Appeal & Spread of Newtonian Science in the 18th Century

Newton's career and impact (1689-1727) 

1. Newton's position as the leading natural philosopher 

   • the popular image of the heroic genius 

   • influence, protégés, and followers 

     • President of Royal Society, national honors 

     • Newtonian popular science and textbooks

   • the appeal of successful mathematical physics in the 1700s 

2. new opportunities for the practice of science 

   • gentlemen scientists, women, and salons 

   • patronage support and tutoring jobs 

   • lecturers, showmen, instrument makers, and authors on Newtonian topics 

   • new technical education and jobs 

   • technical advice to government 

Success of mathematical physics in the 1700s 

1. mathematical elaboration of "rational mechanics" 

   • mathematical techniques for solving problems (functions, calculus, algebra) 

   • principles for applying math (Maupertuis's "least action") 

   • ties to physical problems, examples in mechanics

2. fitting physical phenomena 

   • expanding realm of applications 

   • continued novel Newtonian equations 

   • Coulomb's "mass of charge" equation (1785) 

3. mathematical models: Laplace's particles and interparticulate forces 

4. the quest for unity of equations and principles 

Empirical (lab) work and physical models in the 1700s 

1. accumulation and modeling of new phenomena of "experimental physics" 

   • mechanics 

   • electricity -- Leyden jar; Franklin's fluid and charge (1751), Galvani and Volta (1790s) 

   • heat -- Turgot's expansibilité theory of the action of heat (1760s) 

2. subtle matter ideas 

   • material explanations, avoiding qualities 

   • mechanical and fluid analogies 

   • explains properties of containment, conduction, transmission 

   • subtle fluids: ether [light], heat, electricity, magnetism, life-force 

3. mechanical picture 

   • supported by implications of mathematics 

   • troubling proliferation of types of matter and forces 

4. successful new elemental chemistry 

   • theory of aggregated particles & reactions (late 1600s) 

   • Newtonian goal of classifying parts and actions, and quantifying 

   • laboratory progress with manipulating & measurement 

   • experiments with "fixed air" and other "airs" (Black, Priestley and Lavoisier, 1750s- ) 

   • Lavoisier's element and reaction classification (1790s- ) 

   • reaction equations of weight, number, and proportions (1790s- ) 

5. development of Newtonian science 

   • technique 

   • precision (instrumentation) 

   • extension of Newtonian theoretical physics 

   • useful applications 

6. the failed promise of "mechanical" biology 

   • appeal of consistency with the Newtonian model of true science 

   • limited research program 

     • few living activities explained by simple mechanism 

     • limited technological tools of investigation 

   • inconceivable for mechanism alone to explain complex, directed living functions 

     • apparent need for organizer or director [First & Final causes] of vital activity 

     • the question of mechanism or vitalism unresolved in 1700s 

7. inductive methodology for new empirical disciplines: geology, social sciences 

© 2018 Dr. William Kimler