Natural Philosophy & Anglican Theology
In the cultural context for the religious reception of Newtonian natural philosophy in England, it is clear that the issue was not a conservative, religious reaction against natural philosophy itself. On the contrary, it is remarkable how quickly the engagement with issues of natural philosophy came to dominate intellectual life within the Church of England. Controversies that arose more often centered on competing interpretations of how to relate the two realms, how a rational and empirical science might support or be consistent with matters of revealed truth and faith. Philosophers who got in trouble, such as Newton's successor William Whiston, who was condemned and removed from his professorhip at Cambridge, did not face a criticism of their science. Whiston's error was his public proclamation of denials of the Trinity. Pursuing natural philosophy was seen as not only safe for religion, but conformable and supportive to religion.
One example is found in Thomas Sprat's early History of the Royal Society (1667), as a part of his overall propaganda for the value of natural philosophy, and the new Society. Sprat was familiar with both realms, being a Fellow of Wadham College and rising later through the ranks of the high Church to become Dean of Westminster and Bishop of Rochester. He certainly was a conservative voice within the Church. In the History, he pointed out the value of scientific pursuits, and suggested that the Church "can never be praejudic'd by the light of Reason, nor by the improvements of Knowledge, nor by the advancement of the Works of men's hands" (p. 370). As the Royal Society functioned as a tolerant location for ideas, free of political and religious discord, so too the Anglican Church stood as providing the appropriate middle path between blind faith and religious Enthusiasm. It also avoided the errors of the Catholic Church, according to Sprat, as in the condemnation of Galileo. Sprat's view of proper theology derived from
". . . the Scripture expounded by Reason: From whence may be concluded, that we cannot make War against Reason, without undermining our own strength, seeing it is the constant weapon we ought to employ.
From this I will further urge, That the Church of England will not only be safe amidst the consequences of a Rational Age, but amidst all the improvements of Knowledge, and the subversion of old Opinions about Nature, and introduction of new ways of Reasoning thereupon." (pp. 370-71)
Sprat saw a natural harmony between the two great institutions of religion and philosophy. A proper reason would guide us safely amidst claims of raptures, revelations, and miracles, just as true empirical philosophy will correct the errors of the Ancients and lead to novelties, inventions, and "useful Arts of Life."
Not only was science safe and useful, it could be seen as religiously desirable. The Rev. William Derham (1657-1735) was a Fellow of the Royal Society, accomplished naturalist and experimenter, and Chaplain to the Prince of Wales (later George II), to whom he dedicated his Astro-Theology (1714). In his Physico-Theology: Or, a Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of GOD, from His Works of Creation (1713), based on his Boyle Lectures, Derham made a case for the value of natural philosophy. First he lays out an appropriately Baconian 424 pages of examples and case studies, ranging from the atmosphere, light, and gravity to the geological form of the Earth to the variety of inhabitants of the globe and finally to specific wonders of the eye, the senses, bodily structures, physiological functions, ecology, and the human body. From all of this "survey" he derives the "practical inference":
"That the Works of the Lord are great. And this is necessary to be observed, not against the Atheist only, but all other careless, incurious Observers of God's Works. Many of our useful Labours, and some of our best Modern Books shall be condemned with only this Note of Reproach, That they are about trivial Matters, when in truth they are ingenious and noble Discoveries of the Works of GOD." (p. 426)
Rather than being "Toys and Trifles" to be disregarded, the ingenious facts about every part of nature ought to be explored:
"The Creator doubtless did not bestow so much Curiosity, and exquisite Workmanship and Skill upon his Creatures, to be looked upon with a careless, incurious Eye, especially to have them slighted or contemned; but to be admired by the Rational Part of the World, to magnify his own Power, Wisdom and Goodness throughout all the World, and the Ages thereof. And therefore we make look upon it as a great Error, not to answer those Ends of the infinite Creator, but rather to oppose and affront them. On the contrary, my Text commends GOD's Works, not only for being great, but also approves of those curious and ingenious Enquirers, that seek them out, or pry into them. And the more we pry into, and discover them, the greater and more glorious we find them to be, the more worth of, and the more expressly to proclaim their great Creator. " (p. 427)
For the Rev. Derham, research and discovery are commendable, and ultimately lead to the third inference, that Nature reveals God's being and attributes, and so "plainly argue the Vileness and Perverseness of the Atheist, and leave him inexcusable" (p. 428).