I) Political Parties - a group of persons who seek to control government by winning elections and holding public office - not necessarily of like opinions
A) Functions of Political Parties - 5
1) Nominating function -select candidates for public office and present them to the public
2) Informer-Stimulator function - increase interest in issues by informing public (propaganda)
a) Pamphlets, signs, buttons, ads in papers, radio or TV, rallies, conventions, etc.
3) Bonding Agent function - bring best candidates together and monitors their performance
4) Governmental function - many functions of government controlled by partisan politics
a) Appointments to public office, voting on issues in legislatures, etc.
5) Watchdog function - role of the party out of power - keeps government functioning honestly
B) Party Systems - 3
1) The 2 party system - only 2 major parties have a realistic chance to control public policy
a) Reasons for the 2 party system in U.S.
1) Historic - argument over Constitution created first 2 parties - Federalists and Anti-Federalist
2) Tradition - throughout most of our history this system has been in force
3) Electoral System - many voting districts require majority for victory - voters tend not to waste votes on candidates who cannot win
4) Ideological Consensus - Americans generally agree on basic issues - either for or against – no room for a third voice - both major parties middle of the road on issues
b) Strengths of 2 party system - choice, efficiency, works well within the political structure
c) Weaknesses of 2 party system - voice of minorities seldom heard, partisanship
2) Multi-party systems - many major and minor parties representing economic classes, sections of country, political beliefs, etc.
a) Strengths - more representation, more responsive, more real choice
b) Weaknesses - instability (no majority party), coalitions must be formed
3) One party systems - usually dictatorships but can be found in some areas like American South
a) Strengths - ultra efficient
b) Weaknesses - no choice, no representation of minority ideas
4) Factors that determine which political party you will support
a) Family, major events or issues, economic status, age, level of education, residence, job
C) The Role of Minor Parties in the American political system
1) Types of Minor Parties
a) Ideological Parties - based on a particular set of beliefs (Socialists and Libertarians) few supporters but long lived
b) Single Issue Parties - concentrate on one major problem - die when issue no longer holds public attention or major party assumes issue (Right To Life)
c) Economic Protest Parties - rooted in periods of economic turmoil (Greenback Party) - fade away when problem is solved
d) Splinter Parties - break away from major parties - usually behind a strong leader (Bull Moose Party)
2) Impact of Minor Parties on American politics
a) Initiate new ideas - nominating conventions
b) Promote controversial issues - more likely to take a stand because they have less to lose than major parties - major parties adopt ideas when they become popular (Women’s Suffrage, Income Taxes)
c) Play spoiler role in elections - 1912, 1968, 1992
D) The Organization of Political Parties in the U.S.
1) Parties tend to be decentralized and fragmented
a) Federalism - separate national and state organizations
b) Nominating Process - Democrat versus Democrat
2) Structure
a) National Committee and Chairperson - handle party affairs between elections and prepare for next election
b) The National Convention - meet every 4th year in the summer prior to election to select candidates, adopt platform and bring party together for upcoming elections
c) Congressional Campaign Committees - work to re-elect members, save and steal seats
1) One committee per party per house - elected to 2 year terms by colleagues
d) State Committees - candidates for statewide offices and selection of representatives to the National Committee
e) Local Committees - candidates for county offices and choose of representatives to the State Committee
f) Precinct - grassroots level of American politics - usually precinct committee person
E) 3 Major Elements that make up political parties
1) Party organization - leaders, activists who control and run party machinery
2) Electorate - people who vote straight party ticket or usually vote for party
3) Officeholders - members elected to all levels of government
II) Voters and Voting Behavior
A) Suffrage = the right to vote; approximately 239+ million people qualify today
1) Reasons for the large numbers of eligible voters today
a) Elimination of voting restrictions – religion, property, race, sex
b) Transfer of authority from state to federal government
B) The Historical Stages of Suffrage
1) Early 1800s – restrictions on religion, property and tax payment were removed
2) Late 1860s – 15th Amendment removed restrictions based on race and color
3) 1920 – 19th Amendment removed restrictions based on sex
4) 1960s – Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts, 23rd Amendment (District of Columbia), 24th Amendment (poll taxes)
5) 1971 – 26th Amendment lowered voting age to 18
C) Constitution did not give the federal government the power to determine qualifications for voting
