Some 20 years after the conquest of Mexico, Spanish conquistadors added another massive Indian Empire to the expanding New Spain. That territory was Peru, a rugged land dominated by the hemisphere’s highest mountains, the Andes. The Indians were a highly-developed proto-civilization now known to history as the Inca. This time the conqueror was not a young hidalgo, but an opportunistic soldier in his 60s, Francisco Pizarro. His story is a “rags to riches” saga.
Born into poverty in 1471, Pizarro was an illegitimate child who had been abandoned as an infant at the door of a church. He never received an education and never learned to read or write. He spent most of his youth as a pig-herder but eventually was attracted to the army. In 1509 he arrived in the West Indies and in 1513 was among those accompanying Balboa in Panama. It was in Panama that Pizarro first heard rumors of a gold-laden land somewhere to the south. He remained with Balboa for several years then in 1524 joined with another explorer in a treasure-seeking venture along the Pacific coasts south of Panama. On a second expedition in 1526 - 1527, he “discovered” the Indians of Túmbez, a city on the Peruvian coast that astounded him. Its people were friendly and receptive to the foreigners; they lived comfortably among irrigated fields; best of all, their stone temple was decorated with sheets of gold. Pizarro ordered his men not to pay attention to the gold; this was not the time. Taking with him some golden drinking vessels, a live llama, and two Indian boys (who were later trained as interpreters), Pizarro returned to Spain and sought an audience with King Charles (now Emperor Charles V). Impressed, Charles provided Pizarro with the commissions and authority to conquer the new lands for Spain. Pizarro would have to recruit the men and equip the expedition, but he would be entitled to a significant share of the wealth he acquired. With a tiny force of 180 men and 27 horses, Pizarro landed in Peru in the spring of 1531.
Peru in 1531 was dominated by the Inca Empire, which at the time was at the height of its power ruling over some five million people. As had the Aztecs in Mexico, the Inca[1] created their empire though the conquests of neighboring peoples, a process that began less than a century before. With the purpose of uniting the varied Indian peoples in peaceful cooperation, the Inca neither enslaved nor plundered the peoples they conquered. Subject peoples would be allowed to keep their own religions and traditions of governance. It was expected that they would adopt Quechua, the Inca language, accept the administrative and judicial system of the central government, and contribute the necessary tribute to maintain the well-being of all in the state. If a subject people proved resistant to Inca policy, its people might be relocated to another part of the Empire but would not be punished or otherwise denied the economic and social benefits of the Empire.
Royal government was centralized in the hereditary ruler, who held the title “Inca.” The emperor’s power was absolute and theocratic in that he was believed to be a god, a direct descendant of the Sun, chief of the Inca pantheon. Thus, the political structure of the Inca state was similar to that of ancient Egypt. The emperor (like the pharaoh) could marry only his sister, although emperors were known to have other “lesser” wives and concubines. A hereditary aristocracy from which came the priesthood and leading officials provided administrative direction for the Empire. Regional governance of the Empire was highly organized and exercised by provincial officials all directly responsible to the emperor. The capital city was Cuzco, located high in the Andes. Cuzco astounded the Spanish with its massive plazas, temples, and palaces. The emperor’s palace and temples were sheathed with gold. To the Inca gold was the “Sweat of the Sun” (Leonard 91), a beautiful and plentiful metal that could be easily smelted and cast as jewelry or into other decorative forms. Gold, therefore, was a physical manifestation of the Sun, the god’s gift to his chosen people and not a standard of wealth. The Inca had no system of money. All “payment” for goods and services was done through barter.
The Inca economy was based on agriculture and was managed and directed by the government. All land was “owned” by the state and was allocated to families in plots large enough to sustain the family. Lands were also held by the state and temples: commoners were required to provide labor on those lands, the produce of which fed officials, artisans, soldiers, bureaucrats, and widows. Each year the lands were reallocated according to a census of the population. The count of families was done through a sophisticated accounting system of knotted strings called quipus. The quipus were the only records kept by the Inca as they had no written language. Beyond the land distribution system, the Inca government oversaw the building and maintenance of massive irrigation and terrace systems for farming on the steep Andean slopes. And, crisscrossing the Empire were some 7000 miles of roads. Much as did the Romans, the Inca built roads ranging over the some 2500-mile extent of the Empire. Most of these roads were paved with stone. The roads were built for official communication and military purposes. A system of trained relay runners moved the government’s communications from one part of the Empire to another. This is all the more remarkable as there was no written language. All communications, no matter how detailed, had to be memorized and passed on to the next runner. A message could be moved as far as 150 miles in one day. The Inca had no knowledge of horses or wheeled vehicles pulled by draught animals. The sure-footed llama was the only beast of burden.
