordan, Egypt and Sudan.... D'Atanasio et al. (2018) propose that R1b-V88 originated in Europe about 12 000 years ago and crossed to North Africa by about 8000 years ago; it may formerly have been common in southern Europe, where it has since been replaced by waves of other haplogroups, leaving remnant subclades almost exclusively in Sardinia. It first radiated within Africa likely between 7 and 8 000 years ago... Marcus et al. (2020) provide strong evidence for this proposed model of North to South trans-saharan movement: The earliest basal R1b-V88 haplogroups are found in several Eastern European Hunter Gatherers close to 10 000 years ago. The haplogroup then seemingly further spread with the Neolithic Cardial Ware expansion, which established agriculture in the Western Mediterranean around 7500 BP: R1b-V88 haplogroups were identified in ancient Neolithic individuals in central Italy, Iberia and, at a particularly high frequency, in Sardinia. A part of the branch leading to present-day African haplogroups (V2197) is already derived in some of these ancient Neolithic European individuals...
R1b1a2a (R-M18)... [THIS IS R1b1a2a] R1b1a2a is a sub-clade of R-V88, which is defined by the presence of SNP marker M18. It has been found only at low frequencies in samples from Sardinia and Lebanon.
R1b1b (R-PH155)... [THIS IS R1b1b...] The other primary branch of R1b1 is R-PH155 (R1b1b), which is extremely rare and defined by the presence of PH155. Living males carrying subclades of R-PH155 have been found in Bahrain, Bhutan, Ladakh, Tajikistan, Turkey, Xinjiang, and Yunnan. ISOGG (2017) cites two primary branches: R-M335 (R1b1b1) and R-PH200 (R1b1b2).
The defining SNP of R1b1b1, M335, was first documented in 2004, when an example was discovered in Turkey, though it was classified at that time as R1b4. Other examples of R-M335 have been reported in a sample of Hui from Yunnan, China and in a sample of people from Ladakh, India. In commercial testing of Y-DNA, R-M335 has been found in individuals who have reported paternal ancestry in Germany and Italy (including Arbëreshë).
Examples of the other subclade of R-PH155, i.e. R1b1b2-PH200, have been found in individuals from Turkey (Konya and Gaziantep, with at least the latter reporting Armenian ethnicity), Bahrain, and Bhutan. Other examples of R-PH155, with precise subclade unresolved, have been found in a Tajik in Tajikistan and in a Uyghur in academic studies and in an individual who has reported paternal ancestry in Varanasi, India in commercial testing.
PH200 MAY HAVE BEEN THE ORIGINAL HUNS....
Thread: Where did R1b-PH200 originate?
https://anthrogenica.com/showthread.php?15206-Where-did-R1b-PH200-originate
Oldest PH200 seem to be Xiongnu remains from Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan ...
The R1b-PH155 haplogroup that includes the PH200 clade is one of the rarest of the subclades under R1b-M343. R1b-M343>L278>PH155>PH200 Geographically the range is quite large for modern samples. Uygar in China, Bhutan, Bahrain, Turkey, Armenia and Tajikistan. My guess is that the PH200 mutation occurred towards the close of the Neolithic after an estimated 13000 year bottleneck at the PH155 level somewhere along the Steppe Route.
https://www.yfull.com/tree/R-PH155/
https://www.yfull.com/tree/R-PH200/
R-PH200 (7300YBP) < R-PH155 (20400YBP TUR.) < R1b (22800YBP UZB.) < R1 (28200YBP) < R-Y482 (28200YBP) < R < P-P226 < P-P284 < P-P337 < P-PF5867 < P-M1254 < P (44300YBP PHL) < K2b (45400YBP) < K2 (45400YBP RUS. UST-ISHIM) < K (47200YBP) < IJK (48500YBP) < HIJK (48500YBP) < GHIJK (48800YBP) < F (65900YBP) < CF (68500YBP) < CT (88000YBP) < BT (130700YBP) < A1b (133400YBP) < A1 (161300YBP) < A0-T (235900YBP) < ROOT (Y ADAM)
Atlantic modal haplotype
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_modal_haplotype
In human genetics, the Atlantic modal haplotype (AMH) or haplotype 15 is a Y chromosome haplotype of Y-STR microsatellite variations, associated with the Haplogroup R1b. It was discovered prior to many of the SNPs now used to identify subclades of R1b and references to it can be found in some of the older literature. It corresponds most closely with subclade R1b1a2a1a(1) [L11].
The AMH is the most frequently occurring haplotype amongst human males in Atlantic Europe.... It reaches the highest frequencies in the Iberian Peninsula, in Great Britain and Ireland. In the Iberian Peninsula it reaches 70% in Portugal as a whole, more than 90% in NW Portugal and nearly 90% in Galicia (NW Spain), while the highest value is to be found among Spain and the Basques.
The human Y chromosome is also known to be lacking Neanderthal DNA suggesting strong natural selection against hybrid males, who were likely to have been infertile.
All Europeans after GoyetQ116-1 show some genetic affinity for this individual. GoyetQ116-1 also exhibits more genetic affinity for Tianyuan man than any other ancient individual from West Eurasia. mtDNA B. YDNA K2b.
K2b YDNA TRACES BACK TO THE NON-AFRICAN MALE LINEAGES. THE FOLLOWING LOOKS AT THE B mtDNA NON-AFRICAN FEMALE LINEAGE. B DESENDS FROM R WHICH DESCENDS FROM N. ALL NONAFRICAN FEMALES. N AND M IS SAID TO DESCEND FROM L3. THIS TRANSITION IS DEBATED IF OCCURRING IN ASIA OR AFRICA AS L3 MIGRATES IN EURASIA AND INTO AFRICA REPLACING EARLIER PEOPLES.
IT APPEARS NATIVE EUROPEAN/EURASIAN NEANDERTHAL FEMALES WERE REPLACED BY AFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE FIRST INVASIONS OF EURASIA ABOUT 270KYA CREATING A HALF NATIVE EURASIAN NEANDERTHAL MALE AND HALF AFRICAN MONKEY PEOPLE FEMALE HYBRID WHICH IS HOW NATIVE EURASIAN NEANDERTHAL FIRST BECOMES INFECTED WITH THE RHESUS ALLELE WHICH WAS DIFFERENT THAN THE MORE RECENT MONKEY PEOPLE INVASIONS AFTER CRO-MAGNON. MORE RECENT NEANDERTHAL MALES BECAME REPLACED WITH HUMAN Y CHROMOSOME BY THE SAPIENS SAPIENS MONKEY PEOPLE WITH CONTINUED INTERBREEDING WITH THE MONKEY PEOPLE UNTIL HE BECOMES EXTINCT.
NOT ALL PEOPLE ARE FROM OUT OF AFRICA. THE AFRICAN ORIGIN THEORY FOR ALL DOES NOT EXIST, NOR A SPLIT BETWEEN AFRICANS AND NON-AFRICANS 100KYA, NOR A GLOBAL REPLACEMENT BY AFRICANS CAN BE SUPPORTED NOR PROVEN. MITOCHRONDRIAL EVE ONLY REPRESENTS ONLY THE CURRENT HOMO SAPIEN SAPIEN IN A DIRECT mt LINE. MANY EARLIER EVES EXISTED AND STILL DO EXIST TODAY. EVE IN AFRICA WERE HAVING SEX WITH THE GORILLAS WHICH PRODUCED HOMOS AND CHIMPS. EVE HAD SEX WITH CHIMPANZEES PRODUCING NIGGERS. THE HOMOS BECAME THE NEANDERTHAL, DENISOVAN, AND MODERN HUMANITY. THE NEANDERTHAL, IF ORIGINATING IN AFRICA, LEFT IMMEDIATELY BEFORE ADMIXING BACK WITH NIGGERS, CHIMPS, AND THE AFRICAN ARCHAIC PEOPLE AND THEIR HYBRIDS.
A MORE LIKELY SCENARIO IS NEANDERTHAL IS NOT FROM AFRICA EVE, AND HE ORIGINATED BY HIS OWN mtEVE AND NEANDERTHAL ADAM Y OUTSIDE OF AFRICA...
Haplogroup B (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_B_(mtDNA)
Haplogroup B is believed to have arisen in Asia some 50,000 years before present. Its ancestral haplogroup was haplogroup R....
Haplogroup R (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R_(mtDNA)
Haplogroup R is associated with the peopling of Eurasia after about 70,000 years ago, and is distributed in modern populations throughout the world outside of sub-Saharan Africa. Haplogroup R is a descendant of the macro-haplogroup N.... Haplogroup R has wide diversity and antiquity in the indigenous population of South Asia. Tribes and castes of Western and Southern India show higher diversity than the other regions, possibly suggesting their autochthonous status.... The Ust'-Ishim man fossil of Siberia, dated ca. 45,000 years old, belongs to haplogroup R* (formerly classified as U*)....
Haplogroup N (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)
Like its sibling macrohaplogroup M, macrohaplogroup N is a descendant of the haplogroup L3. All mtDNA haplogroups found outside of Africa are descendants of either haplogroup N or its sibling haplogroup M. M and N are the signature maternal haplogroups that define the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans and subsequent early human migrations around the world. The global distribution of haplogroups N and M indicates that there was likely at least one major prehistoric migration of humans out of Africa, with both N and M later evolving outside the continent....
There is widespread agreement in the scientific community concerning the African ancestry of haplogroup L3 (haplogroup N's parent clade).... The out of Africa hypothesis has gained generalized consensus. However, many specific questions remain unsettled. To know whether the two M and N macrohaplogroups that colonized Eurasia were already present in Africa before the exit is puzzling....
Also related to the origins of haplogroup N is whether ancestral haplogroups M, N and R were part of the same migration out of Africa, or whether Haplogroup N left Africa via the Northern route through the Levant, and M left Africa via Horn of Africa. This theory was suggested because haplogroup N is by far the predominant haplogroup in Western Eurasia, and haplogroup M is absent in Western Eurasia, but is predominant in India and is common in regions East of India. However, the mitochondrial DNA variation in isolated "relict" populations in southeast Asia and among Indigenous Australians supports the view that there was only a single dispersal from Africa. Southeast Asian populations and Indigenous Australians all possess deep rooted clades of both haplogroups M and N. The distribution of the earliest branches within haplogroups M, N, and R across Eurasia and Oceania therefore supports a three-founder-mtDNA scenario and a single migration route out of Africa....
Haplogroup N subclades like haplogroup U6 are also found at high to low frequencies in northwest and northeast Africa due to a back migration from Europe or Asia during the Paleolithic ca. 46,000 ybp, the estimated age of the basal U6* clade.... haplogroup N predominated among ancient Egyptian mummies excavated at the Abusir el-Meleq archaeological site in Middle Egypt, which date from the Pre-Ptolemaic/late New Kingdom, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods....
Haplogroup N's derived clades include the macro-haplogroup R and its descendants, and haplogroups A, I, S, W, X, and Y....
Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_L3_(mtDNA)
It is strongly associated with the out-of-Africa migration of modern humans of about 70–50,000 years ago. It is inherited by all modern non-African populations, as well as by some populations in Africa.... Ancestor: L3'4. Haplogroup L3 arose close to 70,000 years ago, near the time of the recent out-of-Africa event. This dispersal originated in East Africa and expanded to West Asia, and further to South and Southeast Asia in the course of a few millennia, and some research suggests that L3 participated in this migration out of Africa.... L3 most likely expanded from East Africa into Eurasia sometime around 65–55,000 years ago years ago as part of the recent out-of-Africa event, as well as from East Africa into Central Africa from 60–35,000 years ago....
Haplogroups L6 and L4 form sister clades of L3 which arose in East Africa at roughly the same time but which did not participate in the out-of-Africa migration....
Proposed migration route depicting the origin of L3 in Africa and its dispersal both out of and within the continent, with two possible models (as depicted by Vai et al.):
(a) Haplogroup N differentiates from L3 in Africa, with a subsequent spread out of Africa, and differentiation of haplogroup M from L3 outside Africa. (b) Haplogroups M and N diverge from L3 outside Africa after the expansion of L3 from the continent; later migrations during the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic led some lineages back to North Africa....
Proposed migration route according to the Asian origin hypothesis (Cabrera et al.):
a: Exit of the L3 precursor to Eurasia. b: Return to Africa and expansion to Asia of basal L3 lineages with subsequent differentiation in both continents. According to this hypothesis, after an initial out-of-Africa migration of bearers of pre-L3 (L3'4*) around 125 kya, there would have been a back-migration of females carrying L3 from Eurasia to East Africa sometime after 70 kya. The hypothesis suggests that this back-migration is aligned with bearers of paternal haplogroup E, which it also proposes to have originated in Eurasia. These new Eurasian lineages are then suggested to have largely replaced the old autochthonous male and female North-East African lineages.
According to other research, though earlier migrations out of Africa of anatomically modern humans occurred, current Eurasian populations descend instead from a later migration from Africa dated between about 65,000 and 50,000 years ago (associated with the migration out of L3).
According to Maca-Meyer et al. (2001), "L3 is more related to Eurasian haplogroups than to the most divergent African clusters L1 and L2". L3 is the haplogroup from which all modern humans outside Africa derive. However, there is a greater diversity of major L3 branches within Africa than outside of it, the two major non-African branches being the L3 offshoots M and N.... Kenya 4060–3860 L3f1b – Kenya 3350–3180 L3i2 E-V32 Kenya 420–160 L3h1a1 E-M293 Kenya N/A L3a2a E-M35 (not E-M293)...
Macro-haplogroup L (mtDNA)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-haplogroup_L_(mtDNA)#L3-4
In human mitochondrial genetics, L is the mitochondrial DNA macro-haplogroup that is at the root of the anatomically modern human (Homo sapiens) mtDNA phylogenetic tree. As such, it represents the most ancestral mitochondrial lineage of all currently living modern humans, also dubbed "Mitochondrial Eve".
Its two sub-clades are L1-6 and L0. The split occurred during the Penultimate Glacial Period; L1-6 is estimated to have formed ca. 170 kya, and L0 ca. 150 kya. The formation of L0 is associated with the peopling of Southern Africa by populations ancestral to the Khoisan, ca. 140 kya, at the onset of the Eemian interglacial. L1-6 is further subdivided into L2-6 and L1, dated ca. 150 kya and 130 kya, respectively. Haplogroups L5 (120 kya), L2 and L6 (90 kya), L4 (80 kya) and L3 (70 kya) derive from L2-6.
Origin:
The outgroup for mtDNA phylogeny of modern humans is the mtDNA of archaic humans, specifically Neanderthals and Denisovans. The split of the modern human lineage from the Neanderthal and Denisovan lineage is dated to between ca. 760–550 kya based on full genome analysis. This is consistent with the estimate based on Y-chromosomal DNA, which places the split between ca. 806–447 kya.
In terms of mtDNA, however, it appears that modern humans and Neanderthals form a sister clade, with Denisovans as basal outgroup. The split of Neanderthal and modern human mtDNA is dated to about 498–295 kya, i.e. significantly younger than the date estimated based on nuclear DNA. This has been explained as reflecting early gene flow from Africa into the Neanderthal genome, around 270 kya or earlier, i.e. around the time of the first emergence of anatomically modern humans (Jebel Irhoud). Posth et al. (2017) suggest the possibility that early Homo sapiens mtDNA from Africa may have replaced the original Neanderthal mtDNA entirely even when assuming minimal admixture. The Neanderthal and Denisovan lineages diverged before about 430 kya, and Denisovan mtDNA was not affected by the introgression.
The most recent common ancestor of modern human mtDNA (dubbed "Mitochondrial Eve") is dated to ca. 230–150 kya. The emergence of haplogroup L1-6 by definition dates a later time, at an estimated 200–130 kya, possibly in a population in eastern Africa. Haplogroup L0 emerges from the basal haplogroup L1-6* somewhat later, at an estimated 190–110 kya....
Undifferentiated L1'2'3'4'5'6 has been found in Neanderthal fossils from the Caucasus (Mezmaiskaya cave) and the Altai (Denisova Cave), dated to before 50 kya. This suggests that an earlier wave of expansion of Homo sapiens left Africa between about 200–130 kya (during the Penultimate Glacial Period, c.f. Skhul and Qafzeh hominins) and left genetic traces by interbreeding with Neanderthals before disappearing....
Mitochondrial Eve
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_Eve
Possible time of origin c. 100–230 kya. Possible place of origin East Africa.
In human genetics, the Mitochondrial Eve (also mt-Eve, mt-MRCA) is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all living humans. In other words, she is defined as the most recent woman from whom all living humans descend in an unbroken line purely through their mothers and through the mothers of those mothers, back until all lines converge on one woman. In terms of mitochondrial haplogroups, the mt-MRCA is situated at the divergence of macro-haplogroup L into L0 and L1–6....
the position of mt-MRCA is neither fixed in time (as the position of mt-MRCA moves forward in time as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages become extinct), nor does it refer to a "first woman", nor the only living female of her time, nor the first member of a "new species".... mutation in human mtDNA was unexpectedly fast, at 0.02 substitution per base (1%) in a million years, which is 5–10 times faster than in nuclear DNA. Related work allowed for an analysis of the evolutionary relationships among gorillas, chimpanzees (common chimpanzee and bonobo) and humans....
the study did "not support the hypothesis of a recent African origin for all of humanity following a split between Africans and non-Africans 100,000 years ago" and also did "not support the hypothesis of a recent global replacement of humans coming out of Africa."...
The mitochondrial clade which Mitochondrial Eve defines is the species Homo sapiens sapiens itself, or at least the current population or "chronospecies" as it exists today. In principle, earlier Eves can also be defined going beyond the species, for example one who is ancestral to both modern humanity and Neanderthals, or, further back, an "Eve" ancestral to all members of genus Homo and chimpanzees in genus Pan. According to current nomenclature, Mitochondrial Eve's haplogroup was within mitochondrial haplogroup L because this macro-haplogroup contains all surviving human mitochondrial lineages today, and she must predate the emergence of L0. ...
along any particular line of descent, mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations at the rate of approximately one every 3,500 years per nucleotide. A certain number of these new variants will survive into modern times and be identifiable as distinct lineages. At the same time some branches, including even very old ones, come to an end when the last family in a distinct branch has no daughters. Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent common matrilineal ancestor for all modern humans. Whenever one of the two most ancient branch lines dies out (by producing only non matrilinear descendants at that time), the MRCA will move to a more recent female ancestor, always the most recent mother to have more than one daughter with living maternal line descendants alive today....
Other women living during Eve's time may have descendants alive today but not in a direct female line.... The definition of Mitochondrial Eve is fixed, but the woman in prehistory who fits this definition can change. That is, not only can our knowledge of when and where Mitochondrial Eve lived change due to new discoveries, but the actual Mitochondrial Eve can change. The Mitochondrial Eve can change, when a mother-daughter line comes to an end. It follows from the definition of Mitochondrial Eve that she had at least two daughters who both have unbroken female lineages that have survived to the present day. In every generation mitochondrial lineages end – when a woman with unique mtDNA dies with no daughters. When the mitochondrial lineages of daughters of Mitochondrial Eve die out, then the title of "Mitochondrial Eve" shifts forward from the remaining daughter through her matrilineal descendants, until the first descendant is reached who had two or more daughters who together have all living humans as their matrilineal descendants. Once a lineage has died out it is irretrievably lost and this mechanism can thus only shift the title of "Mitochondrial Eve" forward in time.
Because mtDNA mapping of humans is very incomplete, the discovery of living mtDNA lines which predate our current concept of "Mitochondrial Eve" could result in the title moving to an earlier woman. This happened to her male counterpart, "Y-chromosomal Adam," when an older Y line, haplogroup A-00, was discovered.
Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent common matrilineal ancestor, not the most recent common ancestor.... The human MRCA. Monte Carlo simulations suggest the MRCA was born surprisingly recently, perhaps even within the last 5,000 years, even for people born on different continents....
Mitochondrial Eve, the most recent female-line common ancestor of all living people. "Y-chromosomal Adam", the most recent male-line common ancestor of all living people.
Most recent common ancestor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor
In biology and genealogy, the most recent common ancestor (MRCA), last common ancestor (LCA), or concestor of a set of organisms is the most recent individual from which all the organisms of the set are descended. The term is also used in reference to the ancestry of groups of genes (haplotypes) rather than organisms.
The MRCA of a set of individuals can sometimes be determined by referring to an established pedigree. However, in general, it is impossible to identify the exact MRCA of a large set of individuals, but an estimate of the time at which the MRCA lived can often be given. Such time to most recent common ancestor (TMRCA)...
In organisms using sexual reproduction, the matrilinear MRCA and patrilinear MRCA are the MRCAs of a given population considering only matrilineal and patrilineal descent, respectively. The MRCA of a population by definition cannot be older than either its matrilinear or its patrilinear MRCA. In the case of Homo sapiens, the matrilinear and patrilinear MRCA are also known as "Mitochondrial Eve" (mt-MRCA) and "Y-chromosomal Adam" (Y-MRCA) respectively. The age of the human MRCA is unknown. It is no greater than the age of either the Y-MRCA or the mt-MRCA, estimated at around 200,000 years.
Unlike in pedigrees of individual humans or domesticated lineages where historical parentage is known, in the inference of relationships among species or higher groups of taxa (systematics or phylogenetics), ancestors are not directly observable or recognizable. They are inferences based on patterns of relationship among taxa inferred in a phylogenetic analysis of extant organisms and/or fossils. The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth, estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago (in the Paleoarchean).
[LUCA is the most recent population of organisms from which all organisms now living on Earth have a common descent—the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. A related concept is that of progenote. LUCA is not thought to be the first life on Earth, but rather the latest that is ancestral to all current existing life. LUCA probably lived in the high-temperature water of deep sea vents near ocean-floor magma flows. LUCA appears to have been a small, single-celled organism. It likely had a ring-shaped coil of DNA floating freely within the cell. Its genetic code was likely based on DNA, so that it lived after the RNA world. The most commonly accepted tree of life, based on several molecular studies, has its root between a monophyletic domain Bacteria and a clade formed by Archaea and Eukaryota.]
Identical ancestors point
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identical_ancestors_point
In genetic genealogy, the identical ancestors point (IAP) is the most recent point in a given population's past such that each individual alive at this point either has no living descendants, or is the ancestor of every individual alive in the present. This point lies further in the past than the population's most recent common ancestor (MRCA).