1) Suffrage qualifications were reserved powers of the states – if a person could vote in a state election they could vote in federal elections
2) Restrictions on the states have been created with the passage of Constitutional Amendments (15,19)
3) Today so long as a state does not violate the Constitution it can set any qualifications it chooses
D) Voter Qualifications
1) Citizenship – must be a natural born or naturalized citizen
2) Residence – nearly half of the states require 30 days prior to the election others shorter or longer
a) Reasons – keep political machines from importing voters and give voter some basis of candidate
b) Voting Rights Amendment of 1970 30 days maximum to vote for President
3) Age – 26th Amendment set at 18, varied previously
4) Registration – 49 states require (North Dakota), designed to keep track of who can vote, end fraud
a) Usually required 28 days prior to election
5) Banned by all or most states – mentally ill, serious felonies, dishonorably discharged, polygamists
III) Suffrage and Civil Rights
A) 15th Amendment – voting rights cannot be denied based on race, color or previous servitude
B) Methods used to circumvent the 15th Amendment
1) Threats of violence – KKK and other racist groups
2) Economic pressures – lose your job, curtail credit
3) Literacy tests – example BLM
4) Poll taxes – set beyond the ability of the average southern black to pay
5) Gerrymandering – setting voting boundaries to the disadvantage of black voters
6) White primaries – parties are private clubs and can determine who votes in elections
7) Grandfather clause – people with relatives who could vote as of a certain date had right to vote
C) Government Enforcement of the 15th Amendment
1) Civil Rights Act of 1957 – started Civil Rights Commission with power to seek injunctions against
Illegal voting restrictions
2) Civil Rights Act of 1960 – created federal voting referees to oversee elections
3) Civil Rights Act of 1964 – no unfair registration requirements
4) Voting Rights Acts of 65, 70, 75 and 82 – apply 15th Amendment to all elections, no literacy tests
5) Passage of Amendments and federal laws have led to a dramatic increase in the number of black voters and caused a resultant increase in Black public officials
IV) Non-voting and Its Causes
A) 1992 Presidential election 55% of eligible voters cast a ballot (50% in Congressional elections)
1) Ballot Fatigue – the further down a ballot an office is listed the lower the amount of voter turnout
2) Voter turnout is generally greater in Presidential election years
B) Reasons for not voting
1) Cannot voters – make up approximately 25% of the non-voters
a) Resident aliens (10 million), mentally ill, physically ill (5-6 million), unexpected travel (2-3 million) and jailed (2 million)
2) Will not voters – people who can vote but don’t (80 million)
a) Apathetic – feel that it really doesn’t matter who wins
b) Alienated – distrust politicians and the political system
c) Lack political efficacy – feel their votes don’t count
d) Cumbersome procedures – registration, voting and weather
3) Who is more likely and less likely to vote?
a) Most likely – high income, high education, high occupational status, length of time in community, strong party identification
b) Less likely – just the opposite
V) Voting Behavior – how do we determine how people will vote?
A) Results of previous elections – checking populations represented by homogeneous populations
B) Survey research – public opinion polls (Gallup Poll)
C) Studies of political socialization – process by which people gain attitudes and opinions
VI) Factors affecting voter behavior
A) Sociological
1) Income, occupation, education, sex, age, religion, ethnic background, geography
B) Psychological – how voters see and react to candidates
1) Party identification – Number 1 factor in determining who will vote, straight ticket voting declining
2) Candidates – the image they project to the public
3) Issues – what candidates believe and how aware of their positions voters are
VII) The American Electoral System – Nominations and Elections
A) Nominations – important part of the political system particularly in one party constituencies
B) Methods used to nominate candidates
1) Self-announcement – oldest form, person either makes public announcement or has others do it for
them – usually 3rd party or write in candidates
2) Caucus – meetings of local political groups or parties to nominate candidates, used primarily in past and in certain states for presidential nomination
3) Convention – Used primarily at state level to select candidates and at national level to nominate Presidential candidates – subject to manipulation by party bosses
4) Direct Primaries – elections held within parties to choose candidates, used in virtually every state - 2 major types, turnout small, people don’t realize importance
a) Closed Primaries – only declared party members can vote, party membership determined by registration – used in 38 states
1) Arguments for – Keeps raiding to a minimum, makes candidates more responsive to the party, makes voters more thoughtful because they must choose party
2) Arguments against – Compromises secrecy because you must declare party, excludes Independent voters
