24.5 The United Nations
The United Nations Organization has its origins in the collaborative cooperation of the Allies during World War Two. The Allies formally took the name “United Nations” in January 1942 when representatives of the 26 nations then at war with the Axis powers met in Washington. There they pledged to unite their war efforts in defeating the Axis as well as to seek peace in accordance with the principles of the Atlantic Charter. An Allied conference in 1943 established the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to assist with reconstruction and provide humanitarian relief for those displaced by the war.
In the fall of 1944 American, British, Soviet, and Chinese delegates met at the Dumbarton Oaks estate in Washington and drew up plans for a future international organization that would maintain peace. It would be called the United Nations. Such issues as General Assembly and Security Council representation, voting procedures, and a big power veto dominated the meeting sessions. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met and approved the Dumbarton Oaks plan and agreed that an international conference be held in San Francisco to establish the UN. Stalin agreed to a Security Council that would include France and China among its five permanent members (US, USSR, Britain, France, and China) and wherein each of the five would have veto power in votes taken on substantive issues. Because Stalin claimed that states of the British Empire allowed UN membership would give the Western powers an advantage in the General Assembly, it was agreed that the USSR would have three seats in the General Assembly (USSR, the Ukraine, and Byelorussia).
Between April and June 1945 representatives of 50 nations met in San Francisco and approved the final version of the Charter of the United Nations Organization. Deliberations centered on such issues as: which government (the London Poles or the Lublin - Communist - Poles) was the legitimate government of Poland? Should Argentina (a Fascist country) have representation? How would the veto power be used? What of the British and French Empires? How would they be represented? These and other controversial matters were worked out and the Charter was approved. Germany and Japan would be allowed to join the UN once they had been reconstructed. The UN would come into existence upon ratification of the 50th member. That came when Yugoslavia's government approved the Charter in October. Today the UN consists of 193 member states.
In ratifying the Charter, member nations agreed to the following purposes of the UN:
1) To maintain international peace and the security of all nations.
2) To promote equality of rights and the self-determination of peoples.
3) To promote international cooperation.
4) To encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms without
discrimination based on race, sex, language, or religion.
The UN met in San Francisco, London, and various locations in the New York City area until its permanent headquarters were completed in 1952. Its permanent headquarters are in New York City on land donated by the Rockefeller family in 1946. The UN also maintains the former League of Nations building in Geneva as its European headquarters.
The UN has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
Note: Most of what follows regarding the organization and function of the UN is quoted directly from the United Nations website: www.un.org
General Assembly, Security Council, and Secretariat
The UN has three main bodies: The General Assembly, Security Council, and Secretariat. The General Assembly consists of all 193 member states, each holding one vote. It meets in regular annual sessions but can be called into special session on request of the Security Council or a majority of the membership. Decisions on important issues such as international peace and security and admitting new members must be approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members present at a session. A simple majority of members present is necessary on other matters. As all members retain their sovereignty, the Assembly cannot force action by any state, but its recommendations are an important indication of world opinion and represent the moral authority of the community of nations.
The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. The Council may convene at any time, whenever peace is threatened. Under the Charter, all member states are obligated to carry out the Council's decisions. But, again, because each member retains its sovereignty, states are not required to enforce Council decisions. There are15 Council members. Five of these — the United States, Russia, Britain, France, and China— are permanent members. The other 10 are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Decisions of the Council require nine yes votes. Each of the five permanent members holds veto power over any Council decision on substantive matters
When the Council considers a threat to international peace, it first explores ways to settle the dispute peacefully. It may suggest principles for a settlement or undertake mediation. In the event of fighting, the Council will try to secure a ceasefire. It may send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain the truce and to keep opposing forces apart.
The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions. It can impose economic sanctions or order an arms embargo. On rare occasions, the Council may authorize member states to use "all necessary means," including collective military action, to see that its decisions are carried out. This was the case in 1950 in response to North Korea’s invasion of South Korea.
The Council also makes recommendations to the General Assembly on the appointment of a new Secretary-General and on the admission of new members to the UN.
The Secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of the United Nations as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and the other organs. At its head is the Secretary-General, who provides overall administrative guidance and is recognized as the head of the UN. The Secretary-General is chosen by the General Assembly for a renewable five-year term. The first UN Secretary General was Trygve Lie of Norway who served from 1946 to 1952. The present (2023) Secretary General is António Guterres from Portugal. In the early 1960s the Soviet Union sought unsuccessfully to change the structure of the Secretariat to replace a single Secretary General with a “troika” of three chief administrators representing the Western states, neutral states and Communist states. A list of Secretary-Generals is at the end of this reading.
The Secretariat consists of departments and offices with a total staff of about 7,500, drawn from UN member nations. Secretariat offices include UN Headquarters in New York, as well as UN offices in Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi, and other locations.
UN Special Councils
The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the General Assembly, coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations. As the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and for formulating policy recommendations, the Council plays a key role in fostering international cooperation for development. It also consults with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), thereby maintaining a vital link between the United Nations and civil society.
The Council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It meets throughout the year and holds a major session in July, during which a high-level meeting of Ministers discusses major economic, social, and humanitarian issues.
The Council's subsidiary bodies meet regularly and report back to it. The Commission on Human Rights, for example, monitors the observance of human rights throughout the world. Other bodies focus on such issues as social development, the status of women, crime prevention, narcotic drugs, and sustainable development. Five regional commissions promote economic development and cooperation in their respective regions.