A set of full siblings has an IAP one generation back: their parents. Similarly, double first cousins have an IAP two generations back: the four grandparents.
Considering all humans alive today and moving back in time, we eventually arrive at the MRCA to all humans. The MRCA had many contemporary companions. Many of these contemporaries had descendant lines to some people living today, but not to all people living today. Others did not have any children, or had descendants, but all descendant lines are now fully extinct.
Going further back, all the ancestors of the MRCA are also common ancestors to all humans, just not the most recent. As we move further back in time, other common ancestors will be found on other lines, resulting in more and more of the ancient population being common ancestors. Eventually the point is reached where all people in the past population fall into one of two categories: they are common ancestors, with at least one line of descent to everyone living today, or, they are the ancestors of no one alive today, because their lines of descent are completely extinct on every branch. This point in time is termed the 'identical ancestors point'.
AMERICAN INDIANS FIRST PEOPLE WERE FROM A DUAL SIBERIAN ORIGIN. A MIGRATION FROM ALTAI-SAYAN UPLAND AND A DIFFERENT MIGRATION FROM THE LOWER AMUR OF OKHOTSK. AMERINDS mtDNA WERE ONLY FROM A2 AND B2 OF THE N MACRO HG, AND C1b AND D1b OF THE M MACRO HG. X IS ALSO FOUND AMONG THE AMERIND. THE ANCESTORS OF THE AMERIND A2 AND B2 WERE A1 AND B1 FROM ALTAI-SAYAN. THE ANCESTORS OF THE AMERIND C1b AND D1b WERE C1a AND D1a FROM THE AMUR RIVER REGION. X IS WEST EURASIAN FROM THE PALEOLITHIC FOUND IN ALTAI. X IS OF THE N MACRO HG...
Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Indigenous Populations of the Southern Extent of Siberia, and the Origins of Native American Haplogroups
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3905771/
Early studies of Native American mtDNA variation have shown that all Native American mtDNAs belong to haplogroups A, B, C, D and X... remnants of the ancient Siberian gene pool are still evident in Siberian populations, suggesting that the founding haplotypes of the Native American A–D branches originated in different parts of Siberia. Thus, lineage A complete sequences revealed in the Mansi of the Lower Ob and the Ket of the Lower Yenisei belong to A1, suggesting that A1 mtDNAs occasionally found in the remnants of hunting-gathering populations of northwestern and northern Siberia belonged to a common gene pool of the Siberian progenitors of Paleoindians. Moreover, lineage B1, which is the most closely related to the American B2, occurred in the Tubalar and Tuvan inhabiting the territory between the upper reaches of the Ob River in the west, to the Upper Yenisei region in the east. Finally, the sequence variants of haplogroups C and D, which are most similar to Native American C1 and D1, were detected in the Ulchi of the Lower Amur. Overall, our data suggest that the immediate ancestors of the Siberian/Beringian migrants who gave rise to ancient (pre-Clovis) Paleoindians have a common origin with aboriginal people of the area now designated the Altai-Sayan Upland, as well as the Lower Amur/Sea of Okhotsk region.
The diffusion of the first modern humans in Siberia appears to have been restricted to the regions south of the 55°N parallel, where multiple Upper Paleolithic sites have been found and dated to 43,000-39,000 YBP. Environmental conditions permitting human entry into the New World apparently existed shortly before and after 30,000 YBP and 13,000 YBP, when many areas in Siberia/Beringia remained ice-free and may have been periodically connected to the North American interior through an ice-free corridor, which was repeatedly buried under continental glaciers...
The affinity of southern Siberians with Native Americans is supported by anthropological, dental and genetic evidence, including paternally inherited Y chromosome polymorphisms and autosomal HLA class II gene(s) variation. Intriguingly, the HLA class II gene frequencies separate Siberian/Asian/Native American populations into two clusters, one of which encompasses nearly all of the Siberian and all of the Native American populations, while the other consistes of central, eastern and southeastern Asians....
While haplogroup B is absent in aboriginal populations of northwestern and northern Siberia, it has been found in populations restricted to the south-western and south-central periphery of the subcontinent ...
Together, these data encompass all of the linguistic groups of indigenous Siberian populations, and support a dual Siberian origin for Native Americans: a migration derived from the Altai-Sayan Upland and a migration from the Lower Amur River/Sea of Okhotsk region....
The populations studied extend from the Northeastern Altai in the west to the Lower Amur/Sea of Okhotsk region in eastern Siberia. The overall distribution of mtDNA subhaplogroups across Siberia is shown in Table 2. Approximately, 66% of southern Siberian mtDNAs were found to belong to the “Asian” macro-haplogroup M (defined by presence of the 10394 DdeI and 10397 AluI sites) and its derivatives. The remaining mtDNAs belonged to the macro-haplogroup N...
Macro-haplogroup N mtDNAs:
(A2 AMERIND) found in Native Americans. Thus, the homeland of A2 is most likely a Beringian refuge area, from where it subsequently expanded into the New World...
B1 mtDNAs were found in a Tubalar and a Tuvan... Overall, our analysis of haplogroup B mtDNAs from southern Siberia has revealed four distinct subhaplogroups (B1 TUBULAR, B3 BURYAT, B4 TOFALAR and B5 NEGIDAL ), but only one (B1) is closely related to B2 AMERIND, the branch of B found in Native Americans.... the Siberian B1 and the Native American B2. In addition, its coding region harboured seven transitions, and we classified this mtDNA within the novel subhaplogroup B3... subhaplogroup B4 originated in either central or southeastern Asia. Finally, we observed two Tuvan and four Negidal mtDNAs belonging to subhaplogroup B5 ...Lineage B5 is most likely widespread in central/eastern Asia...
Haplogroup F... were observed in the Tubalar, Tofalar, and Tuvan of the Altai-Sayan, the Mansi of the Lower Ob River, and the Ket and Evenki of the Middle Yenisei River... this mtDNA type appears to be more closely related to the one which is common in Tibet.
Haplogroup Y...was first localized in the Russian Far East...Haplogroup Y is restricted to the Lower Amur/Sea of Okhotsk region and adjacent Kamchatka....recent origin, arising long after the migration of the progenitors of Native Americans to the New World....
Several “west” Eurasian haplogroups, including H, V, J, U4, U5, W, and X, were also detected. Their confinement to the south-west part of Siberia might be indicative of an Upper Paleolithic dispersal from the Middle East/southeastern Europe...Alternatively, a relatively recent gene flow mediated by women of European/West Asian ancestry could have occurred at the time of the expanding Mongolian Empire.
Macro-haplogroup M mtDNAs:
Haplogroup C....It is the most common and widespread throughout Siberia... Ulchi mtDNA (C1a) and Native American mtDNA (C1b) are the most similar...C2 lineage appears to be the most common and widespread in Siberia... C1a ULCHI, C1b AMERIND, D1a ULCHI, D1b AMERIND, ... Thus, the sharing of the mutation D1 at np 16325 in the Lower Amur and the Americas suggests a possible association between the Lower Amur and Native Americans.... D2 was most likely restricted to a relatively small area of Greater Beringia,... D3 lineage is uncommon but widespread in Siberia... D4 is common among the Negidal, Ulchi and Nivkhi of the Lower Amur, and has also been observed at low frequencies in the Tubular and Naganasan... D5 which, in contrast to the other subsets of D, has back mutated...thus indicating a northward expansion of D5 from East Asia.
Haplogroup G is widespread in Siberian and adjacent Asian populations...G1 is restricted to the Sea of Okhotsk region,...Subhaplogroup G2 appears to be widespread in central/eastern Asia...it is rare or absent in the Russian Far East....
haplogroup S...The confinement of haplogroup S to southern and southeastern Siberia, inhabited by Mongolic-, Turkic-, and Tungusic-speaking populations which are members of the Altaic linguistic family, implies that it probably arose in one of the hunting groups ancestral to the Altaic-speakers. We presume that this lineage originated in the putative homeland (Mongolia/Manchuria) of the Altaic-speakers and was then dispersed by their geographical expansion.
haplogroup Z haplotype. Based on the distribution of haplogroups C, S, Z and the number of variants encompasses, we postulate that south-central Siberia was the place of origin for the ancestral haplotype, and the populations bearing haplogroup Z must have spread into northern Eurasia after the ancestors of the Amerindians left the region....
The observed geographical distribution of these haplogroups (Tables 1 and 2) would be expected from anthropological, archaeological and linguistic evidence indicating the expansion of the Altaic-speakers from the Lower Amur/Manchuria region during the Neolithic...
A large variety of mtDNA haplogroups and subhaplogroups have been found in Siberia. However, only one or at most two subhaplogroups of A, B, C, and D appear to have contributed to the human colonization of the Americas, confirming that only a limited number of founder mtDNAs gave rise to the ancestral Native American populations...
Almost all Native American haplogroup A mtDNAs are...thus belonging to subhaplogroup A2... A1 mtDNAs observed in the Mansi and Ket are part of an A1 northward dispersal that presumably originated in the Altai-Sayan region, and gave rise to A2 after expanding into eastern Beringia.
the common ancestor of Siberian B1 and Amerind B2 could be traced back to the Altai-Sayan Upland. The failure to identify B1 mtDNAs north and northeast of the Altai-Sayan may be explained by their extinction...prior to the last glacial maximum (>24,000 YBP)....
haplogroup D forms a cluster by itself within the macrogroup M, haplogroups C, S, and Z are sister groups.... The origin of the Asian CSZ cluster appears to be rooted in central/eastern Asia during the Upper Paleolithic period, and to have later emerged as the progenitor of the Native American haplogroup C. However, since neither S nor Z mtDNAs have been reported in Native Americans mtDNAs, these haplogroups could have appeared in the Altai-Sayan-Baikal Upland and the Amur region after the immediate ancestors of Paleoindians had already migrated from the southern Siberia.
While lineages C2 and C3 are present at significant frequencies in Uralic, Kettic, Altaic, Chukchi/Koriak speakers, they are absent in Native Americans. The geographic distribution and phylogenetic relationships of C2 and C3 suggest that they arose in the Altai-Sayan-Baikal area.... C1 and its distinguishing mutations originated in the Amur River region and that from that region, the Native American branch C1b arose....
The finding of both C1a and D1a only on the southwestern edge of former Beringia is intriguing, and indicates that the Amur River region could have been the main Siberian source for Amerindian haplogroups C and D. In contrast, subhaplogroup D2 is confined to Chukotka, Alaska and the Aleutian archipelago with a great geographical/tribal specificity; D2a in the Na-Dene, D2b in the Aleut and D2c in the Eskimos...
the lineages A1, B1, C1 and D1 constituted the core genetic makeup of the Siberian progenitors of Paleoindians that spread northwards as a uniform entity. However, it is more likely that the current mtDNA differences between Altai-Sayan Upland, where A1 and B1 occur, and the Amur region, where the traces of C1 and D1 are found, are due to genetic differentiation of the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants of Siberia.... The phylogeny of haplogroup A, B, C and D lineages revealed through this study is consistent with the hypothesis that the direct ancestors of Native Americans were a hybrid product of different Siberian groups that had migrated to eastern Beringia at different times and following different routes.