The Inca lived in cities built of stone. The stone was quarried in the mountains and precisely cut for fitting in the structure being constructed. No mortar was used for construction. The engineering and architectural knowledge for building roads, temples, walls, palaces and even smaller urban homes required a sophisticated understanding of mathematics and physics – all of which was communicated orally, memorized, and passed from generation to generation. What formal education existed took place in the palaces and temples and was available only to the aristocracy or, rarely, those commoners who showed exceptional talent for learning. The Inca religion was a polytheistic nature religion in which the sun was the chief god. As the emperor was himself a god, religion was subordinate to the state. The Inca lived according to a high moral code that centered on the family and in which ancestors were revered. As in ancient Egypt, the Inca mummified their dead and buried them in their finest clothing. The mummified ancestors of the emperor were periodically brought out of the royal mausoleum out to “witness” special ceremonies.
One would wonder how a handful of Spaniards could expect to conquer such a powerful and well-organized Empire. As did Cortés in Mexico, Pizarro arrived at an opportune time. The Inca were experiencing civil war. Just prior to his death in 1527 Inca Emperor Huayna Capac had divided the Empire between his two sons, Huascar and Atahualpa. Both sons were half-brothers, Huascar the son of the Emperor and his sister-queen; Atahualpa the son of the Emperor and a favorite concubine. Neither brother was satisfied with only part of the inheritance, and the war between them was fierce and destructive. When Pizarro’s force arrived in Peru Atahualpa’s forces were deep in the Andes where they had defeated Huascar’s armies, taken him prisoner, and occupied the capital Cuzco. Alerted that the Spanish were on the coast, Atahualpa moved his armies to the city of Cajamarca and waited.
In September 1532, leaving a small garrison of his men on the coast, Pizarro began the march inland into the mountains. The system of Inca roads made the march relatively easy. There was no resistance. The roads, bridges, and mountain passes were undefended and the Inca fortifications along the way were deserted. They arrived in Cajamarca in November. From the heights overlooking the valley, the Spanish could see that the city itself was deserted. Encamped in the distance, however, was Atahualpa’s massive army estimated at some 30,000 troops. With a show of bravado Pizarro ordered his men into parade ranks and marched them into the city. Making the city’s plaza his headquarters, Pizarro then sent one of his officers, Hernando de Soto (later discoverer of the Mississippi River) on horseback, to Atahualpa’s camp. De Soto’s orders were to invite the Emperor to a personal meeting with Pizarro. Atahualpa received de Soto with an impressive display of power with his full court of nobles and officials, ornamented in gold, in attendance. Noticing Atahualpa’s interest in de Soto’s horse, the Spaniard demonstrated his riding skills. This included a full-gallop charge directly at the Emperor and then pulling up within feet of him. Atahualpa did not even flinch. From de Soto’s point of view, the Inca could be a very resolute enemy. It was agreed that the Emperor would meet Pizarro the following day.[2]
On hearing de Soto’s report, Pizarro realized that battle with the Inca army would be impossible to win. He would resort to deceit. A plan was contrived whereby the Spanish would take Atahualpa by force once he entered the city for the meeting with Pizarro. The next day, November 16, Atahualpa approached the city in a glorious procession befitting an Emperor. He was borne on a golden litter carried by noblemen. Moving with them was the rest of the court, all bedecked in their ceremonial finery, and followed by an imperial guard of several thousand soldiers. At the gates he was met by Spanish officers who again extended the invitation to enter the city and meet and dine with Pizarro. To the surprise – and delight – of the Spanish, Atahualpa announced that he and those who entered the city with him would do so unarmed.[3]
Accompanied by a large retinue of officials and unarmed soldiers, Atahualpa moved into the city. On entering the plaza, the Inca found it empty except for a Spanish priest and the interpreter. The priest then began to exhort the Emperor on religion urging him to abandon his false gods and follow the teachings of Christ. Surprised and angered by the nature of this “welcome,” Atahualpa made it very clear that he would not worship a god that had been killed by his own people (a reference to Christ’s crucifixion) and pointed to the sun saying, “My god still lives” (Innes 290). The priest ran to the hidden Pizarro and urged him to attack. Pizarro gave the signal and the pre-arranged ambush began. The Spanish horsemen and foot soldiers, charged from their hiding places into the confused mass of defenseless Inca. It is estimated that well over 2000 Inca were killed, including many nobility who were key to the Empire’s administrative system. Atahualpa was captured and quickly taken from the plaza. Once he was out of sight, the Indians ended their resistance. Those who escaped the massacre fled the city and panicked the army waiting outside. Not knowing what to do without orders, the Inca soldiers fled. The only Spanish casualty was a slight wound suffered accidentally by Pizarro himself when he intervened to prevent his men from harming Atahualpa. Once the fighting had ended, Pizarro invited Atahualpa to join him for supper.
Pizarro was now the “ruler” of the Empire but could be so only through the administrative system headed by Atahualpa. As Pizarro’s prisoner, Atahualpa was allowed all the trappings of the imperial court – cooks, servants, and concubines. The Emperor continued “govern” through orders to Inca officials, although it was clear that he took his direction from Pizarro. This uneasy political relationship lasted some nine months during which Atahualpa contrived to secure his release. Noticing the Spanish fascination for gold, Atahualpa made an extraordinary offer to Pizarro. In return for his freedom, he would fill a room with gold from wall to wall as high as a man could reach. The room was some 17 by 22 feet in its dimensions. A red line was drawn on the wall at the level of the Emperor’s extended upward reach. (This room – empty! – can still be visited in Cajamarca.) Pizarro accepted the offer. Orders went out to all parts of the Empire for the collection of gold and its transport to Cajamarca.
