Outline #9
Darwinian Evolution
Development of Global Comparative Sciences
1. Foundation in geology and natural history of the late 1700s
Mapping and comparison of regions, leading to theories of uniform geological forces or actions
Morphological study of extensive collections of plants and animals, leading to classification by similarities and differences
Emphasis on the “comparative method”
2. New sciences of systems of broad geographic patterns
Requiring extensive data collection across scales of geography, and time
Historical (dynamic) geology
Biogeography (distribution of species) of regions and “zones"
Climatology, combining geology, oceanography, meteorology, glaciology, atmospheric chemistry, natural economy (ecology), biogeography
Evolutionary biology, synthesizing all with the historical dimension
3. Context and supports for sciences at a large scale
expanded scale of economy
such as the East India Company mapping and publishing nautical charts
new technologies of travel, communication (telegraph), publishing
state enterprises to collect, collate, and publish such data
naval expeditions of exploration and imperial interests (France and Britain dominant)
nautical charts from British Admiralty’s Hydrographer (Dalrymple, 1795, succeeded by Admiral Beaufort, 1829, and the Hydrographic Office)
expansion of government bureaucracy, such as
intensive and extensive collection of statistical weather data in colonial India
meteorological data and weather forecasting (FitzRoy and the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, 1854)
similar agencies in Vienna, Hamburg (1850s-60s)
British global Terrestrial Magnetism survey (1856)
global networks of collaborators
new instruments of measurement
extensive data from multiple disciplines
popular interest, especially for the tropics
publishing of results of Pacific expeditions and popular travel narratives
Alexander von Humboldt as an inspiration for naturalists
The development of Charles Darwin's ideas:
education (1820s)
naturalist tradition of adaptation study (natural wonders) and Economy of Nature
culture promoting empirical knowledge and rational explanation
natural theology of Design [Paley's Natural Theology (1802)]
scientific principles
Baconian induction (Henslow, Sedgwick)
verification of true causes (vera causa) by analogy (Herschel) and by consilience (Whewell)
experience with natural history methods and techniques
natural history work on the expedition of H.M.S. Beagle (1831-36)
geology following Lyell's Principles of Geology (1831)
tropical geography and ecology, inspired by Humboldt's Personal Narrative (18215)
experience with South American people
noticing odd facts of distribution of both fossils and similar species [including Galápagos mockingbirds, finches]
problems for static creation:
extinction
colonization
stratigraphic sequences of fossils
biogeographic relationships
theorizing (1830s)
method and causal theory for geology (coral reefs)
deduction of the reality of "transmutation" of species (Red Notebook, early 1837)
discovery that the Galápagos birds are closely related species of finch
biogeographical relationships and common descent
parallel comparison in time: extinction and replacement sequences of fossil species
search for a natural mechanism that would produce evolution (B Notebook, mid-1837)
questions about gradual change and constant adaptation
questions about how new species form and the resulting relationships (tree of life)
extensive reading and working out of views
queries to other naturalists and experts
ideas Darwin used to develop his argument for evolution by natural selection (1836-38):
historical sensibility of change and progress
breeding literature on inheritance of traits
dynamics of self-interest ("invisible hand" from Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations [1776]) as a source of order
natural economy of place, competition, and balance
Malthusian population pressure and the "struggle for existence": mathematical law, order and process
argument for evolution (1838-44)
genealogy (descent) explains observed relationships:
taxonomy
biogeography
embryology
fossil sequence
variation is abundant and inherited
struggle for nature is inevitable
intraspecific competition sharpest
thus natural selection of inherited advantage would direct "descent with modification"
similarity with Wallace's ideas on gradual geological change and natural cause of new species (1855)
Wallace's paper on the ecological tendency to evolve (1858) -- joint publication by Darwin and Wallace in 1858
Rhetoric and argument of On the Origin of Species (1859):
promote an image of "good science" of inductive logic and laws of nature
The argument:
start with known yet ignored facts:
variation
domestication
struggle for existence
present the logic of natural selection
raise and dispose of the difficulties of the evolutionary theory
explain several biological phenomena (old & new) with new theory
rework and subvert natural theology with new science
not attempt to answer the origin of life, the origin of humans, or draw the evolutionary tree of all life
Reception of Darwin's theory in the 1860s:
Supporting scientific arguments:
logic and philosophical principles of science (Mill, Whewell)
structure and style of argument (Gray, Carpenter, Hooker)
marshalling of consistent evidence (Bates, Wallace, Huxley, Lyell)
consilient synthesis of biological explanations (Müller, Wallace, Huxley)
expanding realm of scientific explanation ("Darwinian" research program) of observed patterns
paleontology
comparative anatomy and constructing phylogeny (evolutionary tree)
laws of heredity
laws of embryology (development and growth)
development of new subdisciplines of biology: cell biology, embryology, heredity
Opposing scientific objections:
satisfaction with idealism (Agassiz)
logic and methodology of empiricism (Sedgwick, Owen)
reliance on chance and randomness (Herschel's "law of higgeldy-piggeldy")
insufficient age of earth (Lord Kelvin's argument from physics of heat)
unknown mechanism of heredity (Jenkin, Mivart)
gradualist operation of natural selection (Jenkin, Mivart)
Broader supports and objections to Darwinism:
popularity of natural explanations and positive views of science
culture of progressivism
support from skeptics and critics of religion
ties to radical politics
rejection of materialist implications for human nature and soul
theology of Creationism
desire to retain Purpose and Design in nature
Evolutionism as a new interpretation of the world: Laws of Progress
replacement of Design with natural process
progressive analogue for human society
universal historicism of languages, races, culture, politics, morals
social evolutionism: competition and survival of the fittest (Spencer)
biological determinism: social traits and heredity (genetics and eugenics)
non-Darwinian (directed) theories, 1860-1900
Haeckel's recapitulation theory
Cope's neo-Lamarckism
Eimer's developmental orthogenesis
© 2021 Dr. William Kimler