I AM A LITTLE CONFUSED. PRIOR TO 2008 T HG WAS K2. NOT SURE IF THIS T HG IS THE SAME AS THE PALEOLITHIC K2 OF WHICH K2b WAS THE FIRST PALEOLITHIC EUROPEAN OF WHICH R1b DESCENDS? K HG HAD A WIDE SPREAD BACK IN THE PALEOLITHIC....
Haplogroup T-M184
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T-M184
Possible time of origin 48,800-10,500 years BP. Possible place of origin Western Asia. Ancestor LT. Descendants T1 (T-L206); T2 (T-PH110).
also known as Haplogroup T.... As a primary branch of haplogroup LT (a.k.a. K1), the basal, undivergent haplogroup T* currently has the alternate phylogenetic name of K1b and is a sibling of haplogroup L* (a.k.a. K1a). (Before 2008, haplogroup T and its subclades were known as haplogroup K2. The name K2 has since been reassigned to a primary subclade of haplogroup K.) It has two primary branches: T1 (T-L206) and T2 (T-PH110)....
T-M184 is unusual in that it is both geographically widespread and relatively rare.
T1 (T-L206) – the numerically dominant primary branch of T-M184 – appears to have originated in Western Asia, and possibly spread from there into the East Africa, South Asia, Southern Europe and adjoining regions. T1* may have expanded with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture (PPNB). Most males who now belong to haplogroup T-L206 carry the subclade T-M70 (T1a), a primary branch of T-M206. T-M70 appears to have been present in Europe since the neolithic, having possibly arrived there in the Neolithic epoch with the first farmers....
presence of T on the African continent may, like R1* representatives, point to an older introduction from Asia. The Levant rather than the Arabian Peninsula appears to have been the main route of entry, as the Egyptian and Turkish haplotypes are considerably older in age (13,700 BP and 9,000 BP, respectively) than those found in Oman (only 1,600 BP). According to the authors, the spotty modern distribution pattern of haplogroup T-M184 within Africa may therefore represent the traces of a more widespread early local presence of the clade. Later expansions of populations carrying the E1b1b, E1b1a, G and J NRY lineages may have overwhelmed the T-M184 clade-bearers in certain localities....
Prevalence of T-M184 in Armenians from Sasun. Haplogroup T-M184, which is relatively rare in other Near Eastern populations, as well as in three of the Armenian collections tested here, represents the most prominent descent in Sasun, comprising 20.1% of the samples... In the Caucasus and Anatolia it makes up to 4% of the population in southeast and northwest Caucasus... 4% of the population around the Zagros Mountains and the Persian Gulf as well as around the Taurus Mountains and the Levant basin, peaking up to 10% in Zoroastrians from Kerman, Bakhtiaris, Assyrians from Azerbaijan, Abudhabians, Armenians from Historical Southwestern Armenia and Druzes from Galilee. In Eastern Africa it makes up to 4% of the population on Upper Egypt peaking up to 10% in Luxor....
Haplogroup T is rare almost everywhere in Europe.... 4% of the population on Central Italy, Western Sicily, Northwest Corsica, Northwestern Iberian Peninsula, Western Andalucia, Western Alps, Eastern Crete, and Macedonia, frequencies up to 10% in Ibiza, Miranda de I Douro, Eastern Oviedo, Cádiz, Badajoz, Balagna, Norma and Ragusa, and peaking at 20% in Sciacca, L'Aquila and some German regions[which?]. T-M184 was found in 1.7% (10/591) of a pool of six samples of males from southwestern Russia, but it was completely absent from a pool of eight samples totalling 637 individuals from the northern half of European Russia. The Russians from the southwest were from the following cities: Roslavl, Livny, Pristen, Repyevka, and Belgorod; and Kuban Cossacks from the Republic of Adygea.
T1 is the most common descent of T-M184 haplogroup, being the lineage of more than 95% of all Eurasian T-M184 members. One of their descent lineages is found in high frequencies among northern Somali clans. However, it appears to have originated somewhere around the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, perhaps somewhere between Israel to the Jordan Valley. The basal T1* subclade appears to have spread to northeastern Anatolia, from the Levant at least, with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture (PPNB)...
MODERN, AND ARCHAIC ANCIENT HISTORIES REVEALS MIXED BREEDING OF ANIMALS CREATING NEW HYBRID ANIMALS SOME COULD REPRODUCE WHILE SOME COULD NOT. SOME WAS NATURAL SELECTION WHILE SOME WERE FORCED GENERALLY UNDER CAPTIVITY. THERE WERE ALSO HOMO MIXBREEDS WHICH HYBRIDIZED. AND ANIMALS AND HOMOS ALSO INTERMIXED WITH EACH OTHER CREATING HYBRIDS. IN MODERN ANCIENT HISTORY HOMOS MATED WITH MANY SPECIES OF ANIMALS SO MUCH THAT IT BECAME BANNED AND AGAINST THE LAW. THE BIBLE ALSO BANS IT. IN ARCHAIC ANCIENT HISTORY NIGGERS ARE PROOF OF ANIMAL HOMO HYBRIDS. THE RHESUS GENE IS ALSO PROOF OF MAMMALS INTERBREEDING WITH HOMOS BECAUSE HOMOS NEVER HAD THIS GENE. RHESUS GENES WAS PASSED ONTO THE HOMOS FROM THE MAMMALS OR MORE PRECISELY FROM THE APES AS THEY INTERBRED WITH THE ARCHAIC MANKIND IN AFRICA WHICH CREATED THE APE HOMO NIGGER OR A YDNA HAPLOGROUP WHICH CONTINUED TO INTERMIX CREATING BT YDNA HG AND CHIMPANZEES. BUT, WHY DID ARCHAIC MAN INTERBREED WITH APES? WAS IT THEY WERE ATTRACTED TO EACH OTHER, OR WAS IT FORCED BY CAPTIVITY? ARCHAIC MAN MAY HAVE CAPTURED OTHER ARCAHIC MAN SPECIES AND APES INTERBREEDING THEM TO CREATE A SLAVE THAT WAS MORE PHYSICALLY INCLINED FOR LABOR. IT IS GENETIC CLOSENESS AND NOT SAME SPECIES WHICH DETERMINE REPRODUCTION. DIFFERENT SPECIES CAN AND DO REPRODUCE WHICH IS HOW THE NIGGER WAS CREATED WHEN ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH APES. MOST INTERBREEDING CAN NOT REPRODUCE, AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF HYBRIDS WHICH CAN ARE NOT ALWAYS POSITIVE AS IT LED TO EXTINCTION OF MANY ARCHAIC SPECIES FROM INFERTILIZATION, INCOMPATABILITY TO DISEASE, ETC....
Earliest-known Human Engineered Hybrid Animals Identified in Mesopotamia
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/hybrid-animals-0016303
A super-powerful animal known as the ‘kunga’ was the first-known human-engineered hybrid of two animal species...“Kungas were F1 hybrids between female domestic donkeys and male hemippes [Syrian wild ass], thus documenting the earliest evidence of hybrid animal breeding. Large-sized male kungas were used to pull the vehicles of ‘nobility and gods’, and their size and speed made them more desirable than asses for the towing of four-wheeled war wagons,” ...
Kungas, too, like mules, a much later cross between donkeys and horses, were sterile. Each new kunga was therefore a one-off and didn’t establish a lineage....
THE DIFFERNCES BETWEEN UB10749 AND OTHER EURASIAN HOMININS SUPPORTS AT LEAST TWO DISPERSALS OUT OF AFRICA TO EURASIA BETWEEN 1.1 AND 1.9 MYA. UB10749 IS ASSIGNED TO HOMINOIDEA BECAUSE IT HAS A HOMININ VERTEBRA OUTSIDE OF CHIMPANZEE. AN EARLY PLEISTOCENE HOMO FROM EAST AFRICA. HOWEVER, THE OSSIFICATION IS IMMATURE COMPARED TO MODERN HUMAN WHICH COULD SUGGEST A DIFFERENT OSSIFICATION PATTERN NOT FOUND IN EITHER THE HUMAN OR APE BUT, OCCURS IN APE-HOMO HYBRIDS WHEN THE ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH APES IN AFRICA. WHICH COULD EXPLAIN THE LARGE DIVERSITY OF HOMININS OUT OF AFRICA AS NEW APE-HOMO HYBRIDS EXPANDED FROM AFRICA. THE TAXONOMY OF PLEISTOCENE HOMOS AND APE-HOMOS ARE DEBATED. SOME PUT NIGGERS INTO A DIFFERENT SPECIES AS THE EUROPEANS. TWO MAJOR TAXON PLEISTOCENE GROUPS EXIST SMALL BODIED AND LARGE BODIED WHICH OCCURRED BY THE DIFFERENT ADMIXTURES OF ARCHAIC MANKINDS AND THE DIFFERENT APES HE INTERBRED WHICH CAUSED THE DIVERSITY OF APE-HOMOS IN AFRICA. THESE APE-HOMO HYBRIDS DISPERSE OUT OF AFRICA AT LEAST TWICE DURING 1.1 TO 1.9 MYA BUT, WERE NOT FROM THE SAME POPULATION...
The earliest Pleistocene record of a large-bodied hominin from the Levant supports two out-of-Africa dispersal events
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-05712-y
Levantine corridor: a juvenile vertebra (UB 10749) from the early Pleistocene site of ‘Ubeidiya, Israel...with morphological characteristics consistent with Homo sp. ...
Paleobiological differences between UB 10749 and other early Eurasian hominins supports at least two distinct out-of-Africa dispersal events....
there are numerous Eurasian early Pleistocene sites, fossil hominin remains are rare and present only at four localities dated between 1.1 and 1.9 Mya: Dmanisi (Georgia), Venta Micena (Orce, Granada), Modjokerto and Sangiran (Java, Indonesia), and Sima De Elefante (Atapuerca, Spain). In contrast, early Pleistocene east African sites containing Homo cranial remains are more abundant, but postcranial remains are scarcer, and the best-preserved skeleton is Nariokotome KNM-WT 15000....
In the Levant, the only site from this time-period with hominin remains is ‘Ubeidiya...identified as Homo cf. erectus/ergaster... In 2018 a complete vertebral body (UB 10749) with hominin characteristics was found. This is the first hominin postcranial remain found at ‘Ubeidiya securely assigned to early Pleistocene deposits...
Primates (Homo, Pongo, Gorilla, Theropithecus and Papio).... The size, the large vertebral plate, and the relatively short vertebral body of UB 10749 indicates that it belongs to hominoidea. The lordotic wedging and the concavity of the inferior plate further suggests that this is a hominin vertebra...