The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories administered by seven member states and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or independence. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence, either as separate states or by joining neighboring independent countries. The last to do so was the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands — Palau — which was administered by the United States and became the 185th UN member. Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council. It has amended its rules of procedure to allow it to meet when the occasion may require. The independent states created from the Trust Territories are listed below.
Somalia (Br, It) 1960, Togo (Br, Fr) 1960, Cameroon (Br, Fr) 1960, Tanzania (Br) 1961, Rwanda (Bel) 1962, Burundi (Bel) 1962, Samoa (NZ) 1962, Nauru (Aus, NZ, Br) 1968, Papua New Guinea (Aus) 1975, Micronesia (US) 1990, Marshall Islands (US) 1990, Palau (US) 1994
The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the main judicial organ of the UN. Its 15 judges are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council, voting independently and concurrently. The Court decides disputes between countries based on the voluntary participation of the states concerned. If a state agrees to participate in a proceeding, it is obligated to comply with the Court's decision. The Court also gives advisory opinions to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. The Court is headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands.
The UN and International Peace
Preserving world peace is a central purpose of the United Nations. Under the Charter, member states agree to settle disputes by peaceful means and refrain from threatening or using force against other states.
Over the years, the UN has played a major role in helping defuse international crises and in resolving protracted conflicts. It has undertaken complex operations involving peacemaking, peacekeeping, and humanitarian assistance. It has worked to prevent conflicts from breaking out. And after a conflict, it has increasingly undertaken action to address the root causes of war and lay the foundation for durable peace.
UN efforts have produced dramatic results. The UN helped defuse the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 and the Middle East crisis in 1973. In 1988, a UN-sponsored peace settlement ended the Iran-Iraq war, and the following year UN-sponsored negotiations led to the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. In the 1990s, the UN was instrumental in restoring sovereignty to Kuwait and played a major role in ending civil wars in Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mozambique, and resolving or containing conflict in various other countries.
When terrorists attacked the United States on September 11, 2001, the Security Council acted quickly – adopting a wide-ranging resolution which obligates States to ensure that any person who participates in financing, planning, preparing, perpetrating, or supporting terrorist acts is brought to justice.
The UN System
The International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and 13 other independent organizations known as "specialized agencies" are linked to the UN through cooperative agreements. These agencies, among them the World Health Organization, International Civil Aviation Organization, and the World Trade Organization, are autonomous bodies created by intergovernmental agreement. They have wide-ranging international responsibilities in the economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related fields. Some of them, like the International Labor Organization and the Universal Postal Union, are older than the UN itself.
In addition, a number of UN offices, programs, and funds — such as the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the UN Development Program (UNDP), and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) work to improve the economic and social condition of people around the world. They report to the General Assembly or the Economic and Social Council.
All these organizations have their own governing bodies, budgets, and secretariats. Together with the United Nations, they are known as the UN family, or the UN system. Together, they provide technical assistance and other forms of practical help in virtually all economic and social areas.
The United Nations and Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed by the General Assembly in 1948, sets out basic rights and freedoms to which all women and men are entitled — among them the right to life, liberty, and nationality; to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; the right to work and to be educated; the right to food and housing; and the right to take part in government.
These rights are legally binding by virtue of two International Covenants, to which most states are parties. One Covenant deals with economic, social, and cultural rights and the other with civil and political rights. Together with the Declaration, they constitute the International Bill of Human Rights.
The Declaration laid the groundwork for some 80 conventions and declarations on human rights, including the two International Covenants; conventions to eliminate racial discrimination and discrimination against women; conventions on the rights of the child, against torture and other degrading treatment of punishment, the status of refugees and the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide; and declarations on the rights of persons belonging to national, ethnic, religious, or linguistic minorities, the right to development, and the rights of human rights defenders.
With its standards-setting work nearly complete, the UN is shifting the emphasis of its human rights efforts to the implementation of human rights laws. The High Commissioner for Human Rights, who coordinates UN human rights activities, works with governments to improve their observance of human rights, seeks to prevent violations, and works closely with the UN human rights mechanisms. The UN Commission on Human Rights, an intergovernmental body, holds public meetings to review the human rights performance of states, to adopt new standards, and to promote human rights around the world. The Commission also appoints independent experts — "special rapporteurs" — to report on specific human rights abuses or to examine the human rights situation in specific countries.
UN human rights bodies contribute to early warning and conflict prevention, as well as in efforts to address the root causes of conflict. A number of UN peacekeeping operations have a human rights component. In all, UN human rights field activities are currently being carried out in 30 countries or territories. They help strengthen national capacities in human rights legislation, administration, and education; investigate reported violations; and assist governments in taking corrective measures when needed.
Promoting respect for human rights is increasingly central to UN development assistance. In particular, the right to development is seen as part of a dynamic process which integrates civil, cultural, economic, political, and social rights, and by which the wellbeing of all individuals in a society is improved. Key to the enjoyment of the right to development is the eradication of poverty, a major UN goal.
UN Secretary-Generals
Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946 – 1952
Dag Hammerskjold * (Sweden) 1952 – 1961
U Thant (Burma) 1961 – 1972
Kurt Waldheim (Austria) 1972 – 1982
Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru) 1982 – 1992
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) 1992 – 1997
Kofi Annan ** (Ghana) 1997 – 2007
Ban Ki-moon (South Korea) 2007 – 2017
António Guterres (Portugal) 2017 - present
* Nobel Peace Prize winner, 1961
** " " " " , 2001
Sources for the United Nations
The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2007, New York: WRC Media, 2006.
The United Nations Organization website: www.un.org