Suspicion, at best, characterized the Spanish relationship with the Inca. Virtually isolated deep within the Andes with only minimal contact with his garrison on the coast, Pizarro continued to be worried, even as the gold flowed in from across the Empire. What would happen when the room was filled and Atahualpa was freed? Was the Emperor plotting a rebellion? Pizarro was aware that Atahualpa, while imprisoned, had secretly ordered the execution of Huascar, thus eliminating the possibility of the Spanish replacing him with his half-brother. Pizarro ordered small groups of his men to travel throughout the Empire to determine if rebellion was brewing. As a sign of good faith, Atahualpa issued decrees authorizing the investigators unlimited power of inspection. They were even provided with Inca troops and litter bearers. When the group dispatched to Cuzco committed atrocities against the sacred women who attended the Temple of the Sun, there was no resistance. All the investigation parties reported that the Empire was at peace and there were no signs of rebellion. The group from Cuzco made it very clear that the city’s great wealth made it most attractive for further conquest. Meanwhile, additional Spanish troops, priests, and officials were arriving on the coast.
By April 1533, the gold room was filled. The treasure was then divided up with one-fifth to go to the Spanish crown and the rest divided among Pizarro and his officers. The rank and file soldiers got none of the gold, only the promise of a share in future spoils. There was debate among Pizarro’s officers on the wisdom of setting Atahualpa free. De Soto insisted that the Spanish must honor the agreement. Others argued that the Emperor was still capable of treachery and pressed for his death. Rumors of an Indian rebellion continued to spread among the Spanish, now eager to protect their share of the ransom gold. Soldiers even spoke of mutiny should Pizarro not order the Emperor’s death. Pizarro made the final decision. De Soto was sent on an expedition to determine if indeed a rebellion were being raised. Atahualpa was then brought to trial on charges of treason and murder of Huascar, idolatry, bigamy, and incest with his sister (who in the Inca custom was his wife). With Pizarro as a presiding judge, the trial was a travesty of justice. The interpreter at the trial was Filipillo (see footnote #4). It is believed that in translating he exaggerated what Atahualpa was saying in order to influence the court’s opinion against the Emperor. Filipillo’s motive? He supposedly had had an affair with one of Atahualpa’s concubines (a crime punishable by death under Inca law). Atahualpa’s conviction would remove any threat to Filipillo.
Atahualpa was found guilty and sentenced to death by fire. On May 16, 1533 the last Inca Emperor was executed. Before the fire was lit, he was offered the “opportunity” to die a quicker death by strangulation but only if he denied his own claim to divinity and became a Christian. Atahualpa agreed. The same priest who had tried to convert him on his entry into Cajamarca now presided over his baptism. Given the Christian name Juan (John), he was immediately executed by a cord twisted around the neck.
With Atahualpa’s death the Inca Empire collapsed. Lacking any central authority, government across the empire dissolved. Isolated pockets of Indian resistance were quickly and easily eliminated. Pizarro now moved his forces, greatly enhanced by reinforcements from the coast, to Cuzco, The city, taken in November 1533, was looted by soldiers seeking their share of the golden spoils of conquest. In the same year he founded the city of Lima, which became the Spanish (and present) capital of Peru. Over the next few years there were further outbreaks of resistance as the Spanish consolidated their political and economic control over the region.[4] Pizarro, like Cortés in Mexico, still wanting to exercise personal power, had to deal with jealous rivals, several being officers from the Cajamarca days. In June 1541 he was assassinated in Lima by a group of disgruntled soldiers who blamed Pizarro for the death of their commander a few years before. He is entombed in the cathedral in Lima.
[1] The word Inca will be used in this reading to identify the collective Inca people.
[2] Communications between the Spanish and Atahualpa were through “Filipillo,” one of the Indian boys Pizarro had taken to Spain in 1528.
[3] Historians have long speculated why Atahualpa would enter Cajamarca unprotected. There is no consensus, but prevalent among the theories is that he was the Inca, a god, a ruler whose power was such that no mortal would dare attack him. He was also commander of a massive army that he had led to victory. His soldiers loved him and would easily avenge any harm that came to him. The “strangers” would not dare raise a hand against him.
[4] One such rebellion was led by a young Inca named Manco, who, for three years (1535 – 1538) waged a bloody guerrilla war against the Spanish. Manco’s forces would strike at the Spanish and then seemingly disappear into the mountains. One of his refuges was believed to be the “hidden city” of Machu Picchu, a mountaintop fortress city the existence of which remained unknown until discovered by an American archaeologist in 1911. Today Peru’s most visited tourist attraction, Machu Picchu is the most completely preserved Inca city.