2.1 Luther’s Break with the Church: A Chronological Overview

Luther defends his writings before the Imperial Diet at Worms, 1521.

On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk, posted a list of Ninety-Five Theses (statements of position) on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, the capital of the German state of Saxony. Luther, who was also a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg, was protesting the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church. Indulgences were spiritual pardons - certificates of forgiveness for one's sins that were issued by the pope. Pope Leo X had authorized the sale of indulgences in the German states as a means of raising funds for the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Luther was outraged that the Church presumed to sell pardons for sins. Only God, he argued in his theses, could pardon sins and even then only for those faithful Christians who were truly repentant. When the Church condemned Luther's protest and later excommunicated him, Luther broke with the Church attacking it for its loss of Christianity. Instead of disappearing into obscurity, Luther became the leader of a new Christian movement that would challenge the very heart and soul of the Catholic Church. Those who joined Luther and other reformers in their protest became known as Protestants. The movement to reform Christianity became known as the Reformation. What follows is a chronological overview of the events of Luther’s break with the Church. The spiritual tenets of Lutheranism are considered at the end of this reading.

1517 – The papal agent authorized to sell indulgences in northern Germany was Johann Tetzel. In his appeal, Tetzel maintained that indulgences not only forgave all sins one had already committed but would forgive those one had yet to commit throughout an entire lifetime. Thus, one could sin all one wanted and still be saved. Angered over Tetzel’s irreverent hard-sell of indulgences to the unsuspecting and trusting faithful, Luther drafted the Ninety-Five Theses, a set of statements condemning the Church’s sale of indulgences. These he then (October 31) nailed on the door of the Wittenberg church. Considering the fierce convictions of Luther’s forceful personality, the impression might be given that the posting of the 95 Theses was an act of angry defiance. It was not. The church door was, in effect, the local community bulletin board. And, most who saw them as they went to mass on All Souls Day (Nov. 1) could not read them. Written in Latin, the Theses were intended to challenge other Church theologians to a debate on the “correctness” of the sale of indulgences. Luther initially had no intention of breaking with the Church. He sought only to correct what he saw as a deceitful spiritual abuse. Only later when the Church refused to accept his position did Luther publish the Theses in German for general distribution.

1518 - 1519 These years saw Luther engaged in serious theological discussions and debate with emissaries of Pope Leo X. Despite the desire of both sides to reconcile their differences, Luther became increasingly convinced of the correctness of his position. As the Church countered, Luther broadened his criticism from indulgences to matters relating to the spiritual validity of the saints, pilgrimages and relics, and, more importantly, to papal sovereignty. At risk of being proclaimed a heretic, Luther denied the Pope’s claim to authority over the Church. The Church responded by accusing Luther of being a “Hussite” and rebellious priest and urged him to correct his thinking. By this time Luther had become a widely known and popular figure throughout northern Germany.

Quick to realize the power of public opinion (meaning, of course, that of the literate upper and middle classes), Luther made widespread use of that relatively new invention the printing press. Writing in German, he published numerous tracts and pamphlets attacking the authority of the pope and presenting his spiritual views on humanity’s relationship with God. His writings were well received by German merchants and princes.

1520 - Luther published his Letter to the German Nobility, an emotional and influential appeal to the German rulers to affirm their spiritual and financial independence of the Roman papacy and reform the Church in their own states. In this “Letter” he likewise presented his developing religious doctrine: that every Christian had the right to interpret the Scriptures according to one’s individual conscience and that the Bible was the final authority on all matters of Christian faith and practice. Nothing in the Bible, Luther wrote, gave the pope undisputed sovereignty over the Church. These latter views were further developed in his subsequent theological writings, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and The Freedom of a Christian Man.

1521 - Pope Leo X ordered Luther to recant his heresy or suffer excommunication. In defiance, Luther publicly burned the Pope’s excommunication order.

The Diet of Worms: Once an order of excommunication had been issued by the Church, it was up to the civil authorities to enforce it. The new 20-year old Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (the Hapsburg ruler of Austria and Spain), summoned Luther to appear before an Imperial Diet (assembly) of the princes of the Empire then meeting in the imperial city of Worms. Promised safeguard from arrest to and from Worms, Luther appeared before the Diet and eloquently and dramatically defended his position of faith. When asked (in Latin) to recant his heresies, Luther (in German) refused. “... I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against my conscience is neither right nor safe. God help me. Amen.”

Through of Edict of Worms, the Diet found Luther guilty of heresy and outlawed him, but (on Charles’ promise of immunity from arrest) he was allowed to return to safety in Saxony.

1521 - 1546 The Development of Lutheranism, the first form of Protestant spiritual expression

- From 1521 to 1546 Luther was free in Saxony under the protection of Duke Frederick, the ruler of Saxony. In Saxony Luther ... continued to attack spiritual abuse in the Catholic Church,

... translated the Bible into German,

... wrote hymns and other spiritual works,

... developed the spiritual doctrines of Lutheranism (See end of this reading.),

... married (a former nun, Katharina von Bora), and

... appealed to German nationalism by continually urging the German princes to unite and destroy the power of the pope in the

German states.

Many northern German rulers found Luther’s appeal politically attractive and ordered the “reform” of the Church in their states. Catholic churches in several states were ordered ”reformed” or closed, and their rulers happily seized Catholic Church properties. The southern German states remained Roman Catholic.