To narrow the taxonomic identification, we compared UB 10749 to a range of extant and extinct hominin species, and to Pan as an outgroup. The analysis revealed that the best index to which best differentiates between lumbar vertebral bodies of Homo and Pan is 'superior length to posterior height'. This index also differentiates between Homo and Australopithecus. Compared to the three presacral vertebrae (PS1–PS3) of hominins and Pan, UB 10749 falls within the range of Homo and outside the range of Pan or Australopithecus. It falls near the position of the vertebrae of KNM-WT-15000, an early Pleistocene sub adult specimen from east Africa. Therefore, we conclude that the vertebra at hand most probably belongs to an early Pleistocene Homo....
absence of the vertebral arch, we cannot rule out anterior slippage of the vertebral body, i.e., spondylolisthesis or facet joint deformities. The discrepancy between the size of the vertebral body and the level of ossification is puzzling. The size of UB 10749 is equivalent to an 11–15-year-old modern human, and the level of ossification is equivalent to a 3–6-year-old modern human child. This discrepancy might result from several factors, including developmental or pathological conditions, such as: persistent notochondral canal; hypopituitarism; androgen deficiency; genetic mutation. While these conditions are rare in modern humans, they cannot be ruled out. Another possibility is that UB 10749 displays a different ossification pattern than observed in modern humans or great apes....
The paucity of Eurasian skeletal remains from the early Pleistocene leaves a considerable gap in our understanding of hominin paleobiology. In this respect, the ‘Ubeidiya specimen is significant, providing important evidence regarding the diversity of hominins that dispersed out of Africa.... UB 10749 is a lower lumbar vertebra of an early Pleistocene Homo. The dorsal wedging of the vertebral body, the widening of the inferior plate compared with the superior plate, the concavity of the inferior plate, and the ventrodorsally elongated vertebral body compared with vertebral height are all familiar lower lumbar human traits.
The taxonomic affinity of early Pleistocene hominins is debated, and suggested taxonomic nomenclature includes H. rudolfensis, H. habilis, H. ergaster, H. erectus, H. georgicus, and H. antecessor. Within the early Pleistocene, two major taxon groups coexist. One, the small-bodied hominin, traditionally represented by H. habilis is characterized by small body, primitive limb proportions, robust skull and small cranial volume. This is opposed to the large-bodied hominin, represented by H. erectus, with human like limb proportions and larger cranial capacity. Based on its size, the UB 10749 is too large to belong to the small-bodied hominins such as H. habilis sensu lato. In this sense, UB 10749 is attributed to the large-bodied, early Pleistocene Homo. Since very little is known regarding their postcranial morphology, a more definitive taxonomical affinity is not possible.... The evidence presented here demonstrates that UB 10749 represents a hominin with shared affinities to East African large-bodied hominins...
While it has been assumed that there were many dispersals events, the dispersals are often discussed in terms of filling a single ecological niche for early Homo sensu latu. Moreover, hypotheses concerning intrinsic or extrinsic forces that may have led or supported these dispersals are often tested across sites dating from 1.9 to 0.8 Mya but analyzed as a single dispersal event. However, other researchers suggest that the difference in lithic assemblages between Dmanisi (Oldowan) and ‘Ubeidiya (Acheulean) reflect separate dispersal events. Our conclusion that UB 10749 is a large-bodied Levantine hominin, supports the occurrence of several Pleistocene dispersals that were not only separated in time but also in ecology....
It follows that each of the hominin populations associated with the dispersals may have exhibited unique ecological and behavioral adaptations. Most importantly, our interpretation that the large-bodied hominin from ‘Ubeidiya and the small-bodied hominin from Dmanisi were not from the same population explains the difficulty thus far in identifying a single early Pleistocene Homo niche. Chronologically, Dmanisi predates ‘Ubeidiya by several hundred thousand years (200–500kya). It is possible that there was a single dispersal event, followed by in-situ local evolution which led to different hominin morphology in to two regions. This explanation is unlikely as we find small and large bodied hominins coexisting within Africa during the early Pleistocene for nearly 500kya. Therefore, the more parsimonious explanation is two distinct “Out of Africa” dispersal events....
RESEARCHERS EXAMINE DNA OF 6 REMAINS DATING FROM 18KYA TO 5KYA FROM MALAWI, TANZANIA, AND ZAMBIA. WITH SO MUCH MIGRATIONS IN AND OUT OF AFRICA IT HAS BEEN DIFFICULT TO RECONSTRUCT. THESE RESEARCHERS THINK THAT BY 20KYA PEOPLE BEGAN TO STOP MOVING AROUND SO MUCH. A MORE LOCAL BEHAVIOR IN EAST AFRICA. PREVIOUS RESEARCH WAS FROM MOROCCO. PRiOR TO 20KYA HOMOS IN AFRICA WERE MORE DIVERSe INTERBREEDING WITH APES AND THEIR RESULTING HYBRIDS...
Ancient DNA reveals surprises about how early Africans lived, traveled and interacted: New research provides evidence of demographic shifts in sub-Saharan Africa
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/02/220223111223.htm
published today in Nature and reports findings from ancient DNA from six individuals buried in Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia who lived between 18,000 and 5,000 years ago.... Their genetic legacy is difficult to reconstruct from present-day people because of the many population movements and mixtures that have occurred in the last few thousand years.... Researchers long assumed that major changes in the archaeological record about 50,000 years ago reflected a shift in social networks and maybe even changes in population size. However, such hypotheses have remained difficult to test....
The researchers were also able to demonstrate that by about 20,000 years ago, people had stopped moving around so much. "Maybe it was because by that point, previously established social networks allowed for the flow of information and technologies without people having to move," Sawchuk said. Prendergast said the study provides a better understanding of how people moved and mingled in this part of Africa. Previously, the earliest African DNA came from what is now Morocco.... "Our genetic study confirms an archaeological pattern of more local behavior in eastern Africa over time,"... "At first people found reproductive partners from wide geographic and cultural pools. Later, they prioritized partners who lived closer, and who were potentially more culturally similar."...
H.FLORES IS AN APE-HOMO HYBRID WHEN AN ARCHAIC MANKIND INTERBRED WITH APES PROBABLY IN AFRICA WHICH MIGRATE OUT AT LEAST HALF MILLION YEARS BEFORE MODERN MAN. ANOTHER ORIGINAL MANKIND GENOCIDED BY THE APE-HOMOS....
Is Ancient Human Species Homo Floresiensis Still Alive in Indonesia?
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/homo-floresiensis-lives-0016661
Homo floresiensis, as Gregory Forth’s latest book title [Between Ape and Human] makes clear, is between ape and human... The specimens shared important characteristics with fossils from various extinct human species, like Homo erectus and Australopithecus, but also possessed physical traits more familiar to those who study fossils of ancient apes.... These were dated to between 50,000 and 190,000 years ago , pushing the survival of the last of the Homo floresiensis even closer to modern times.... half-ape, half-man... Homo floresiensis had settled on the island a half-million years before the earliest modern humans had even evolved....
Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02956
AFRICAN APE-HOMOS PREFER A MORE STABLE CLIMATE WHILE THE ARCHAIC EUROPEAN AND ASIAN HOMININ GROUPS PREFERRED DIFFERENT CLIMATES. ALL ADAPTING TO CLIMATIC SHIFTS...
Early human habitats linked to past climate shifts
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/04/220413131147.htm
"Even though different groups of archaic humans preferred different climatic environments, their habitats all responded to climate shifts caused by astronomical changes in earth's axis wobble, tilt, and orbital eccentricity with timescales ranging from 21 to 400 thousand years,"... researchers found significant differences in the habitat patterns for the three most recent hominin groups (Homo sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo heidelbergensis) when using the shuffled and the realistic fossil ages....
From the contact zone analysis, the researchers then derived a hominin family tree, according to which Neanderthals and likely Denisovans derived from the Eurasian clade of Homo heidelbergensis around 500-400 thousand years ago, whereas Homo sapiens' roots can be traced back to Southern African populations of late Homo heidelbergensis around 300 thousand years ago....
"When we looked at the data for the five major hominin groups, we discovered an interesting pattern. Early African hominins around 2-1 million years ago preferred stable climatic conditions. This constrained them to relatively narrow habitable corridors. Following a major climatic transition about 800 thousand year ago, a group known under the umbrella term Homo heidelbergensis adapted to a much wider range of available food resources, which enabled them to become global wanderers, reaching remote regions in Europe and eastern Asia,"...
This study considers the following hominin species: Homo sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis, Homo heidelbergensis (including African and Eurasian populations), Homo erectus and early African Homo (including Homo ergaster and Homo habilis).
MAMMALS IN AFRICA INCLUDING APES AND APE-HOMOS, AND HOMOS OVER THE PAST 4 MILLION FOSSIL YEARS HAVE NOT BEEN EVOLUTIONARY AFFECTED BY CLIMATE VARIABILITY. THUS, EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE RESULTS IN GENETIC POOL SHARING WITH A LITTLE GENE MUTATION POSSIBLY CAUSE BY THE GENE POOL SHARING AS DIFFEFRENT MANKINDS MIX, AND AS THE APE-HOMOS MIX IN WITH MANKINDS CAUSING EXTINCTIONS AND CREATIONS OF ARCHAIC MANKINDS AND CREATIONS OF NEW APE-HOMO HYBRIDS.
APE-HOMO HYBRIDS WERE MADE WHEN ARCHAIC MAN INTERBRED WITH APES PASSING ON AND MIXING MAN GENES WITH APE GENES. COMBINED WITH NEW MUTATIONS FORMING NOT PRESENT IN EITHER THE APE PARENT NOR MAN PARENT. NEW MUTATIONS OCCUR MORE FREQUENTLY FROM SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES THAT ACCUMULATES THRU THE GENERATIONS. THUS, EVOLUTION IS THE PRODUCT OF GENE POOLS INHERITED TO EACH INDIVIDUAL BY OUR PARENTS, AND FROM THEIR PARENTS AND SO ON DOWN THE LINE WITH ANY CHANGE TO THE OFFSPRING A RESULT OF GENERATIONAL GENE POOL ACCUMULATIONS, AND SOME RANDOM. THIS EXPLAINS WHY NIGGERS INHERIT MORE APE GENE MUTATIONS CONTRIBUTING TO THEIR HbS MUTATIONS, SICKLE CELL, AND OTHER APE FEATURES. IF DARWINS THEORY WAS TRUE THEN EUROPEANS WOULD ALSO BE NIGGERS AS WELL. THUS, EUROPEANS CAN ONLY BECOME NIGGER IF THEY INTERBREED WITH NIGGERS TO INHERIT GENES FROM THE APE-HOMOS...
Climatic variability might not drive evolutionary change as much as previously thought
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/04/220411160512.htm
A new study combining climate data with fossil records of large mammals that lived across Africa during the last 4 million years casts doubt on a long-standing hypothesis that repeated shifts in climate acted as major drivers of evolutionary change in mammals, including human ancestors.... The results did not, however, yield a significant correlation between environmental variation and rates of species origination or extinction, suggesting that environmental variability and species turnover may not be closely related, a notion that has been widely debated in the scientific community....
"Overall, there has been a long-term trend over the last 3.5 million years of increasing variability in the environment,"... All the while, the fossil record of species origination and extinction among the large herbivores, and also hominin fossils, appears to be disconnected from these climatic variability trends. While the authors acknowledge that the variability selection hypothesis could still be correct but operating at different scales...
"We don't say that environmental variability is not important for human evolution, but the data we have currently compiled is very inconsistent with that idea,"...
CERTAIN HIGHER APES INCLUDING NIGGERS EVOLVED FROM HYBRIDIZED APE-HOMOS. WHEN ARCHAIC MAN IN AFRICA INTERBRED WITH LOWER APES HE HYBRIDIZED NEW APES WHICH INHERITED MAN FEATURES. THE GORILLA, ORANG, CHIMPS, HAVE RUDIMENTS ON THEIR BRAIN OF PARTS WHICH ARE PECULIAR ONLY TO THE HUMAN SPECIES. THE NIGGERS WHEN FIRST HYBRIDIZED BY THE INTERBREEDING OF ARCHAIC MAN WITH APES HAD BRAINS IN BETWEEN THE GORILLA, ORANG, CHIMPANZEES AND MAN. LOWER MAMMALIANS DO NOT HAVE THIS BRAIN PART FEATURE. IT IS ONLY PECULIAR TO MAN, AND ANY APE WHICH HAS IT CAME FROM THE ARCHAIC MAN....
The Gorilla and the Negro
https://mathcs.clarku.edu/huxley/comm/ScPr/owen.html
Special anatomical details of these several parts, in comparison with the brains of the Chimpanzee and Orang, were then given, and Prof. Owen proceeded, in conclusion, as follow:– The advocate for man’s origin from a transmuted ape contends, that there is a greater difference of structure between the brains of a Gorilla and of a Lemur than between those of a Gorilla and of a Negro; and suiting his definitions to the statement, he affirms that the higher apes possess the "posterior lobe" with the "posterior horn" of the lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus minor, or at least the "rudiments" of the parts which have been alleged to be peculiar to the human species....
In like manner, the pes hippocampi minoris in the brain of the Orang and Chimpanzee answers to the part so called in human anatomy, but not to the hippocampus minor, which, as developed and extended in the human brain, and as defined in human anatomy, is peculiar to man. So, likewise, the extension or production of the lateral ventricle "backwards, outwards and then inwards" is peculiar to man; and the base or beginning of such extension in the ape’s brain can only be called a "rudiment" of the posterior cornu, in the sense in which the base or stump of the tail in the Manx cat may be called the "rudiment," or representative of the fully developed tail of the ordinary feline.
With regard to the graver objection of the transmutationist to inferences based upon the broad and unmistakeable distinctions between the human and higher quadrumanal brains, viz., that the difference of size, shape and structure is still greater as between the Chimpanzee and lowest Quadrumane,-the objection might be put even still more strongly by affirming that the difference is greater, in regard to cerebral development and structure, as between the Gorilla and the Opossum: and still more so as between the Gorilla and the Fish, than as between the Gorilla and the human species....
Whatever be the true and deep significance of the fact, there is a gradation of cerebral development from the lowest to the highest vertebrate species... The monotremes and marsupials have no connecting or "commissural " mass of fibres, overarching the lateral ventricles of the brain:.. mammalian class were proposed as grounds for the division of the class into primary groups, it was objected that the thickening by transverse fibres at the fore part of the fornix: in the marsupial brain was a rudiment of the corpus callosum, and that therefore it was incorrect to deny the existence of that great commissure in Marsupialia, and to predicate its presence in higher Mammalia as peculiar to, because fully developed in them. In like manner the beginning of the extension of the hind part of the cerebral hemispheres over the cerebellum, with cerebral concomitant beginning of the extension of the lateral ventricle and its internal convolution, in that direction, as shown by Vrolik and Van der Kolk in the Orang's and Chimpanzee’s brains, was adduced as invalidating the grounds for the definition of the human race by cerebral characters, as a group "Archencephala," equivalent to the other mammalian groups respectively characterized by cerebral structures. These objections were met amongst other arguments by that as to the erroneous application of the term "rudiment," &c., above stated. The real question being, whether the step in advance demonstrable in the mass and structure of the human brain, as contrasted with that of the ape's, is not the same in kind and degree as that which is demonstrable as between the smooth brain of the rodent and of the marsupial.... So likewise in the quadrumanous series there is a succession of small steps or improvements of cerebral structures by which the comparative anatomist advances from the brain of the Lemur to that of the Chimpanzee and Gorilla: but the interval or difference between any two steps in this series is truly small indeed, when compared with that vast cerebral expansion and development of new parts, such is the posterior lobes overlapping and stretching beyond the cerebellum, with their posterior cornu and hippocampus minores, which have no existence in the brains of any lower mammalian animals.
BASED ON FOSSIL EVIDENCE THE LAST COMMON ANCESTOR OF [HUMAN AND CHIMPANZEE ANCESTOR] EVOLVED IN AFRICA, INCLUDING THE NIGGER OF PATERNAL A AND BT HAPLOGROUPS. BUT THE [CHIMPANZEE-HUMAN AND GORILLA ANCESTOR], AND [HUMANS AND GREAT APE ANCESTOR] HAS LESS AGREEMENT. THIS COULD MAKE A POSSIBILITY THAT SOME APES INTERBRED WITH ARCHAIC MANKINDS ELSEWHERE....
Did the common ancestor of humans and great apes evolve in Africa or Eurasia?
It is known based on DNA analysis that chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to humans, the two together are closest to gorillas, then three together to orangs. Furthermore, humans, the great apes (chimpanzee, gorillas, and orangs) together with the lesser apes (gibbons and siamangs) belong to the superfamily named Hominoidea. The closest living relatives of the hominoids are the Old World Monkeys members of the superfamily Cercopithecoidea. Scientists using DNA time clocks have estimated that the humans-chimpanzees common ancestor evolved approximately 7.5 million years ago (mya), the chimpanzee-human and gorilla 9.3 mya, and the great apes (including humans) 19.1 mya. All these key events would have occurred in the time period known as the Miocene which lasted from about 23 to 5 mya in the geological time scale.
The fossil record is the one place to find physical scientific evidence that can show what these last common ancestors looked like, where they lived, and the environmental conditions in which they survived. Paleoanthropologist have spent the past century scouring the continents in search of these ancestors. There is broad agreement among scientists that based on the current fossil evidence the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees evolved in Africa. There is no similar consensus when it comes to [chimpanzee-human and gorilla ancestor] and [humans and great apes’ ancestor]. Some scientists have argued that these two ancestral groups evolved in Eurasia based on the discovery of several species from Spain and France whose morphology of the limbs closely resembles that of living great apes. Until recently the African counterparts were found to more closely resemble monkeys in the overall form of limbs...
The study concludes that the capitates probably belonged to 7 different species ranging in size from 5Kg to 15Kg. While some of the specimens resembled those of monkeys, one specimen of a medium sized animal (15Kg) strikingly resembled the great apes. The specimen is tentatively assigned to Rangwapithecus, one of the two medium sized apes already known from jaws and teeth at the site....
THE AGE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES ARE DATED USING DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES YIELDS DIFFERENT DATES. IN ORDER TO BETTER USE ANCIENT ARTIFACTS THE SAME DATING TECHNIQUES SHOULD BE UNIFORM AND STANDARD FOR ALL. JUST AS SCIENTIFIC EVOLUTION THEORIES OF HOMININ KINDS, APE KINDS, AND THE APE-HOMO HYBRIDS ARE NOT ALL IN AGREEMENT NEITHER ARE THEIR DATES. A HOMININ POSSIBLY INTERBRED WITH THE APES MUCH LATER....
Fossils in the 'Cradle of Humankind' may be more than a million years older than previously thought
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/06/220627165947.htm
Hominins includes humans and our ancestral relatives, but not the other great apes....
a dating method developed by a Purdue University geologist just pushed the age of some of these fossils found at the site of Sterkfontein Caves back more than a million years. This would make them older than Dinkinesh, also called Lucy, the world's most famous Australopithecus fossil.... all of the Australopithecus-bearing cave sediments date from about 3.4 to 3.7 million years old, rather than 2-2.5 million years old as scientists previously theorized. That age places these fossils toward the beginning of the Australopithecus era, rather than near the end. Dinkinesh, who hails from Ethiopia, is 3.2 million years old, and her species, Australopithecus africanus, hails back to about 3.9 million years old.....
volcanoes lay down layers of ash that can be dated. Researchers use those layers to estimate how old a fossil is. In South Africa -- especially in a cave -- the scientists don't have that luxury. They typically use other animal fossils found around the bones to estimate their age or calcite flowstone deposited in the cave. But bones can shift in the cave, and young flowstone can be deposited in old sediment, making those methods potentially incorrect. A more accurate method is to date the actual rocks in which the fossils were found. The concrete-like matrix that embeds the fossil, called breccia, is the material Granger and his team analyze...."Using this method, we can more accurately place ancient humans and their relatives in the correct time periods, in Africa, and elsewhere across the world."...
Gene study shows human skin tone has varied for 900,000 years
Skin tone has varied greatly among humans for at least the last 900,000 years. So concludes an analysis of the genetic variants associated with skin pigmentation in people from several regions of Africa. The latest findings suggest that some particularly dark skin tones evolved relatively recently from paler genetic variants...
The combined data allowed the team to find eight sites in the human genome that are particularly associated with the level of skin pigmentation. Together, these sites account for about 30 per cent of the variation they found in skin pigmentation among the volunteers.
Why Monkeys and Apes Have Colorful Faces
https://www.livescience.com/41355-why-monkeys-apes-have-colorful-faces.html
For Old World monkeys and apes, species that live in larger social groups have complex, colorful facial patterns, whereas those that live in smaller groups have simpler, plainer faces, the study researchers found. Facial diversity might make it easier to identify individuals in bigger groups, scientists say. "Faces are really important to how monkeys and apes can tell one another apart," study researcher Michael Alfaro, an evolutionary biologist at UCLA, said in a statement, adding, "We think the color patterns have to do both with the importance of telling individuals of your own species apart from closely related species and for social communication among members of the same species."...
Facial complexity corresponded to the group size and number of closely related species in the same habitat, whereas facial pigmentation — how light or dark the face is — was better explained by geographic factors, the results showed.... The team also found that in Africa, Old World monkeys and apes with darker faces lived nearest to the equator and those with lighter faces lived farther away. Primate species living in more tropical, forested areas also had darker faces, they said. But facial complexity was not related to geographic location or habitat. Instead, complexity appeared to depend on the size of the social group: Species that formed larger groups had more diverse faces. In a previous study, the researchers found the opposite pattern among primates from Central and South America: New World monkeys that lived in larger groups had simpler facial patterns.
EVOLUTIONIST THEORIES WHO THINK MANKIND EVOLVED FROM A TEENAGE MUTANT NINJA APE RANDOMLY AND FROM ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS CREATING AN ACCIDENTAL FREAK OF NATURE ARE NOT TELLING AN ACCURATE STORY. TURNS OUT BASED ON THIS STUDY THAT CERTAIN, OR ALL PLANTS AND ANIMALS AND MANKINDS WERE CREATED, AND/OR EVOLVED BY A DELIBERATE AND PREDESTINED DESIGN THAT CAN BE PREDICTED, AND IN THE ABSENCE OF FOREIGN GENE POOL CONTAMINATION WILL YIELD THE SAME REPLICATED BODY FORMS REGARDLESS WHERE IT IS ON THE GLOBE. THUS DIVERSITY IS MERELY FOR THE GREATEST PART CAUSED BY GENE POOL SHARING OF FOREIGN GENES WHICH ALTERS THE ORIGINAL DESIGN WHICH IS WHY AFRICA IS THE MOST DIVERSE BECUZ THAT IS WHERE THE MANKIND INTERBRED WITH APES ALTERING THE ORIGINAL DESIGN OF MANKINDS...