1524 - 1525 Peasants’ Revolt - Influenced by the growing breakdown of traditional controls of Church and state, German peasants rebelled against their landlords. Seeking relief from the burden of ancient feudal obligations, the peasant revolt was social and economic, not spiritual or political. Horrified that his call for religious reform was being transformed into social revolution, Luther angrily condemned the rebellion and urged the princes to restore order. Some 100,000 peasants were killed in the suppression of the rebellion.

With Luther’s condemnation of the peasant uprising, religion in Germany became increasingly confused. Many Catholics who otherwise might have been attracted to Lutheranism were alienated by his political conservatism. Other reformers were likewise disillusioned and rejected Luther in favor of more extreme spiritualism giving rise to numerous religious sects. These sects, collectively called “Anabaptists,” rejected infant baptism, called for separation of Church and state, and advocated equality between the sexes and a return to life based on simple Christian values of love and peace. Although persecuted by both Catholics and Lutherans, Anabaptism spread and, in time, gave rise to other forms of Protestant expression, namely the Baptist church.

1530 - The Augsburg Confession - In an effort to heal the spiritual schism dividing Germany, Emperor Charles V again summoned the German rulers to an imperial diet, this time at Augsburg. There, a leading Lutheran, Philip Melachthon, presented the “Augsburg Confession,” showing how the Lutheran doctrine was more similar to Catholicism than different. (The term Confession in this context means a statement of spriritual doctrine.) Melachthon's effort failed and the split between the two churches became more pronounced and bitter. In time it would lead to war.

1546 - Death of Luther, beginning of the German War of Religion, 1546 - 1555

A bloody religious civil war: Catholic vs. Protestant (Lutheran and other rulers opposed to the Emperor joined in an alliance called the Schmalkaldic League), essentially a war between the northern and southern German states.

1555 - The Peace of Augsburg ended the religious war. The terms of agreement reflected compromise. 1) Each German ruler would determine for himself his own faith and, therefore, that of his state (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio – “whose the region, his the religion”). 2) Lutheranism would be the only legal Protestant faith in the Holy Roman Empire.

All Lutherans in Catholic states, as well as Catholics in Lutheran, were free to emigrate. Most accepted the religion of the prince. Very few left their states as traditional conditions of land tenure meant sacrificing one’s livelihood with little possibility of acquiring new land elsewhere.

Thus, Germany, already politically divided into some 300 states, was now further divided spiritually. The northern states generally became Lutheran; the southern remained Catholic. Later the Calvinist form of Protestantism would spread into parts of the Holy Roman Empire (namely, in the Rhineland region and in Bohemia) further dividing the German states.

Lutheranism: Basic Spiritual Tenets

1. “Justification by Faith” - Faith in God and God’s mercy is all that is necessary for salvation.

2. The only two spiritually valid sacraments were baptism and communion.

3. The Bible was the sole source of all Christian faith, authority, and doctrine.

4. The “priesthood of all true believers.” Faith was a personal experience, establishing a direct relationship between oneself and God. Luther rejected the Catholic position that the priesthood was a divinely ordained estate with the power to be intermediaries between Christians and God.

5. The Visible and Invisible Church - The “invisible” church - that which exists in the hearts and minds of the faithful is the true church. A church, Luther maintained, was not just an institution with buildings and administrative hierarchy.

6. With the exception of theological matters, Luther held that the church was not superior to the secular state.

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In the 16th Century, the Catholic Church maintained that salvation was dependent upon ...

... faith in God.

... “Good Works” - selfless acts of Christian goodness in service to God and humanity - charity, pilgrimages, etc. (even buying indulgences was seen among Catholic “good works”).

... acceptance of the spiritual validity of all seven sacraments - baptism, communion, confirmation, penance (confession), marriage, holy orders (the ordination of one into the priesthood), the anointing of the sick (also called last rites).

... unquestioned acceptance of the Church position on all aspects of Christian belief and practice.

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It is interesting and worth noting here that in June 1998, the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches reached a reconciliatory understanding on a significant matter that lies the heart of their spiritual separation. For almost 500 years the fundamental question had been: which is of greater spiritual weight in regard to salvation - faith or good works?

After some 30 years of discussion by theological scholars, a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification was announced. The Declaration states that “Together we confess: By grace alone, in faith in Christ’s saving work and not because of any merit on our part, we are accepted by God and receive the Holy Spirit, who renews our hearts while equipping and calling us to good works.” In other words, the grace of God received through one’s faith is such that it compels one to do good works. Neither faith alone nor good works alone is the basis of justification.

The Declaration does not mean the reunion of the Catholic and Lutheran churches. Their contentious history has created too many spiritual differences to make that imminently possible. Pope John Paul II saw some theological contradictions in the 44-point Declaration and some Lutheran leaders also believe it is not clear enough. Nonetheless, most theologians believe the Declaration represents a conscientious and well-intentioned effort to further Christian ecumenical good-will between both churches.

source: “A half-Millennium Rift,” Time (July 6, 1998 issue)

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The images used in this section are from Wikipedia sources.

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Sources for Luther and the Reformation

Brinton, Crane et al. A History of Civilization. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1961.

Durant, Will. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957.

Knapton, Earnest. Europe, 1450 – 1815. New York: Scribners, 1958.

Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe. New York: Norton, 1996.

Palmer, Robert R. et al. A History of the Modern World. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2002.

Simon, Edith. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. New York: Time-Life Books, 1966.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. Minneapolis: West, 1997.

Tuchman, Barbara. The March of Folly. New York: Knopf, 1984.

Martin Luther (by Lucas Cranach, 1529)

Pope Leo X (by Raphael, 1519)