Plant study hints evolution may be predictable
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/07/220720150558.htm
Evolution has long been viewed as a rather random process, with the traits of species shaped by chance mutations and environmental events -- and therefore largely unpredictable. But an international team of scientists led by researchers from Yale University and Columbia University has found that a particular plant lineage independently evolved three similar leaf types over and over again in mountainous regions scattered throughout the neotropics. The findings provided the first examples in plants of a phenomenon known as "replicated radiation," in which similar forms evolve repeatedly within different regions, suggesting that evolution is not always such a random process but can be predicted.... Several examples of replicated radiation have been found in animals, such as Anolis lizards in the Caribbean. In that case, the same set of body forms, or "ectomorphs," evolved independently on several different islands....
THIS STUDY REFUTES THE EVOLUTIONARY IDEA THAT MANKIND EVOLVED LINEARLY IN HISTORY BEGINNING AS AN APE WHO RANDOMLY MUTATES INTO A MANKIND. THIS ARTICLE SAYS MANKINDS COEXISTED, AND OFTEN TIMES INTERSECTED. THE MANKIND(S) IN AFRICA WHO INTERBRED WITH APES FORMING APE HOMO HYBRIDS TO MORE RECENT APE HOMOS LEAVING AFRICA DURING MORE INTERSECTIONS OF COEXISTANCE SHOWS THE GREATEST GENETIC ACCUMULATIONS. THUS, THE GREATEST DIVERSITY IN GENES IS WHEN MANKINDS INTERMIX INTERSPECIES AND INTERRACE THE MOST AS IS SEEN IN GREATEST AMOUNTS IN AFRICA...
When did the genetic variations that make us human emerge?
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/07/220719102329.htm
The results, published in the journal Scientific Reports, show two moments in which mutations accumulated: one around 40,000 years ago, associated with the growth of the Homo sapiens population and its departure from Africa, and an older one, more than 100,000 years ago, related to the time of the greatest diversity of types of Homo sapiens in Africa.... The results of the research study also show differences between evolutionary periods. Specifically, they highlight the predominance of genetic variants related to behaviour and facial structure -- key characteristics in the differentiation of our species from other human species -- more than 300,000 years ago,...
The researchers also analysed variants related to the brain, the organ that can best help explain key features of the rich repertoire of behaviours associated with Homo sapiens. Specifically, they dated variants which medical studies conducted in present-day humans have linked to the volume of the cerebellum, corpus callosum and other structures. "We found that brain tissues have a particular genomic expression profile at different times in our history; that is, certain genes related to neural development were more highly expressed at certain times,"...
These results complement an idea that is dominant in evolutionary anthropology: that there is no linear history of human species, but that different branches of our evolutionary tree coexisted and often intersected.... "Our results," the researcher continues, "offer a picture of how our genetics changed, which fits this idea, as we found no evidence of evolutionary changes that depended on one or a several key mutations,"...
RETROVIRUSES ARE LIKE AN ANCIENT SCAR ON THE CHROMOSOME PASSED DOWN IN A LINEAGE. THE CHIMP AND HUMAN HAD SIMILAR RETROVIRUSES. BASED ON THIS IT IS SPECULATED THAT A MANKIND WAS THE COMMON ANCESTOR WHICH CREATED THE CHIMPANZEE POSSIBLY BY THE SAME LINEAGE OF MANKIND WHO INTERBRED THE GORILLA TO CREATE THE CHIMPANZEE 6 MYA. THE SAME LINEAGE OF MANKIND SPLITS AGAIN WHICH CREATED THE A-YDNA NIGGER ABOUT 300 TO 500KYA...
DNA Evidence That Humans & Chimps Share A Common Ancestor: Endogenous Retroviruses
Humans and Chimps split from a common ancestor. The proof is near identical retrovirus' at the chromosomes, and nearly same number of retrovirus'.
Insertions: 211 humans, 208 chimps. 205 out of 214 shared viruses before split.
What’s in the 4% of our DNA that makes us different from chimps?
4% difference between chimp and human. The differences have accumulated gradually since the two shared a common ancestor. The lineages that led to the chimp and humans have evolved separately. Of the 4% differences about half of the differences evolved from the chimp lineage, and the other half from the humans. The 2% in our differences adds up to 15 million differences.
What is the scientific dividing line of separating the apes from the other animals and plants? What degree of similarity is used? How close genetically makes human an ape? Based on similarity is a relative thing and which based on opinion can place all life in the same family but, to another can separate even the humans who are 0.5% different.
SMALL PERCENTAGE EQUALS LARGE ACTUAL DIFFERENCES. AND MORE DIFFERENCES FOUND IN THE SIMILARITIES. 6 MILLION YEARS AGO CHIMPS AND HUMANS SPLIT FROM A COMMON ANCESTOR. SINCE THEN A 2.7% DIFFERENCE IS SEEN BETWEEN CHIMP AND HUMAN, AND 0.5% DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE HUMANS. THE 2.7% DIFFERENCE IS ABOUT 35 MILLION NUCLEOTIDE CHANGES + 5 MILLION INSERTION/DELETIONS + CHROMOSOMAL REARRANGEMENTS. ABOUT 70% HUMAN AND CHIMP PROTEIN IS NOT IDENTICAL. WE CAN CONCLUDE 6 MYA A MANKIND INTERBRED WITH GORILLA WHICH CREATED THE CHIMP. ANOTHER SPLIT OCCURED AROUND 300KYA TO 500KYA WHEN MANKIND INTERBRED WITH CHIMPANZEE WHICH CREATED THE A-YDNA NIGGER...
Chimpanzee genome project
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee_genome_project
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and other great apes have 24 pairs of chromosomes. In the human evolutionary lineage, two ancestral ape chromosomes fused at their telomeres, producing human chromosome 2. There are nine other major chromosomal differences between chimpanzees and humans: chromosome segment inversions on human chromosomes 1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17, and 18.... DNA methylation, which are a known regulation mechanism for gene expression, differ in the prefrontal cortex of humans versus chimpanzees...
A database now exists containing the genetic differences between human and chimpanzee genes, with about thirty-five million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events, and various chromosomal rearrangements.... About 30 percent of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein.... gene duplications are a major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material, with about 2.7 percent of the genome now representing differences having been produced by gene duplications or deletions during approximately 6 million years since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. The comparable variation within human populations is 0.5 percent....
RACE MIXING IS GENOCIDE. INTEGRATION IS GENOCIDE.
NEANDERTHAL BECAME EXTINCT BECUZ A FIRST WAVE OF AFRICAN APE HOMOS INTERBRED WITH NEADERTHAL INFECTING HIM WITH RHESUS GENE CAUSING HIS FEMALE TO BECOME INFERTILE WHICH PROHIBITS HER PASSING ON HER mt-DNA. LATER WAVES OF APE HOMOS DID THE SAME CARRYING DISEASE AND INCOMPATABILTIES CAUSED HIS Y-DNA TO BECOME REPLACED WITH THE APE-HOMO Y-DNA. EUROPEANS AND EURASIANS CARRY AT LEAST 20% NEANDERTHAL GENES BUT, NO LONGER CONTAIN Y OR mt GENES....
How Human Y Chromosomes Replaced Those of Neanderthals in a Quiet Genetic Takeover
One hurdle in deciphering human prehistory is the absence of evidence of a Neanderthal Y chromosome in the genetic record. Now, a new study, published Friday in the journal Science, suggests that the modern human Y chromosome completely replaced the Neanderthal Y chromosome when male Homo sapiens’ began mating with female Neanderthals at some point between 100,000 and 370,000 years ago...
So far, scientists have only been able to sequence about a dozen Neanderthal specimens’ DNA—and most of the samples are from women. The male DNA from Neanderthals that does exist is damaged or contaminated, Science reports. Using a new breakthrough method of “binding” fragmentary chromosome sample, the team of evolutionary geneticists sequenced Y chromosome DNA from three Neanderthals and two Denisovans that lived in Eurasia....
Since the Y chromosome is passed from fathers to sons, when male Homo sapiens mated with female Neanderthals, future generations of Neanderthals inherited the Homo sapiens version of a Y chromosome...But why the Homo sapiens Y chromosome persisted is still unclear....
But this triumph isn’t the first time a genetic takeover has occurred in the Neanderthal lineage. A 2017 study in Nature discovered that a Neanderthal specimen from 38,000 to 100,000 years ago had mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from an early modern human woman. Since mtDNA is inherited maternally, the researchers suggested that a human woman mated with a Neanderthal man more than 220,000 years ago, creating a lineage of Neanderthals with human mtDNA....
PROOF AGAIN THAT MAN DID NOT EVOLVE LINEARLY BY TEEN AGED MUTANT NINJA MONKEYS. BUT RATHER MANKIND COEXISTED WITH ITSELF WORLDWIDE, AND WITH APES IN AFRICA WHERE HE INTERBRED WITH AFRICAN APES WHICH HYBRIDIZED APE HOMOS. ALL THESE MANKINDS, APES, AND APE-HOMOS COEXIST AND INTERBRED WITH GENE ACCUMULATIONS WHICH MUTATE AT CERTAIN TIMES, AND SOME RANDOM. THESE CAN BE SEEN 300KYA TO 500KYA WHEN MAN INTERBRED CHIMPS AND CREATED A-YDNA NIGGERS. SEEN AGAIN WHEN THE APE-HOMO HYBRIDS EXIT AFRICA AT 100KYA AND AGAIN 40KYA. HOMO SAPIENS DIVERGE FROM OTHER HUMANS ABOUT 100KYA. QUESTION IS WHEN AND WHAT MAKES US HUMAN?...
When did the genetic variations that make us human emerge?
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/07/220719102329.htm
The results, published in the journal Scientific Reports, show two moments in which mutations accumulated: one around 40,000 years ago, associated with the growth of the Homo sapiens population and its departure from Africa, and an older one, more than 100,000 years ago, related to the time of the greatest diversity of types of Homo sapiens in Africa....However, it is difficult to determine when the genetic variants that distinguish us from other human species emerged.... point of divergence between Homo sapiens and other human species around 100,000 years ago,..."We have discovered sets of genetic variants which affect the evolution of the face and which we have dated between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago, the period just prior to the dating of the earliest fossils of our species, such as the ones discovered at the Jebel Irhoud archaeological site in Morocco,"...
These results complement an idea that is dominant in evolutionary anthropology: that there is no linear history of human species, but that different branches of our evolutionary tree coexisted and often intersected. "The breadth of the range of human diversity in the past has surprised anthropologists. Even within Homo sapiens there are fossils, such as the ones I mentioned earlier from Jebel Irhoud, which, because of their features, were thought to belong to another species. That's why we say that human beings have lived a mosaic evolution," he notes.
"Our results," the researcher continues, "offer a picture of how our genetics changed, which fits this idea, as we found no evidence of evolutionary changes that depended on one or a several key mutations,"....
EURASIAN FOUNDING POPULATION OF MODERN MAN 55KYA DIVERGE TO STEPPE 44KYA AND WHG 36KYA. WHG AND ANATOLIAN EARLY FARMER MIX AT 8.5KYA. EUROPEAN EARLY FARMER AND STEPPE MIX AT 4.5KYA.
MODERN EUROPEANS ARE ARE A MIX OF WHG, ANATOLIAN EF, AND STEPPE WHO ADMIXED FROM EARLY HOLOCENE ~12KYA TO 5KYA.
ADMIXTURE BETWEEN DIVERGED POPULATIONS CAN DISTORT AND HIDE SELECTION EVENTS. HOLOCENE ERA SHOW A DILUTION OF SWEEP SIGNAL BUT RETURNS TO NEUTRAL IN BRONZE AGE WITH ADDITIONAL OF STEPPE ANCESTRY. THE MOST ANCIENT CONTAINED THE MOST SWEEPS. OF THE 57 SWEEPS: Ust’-Ishim ~45 ka N=16, Kostenki14 ~37 ka N=21, GoyetQ-116 ~35 ka N=7, Věstonice16 ~30 ka N=4 and El Mirón ~18 ka N=9. HOLOCENE ERA ADMIX CAN MASK SWEEP. ONLY SWEEPS PRECEDING EURASIAN LINEAGE DIVISION STARTING AT 55KYA COULD BE DETECTED WITH REASONABLE POWER AND IN ADMIX POPULATIONS WHEN SWEEPS PREDATE THE SPLIT BETWEEN THE SOURCE LINEAGES. MODERN EUROPEANS EXCEED THE ANCESTRAL SOURCES IN MOST CASES BECAUSE THEIR SELECTION PRESSURE AROSE AT EARLY STAGE OF MODERN HUMAN IN EURASIA WHERE 28% OF THEIR SWEEPS OCCURRED 45KYA AND 77% 35KYA.
DISCUSSION: 57 HARD SWEEPS ERASED IN MODERN EURASIANS SINCE HOLOCENE ERA ADMIXTURE BEING MISSED OR MISINTERPRETTED IN PREVIOUS STUDIES. PRE-HOLOCENE EUROPEAN GROUPS ADMIX MAY HAVE OCCURRED BUT AT MUCH LESS FREQUENCY AND THE STRONG DIFFERENTIATION OBSERVED IS IN THE HOLOCENE ERA. IN SPITE OF RECENT ADMIXTURE MODERN EUROPEANS ARE CONSIDERED GENETICALLY HOMOGENEOUS OF SELECTION SCANS BECAUSE GENETICALLY HOMOGENEOUS POPULATIONS LACK FIXED HARD SWEEPS BUT HAVE ABUNDANT PARTIAL OR SOFT SWEEPS SUCH AS EUROPEAN HUMAN....
Admixture has obscured signals of historical hard sweeps in humans
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01914-9
‘hard sweep’ signals in modern genomic datasets (that is, where a new beneficial mutation increases to 100% frequency in a population)...
‘soft sweeps’ (where the beneficial allele sits on multiple genetic backgrounds) or polygenic selection (subtle frequency shifts across numerous loci with small fitness effects)...
admixture between diverged populations can distort or hide prior selection events in modern genomes, though this process is not explicitly accounted for in most selection studies...previously reported Holocene-era admixture has masked more than 50 historic hard sweeps in modern European genomes....our current understanding of the tempo and mode of selection in natural populations may be inaccurate.... previous genomic studies of positive selection typically do not account for past phases of interpopulation mixing (that is, admixture), which can alter genomic signatures of positive selection and either mask these signals or lead to erroneous inferences about the underlying modes of selection...
The apparent ubiquity of admixture in human population history suggests instead that the absence of hard sweep signals in modern human genomes may be a consequence of the masking effects of historical admixture events. Moreover, growing evidence suggests that admixture events pervade the history of most natural populations, which may have led to a potentially biased view of the modes of selection operating in nature....
Modern Europeans are largely composed of three distinct ancestries that is, Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG), Anatolian Early Farmers (Anatolian EF) and Steppe Pastoralists as a result of extensive admixture between these ancestral populations and their descendants that occurred from the Early Holocene to Bronze Age (~12–5 ka)....
In direct contrast to previous studies of modern human genomes, we were able to identify large numbers of hard sweeps in the ancient West Eurasian populations... None of these sweep signals were evident in the YRI population, and ~90% of the sweeps showed significantly inflated levels of genetic divergence relative to African populations...
the loss of the hard sweep signals is consistent with the reduction in sweep haplotype frequency below detection limits caused by the introduction of other orthologous haplotypes during the Holocene admixture phases.... Perhaps the most striking example of a previously unreported hard sweep in this study was provided by a ~1.5 Mb region overlapping the major histocompatibility complex class III (MHC-III) region on chromosome 6 that showed depleted genetic variation in the Anatolian EF population...
distinctive trough of genetic diversity observed across the affected region in the Anatolian EF samples, which is located between two recombination hotspots...
In contrast to the Anatolian EF population, the two other major contributors to modern European genetic ancestry (that is, WHG and Steppe) had SF2 scores and patterns of local genomic variation that were indistinguishable from neutral background levels in the same ~1.5-Mb MHC-III region. Holocene-era populations show patterns that are consistent with a progressive dilution of the sweep signal across this period, with a weak SF2 signal still evident in EF populations (which draw ancestry from both Anatolian EF and WHG) that returns to neutral background levels in subsequent Bronze Age and modern European populations following the introduction of additional Steppe ancestry. Taken together, the evidence strongly implies that the MHC-III region was a target of strong positive selection in the ancestors of Anatolian EF and that the underlying hard sweep signal became masked in descendant populations by Holocene-era admixture involving genetically diverged populations....
Ust’-Ishim ~45 ka, Kostenki14 ~37 ka, GoyetQ-116 ~35 ka, Věstonice16 ~30 ka and El Mirón ~18 ka... 57 sweeps...Ust’-Ishim, n = 16; Kostenki14, n = 21; GoyetQ-116, n = 7; Věstonice16, n = 4; El Mirón, n = 9 (the final category also includes eight sweep haplotypes that were not observed in any Palaeolithic specimen).... Sweeps starting within the last 35,000 years (that is, not observed in GoyetQ-116 or older samples) tend to have patterns consistent with local selection, being highly frequent in some ancient populations but absent in others... our results are consistent with sweeps arising after the diversification of the Eurasian founders being more susceptible to admixture distortion....
Sweep presence across the 12 ancient Eurasian populations was broadly consistent with the inferred antiquity of the selection pressure. Sweeps inferred to have started by 35 ka (that is, observed in GoyetQ-116 or an older sample) were detected at consistent levels across ancient populations both before and after the Holocene admixture events...
By contrast, sweep detection differed significantly across the ancient populations for more recently selected loci (logistic regression P < 0.002 for both age categories) and exhibited patterns consistent with historical selection acting on populations ancestral to a subset of the tested populations (Fig. 4b; noting that the more pronounced signal loss evident in modern Europeans may reflect further dilution from admixture events following the Bronze Age; Discussion). Similarly, sweeps starting by 35 ka were more likely to appear as partial sweeps in two previous studies of positive selection in modern European populations (66% versus 46% for sweeps dated less than 35 ka...
Eurasian founding population (55 ka) or following the separation of population branches that eventually gave rise to Steppe (44 ka) or WHG populations (36 ka)....the mixing of WHG and Anatolian EF at 8.5 ka, and the European EF and Steppe herder admixture at 4.5 ka.... Only beneficial mutations preceding the initial diversification of Eurasian lineages at 55 ka are evident in all populations when the selection pressure does not persist following the admixture events, with sweeps starting before 44 ka also detectable in European EF as they are shared by both source populations...
Our results clearly demonstrate that Holocene-era admixture can effectively mask historical sweep signals in the absence of any ongoing selection pressures: only the sweeps that precede the division of Eurasian lineages (that is, selection starting at 55 ka) could be detected with reasonable power both before and after the admixture events. By contrast, sweeps starting after the diversification of Eurasian lineages (that is, 44 ka and 36 ka) had slightly increased power in unadmixed populations that experienced the selection pressure... Sweep detection power remained high in admixed populations whenever sweeps predated the split between the source population lineages, despite one of the source populations (WHG) having power close to zero under all modelled scenarios. The low power observed for WHG is likely to have been a consequence of the relatively small effective population size exacerbating drift... Modern Europeans achieved detection power exceeding that observed for any of the three ancestral source populations (Anatolian EF, Steppe and WHG) in nearly all cases....
the underlying selection pressure(s) probably arose during the early stages of the Anatomically Modern Human occupation of Eurasia—for example, 16 (28%) and 44 (77%) of the 57 sweep haplotypes being observed in archaic samples dated at ~45 ka and ~35 ka, respectively constraining the time in which de novo mutations could have arisen and suggesting that SGVs may have provided the mutational basis for many of our sweeps.... our results imply that mutations underlying the hard sweeps were probably initially deleterious and reinforce previous findings showing that selection from both de novo mutations and SGVs have occurred in Eurasian evolutionary history...
Discussion
Our analyses of >1,000 ancient West Eurasian genomes has uncovered strong evidence for 57 hard sweeps in Early Holocene to Middle Holocene populations that have been almost entirely erased from descendent populations in modern Eurasia.... Our empirical and simulation results implicate Holocene-era admixture as the primary factor attenuating these historical sweep signals, which has led to them being missed in previous studies or detected instead as empirical genome-wide outliers of haplotype-based selection statistics... haplotype patterns decay quickly over time and become largely undetectable for selection starting more than 30,000 years ago in humans. However, our analyses suggest that most (85%) of the 41 sweeps that overlap with a haplotype-based outlier were already under selection by 30 ka, implying that these signals are more likely to result from admixture-driven dilution of hard sweeps that mostly began before 30,000 years ago....
Although our analyses point to well-known admixture events during the Holocene as the prime driver of the diluted sweep signals observed in modern European genomes, it is possible that the three populations directly ancestral to present-day Europeans (that is, Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, Anatolian Neolithic farmers and pastoralists from the Pontic–Caspian steppe) were also admixed to some degree. However, the much stronger genetic differentiation observed between the three ancestral populations relative to the later Holocene European groups suggests that potential admixture events involving the three ancestral lineages were probably less influential or frequent than subsequent admixture phases in the Holocene....
recently admixed populations often lack detectable signs of structure, in which case admixture will not be correctly accounted for in any subsequent selection tests. For example, modern European populations have been considered to be sufficiently genetically homogeneous for the purpose of selection scans, despite ancient DNA studies revealing that Europeans have multiple diverged ancestry components. Indeed, modern genomic data is often insufficient to establish past admixture events, with widely used principal component analysis (PCA) and ancestry decomposition methods being unable to detect historical admixture signals when suitable proxy populations for the admixing groups are lacking.... species with little apparent population structure may be more susceptible to the confounding effects of admixture on selection scans... whereas genetically homogeneous taxa or populations tend to lack fixed hard sweeps but harbour abundant partial or soft sweep signals (for example, European human....
Beneficial mutations were introduced on the Main Eurasian branch at three different times: 55 ka, 44 ka and 36 ka... Diploid samples were generated for one modern population, sampled at the present, and five ancient populations: three populations that are ancestral to modern Europeans (Anatolian EF and WHG, sampled at 8.5 ka, and Steppe, sampled at 5 ka) and two admixed populations (Central Europe EF and Central Europe LNBA, sampled at 7 ka and 4 ka, respectively)....