b) Open Primaries – Any qualified voter may take part – 2 types
1) Voter given ballots of all parties or one big ballot, voter chooses party
2) Blanket Ballot – voters allowed to mix and match candidates from all parties – 2 states
c) Run-off Primary – 10 states require an absolute majority, 2 top contenders run-off weeks later
d) Non-partisan Primary – School and municipal elections, not identified by party labels
5) Petition – candidates nominated by the signatures of qualified voters in that district
a) Used mostly on the local level or for minor party candidates to larger office
b) The higher the office the more signatures that are needed
VIII) Elections – must be free and honest, bulk of the laws governing are state laws – some federal
A) Federal laws governing elections
1) Time, place and manner elections held – by Constitution
2) Secret ballots, voting machines, laws protecting the right to vote, prohibition of corrupt practices and regulation of campaign financing – laws passed by Congress
B) Most elections held in November of even numbered years with federal elections (Coat-tail effect)
1) Some elections held in odd years and in the spring of even years
C) Voting is done in precincts (geographic area with 500 – 1,000 people) at a polling place located within the physical boundaries of the precinct
1) Times set by state law – usually at least 12 hours
2) Polls controlled by precinct boards – open and close polls, make ballots and booths available, allow qualified voters to vote and count votes
D) Ballots – each state is required to provide a secret ballot
1) Secret ballot – Australian ballot (first used in 1856 in Victoria, Australia)
2) Requirements – must be printed at public expense, list names of all candidates, given only at polls to qualified voters, voted in secret
3) Voting Machines – 1st by T. Edison in 1892, majority of votes cast today are cast on machines
a) Advantages – does away with manual vote counting, reduces number of people needed to run election, speeds voting process, reduces vote spoilage, minimizes fraud and increases the number of people who can be handled per precinct
E) Financing Elections
1) The cost of running for political office has increased dramatically in the past 30 years
a) Presidential elections – 1976 = 160 million, 1992 = 500 million, 2000 = 1.5 billion, 2020 = billion
2) Money needed for – TV, radio, paper ads, buttons, posters, office rent, mailings, travel, etc.
3) Where does the money come from?
a) Private contributions – makes up the bulk of money spent on elections each year
1) Small contributions - $50 or $100 best but only one in ten people do it
2) Wealthy individuals – can afford it and it is in their best interest to do so
3) Personal wealth – 1992 Perot used 65 million dollars of his own money
4) Political Action Committees – political arm of interest groups over 4,000 exist currently
5) Groups founded to raise funds – Committee to Re-Elect the President
6) Special fund raisers – mail campaigns, dinners, telethons
4) Reasons for large campaign contributions
a) Belief in party or candidate, access to government, appointments to public office, social
recognition, insure passage of laws and policies
5) Regulation of campaign finances - federal
a) 3 major laws – Federal Election Campaign Act of 71, 74 and 76
b) Laws administered by the Federal Election Commission – agency of the executive branch – 6
members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate
c) Disclosure of finances – requires the keeping of detailed accounts – all contributions handled by one committee
1) All contributions over $200 must be identified by source and date – also any spending > $250
2) Contributions over $5000 must be reported within 48 hours
3) Contributions over $1000 in the last 20 days reported within 48 hours
4) Cannot accept more than $100 in cash
d) Limits on contributions – apply only to federal elections
1) No person can give a candidate more than $2000 for a primary or general election
2) No person can give more than $5000 to a PAC
3) No person can give more than $25000 to a National Committee
4) Total donations cannot exceed $95000 in one two year election cycle
6) Corporations and Unions cannot make direct campaign contributions – do so through PACs
7) PACs are limited to $5000 for any one candidate but can donate to as many candidates as they wish and give $15000 to the party
8) No aid from foreign sources
IX) Public Opinion – attitudes held by a significant number of persons on matters of government and politics
A) Public opinion is learned behavior not inborn behavior – Political Socialization
B) Major contributors to the process of Political Socialization
1) Family – political world first seen through the eyes of your parents, set foundation for beliefs
2) Schools – first formal education in politics
3) Opinion Leaders – persons with greater influence than others, usually prominent leaders
4) Mass Media – television, newspapers, magazines and radio
a) Creates interest in issues and determines which issues are important
b) Reaction to candidates – media can determine candidates public image
c) Limits on the power of the media – few people pay close attention, people patronize programs they agree with, people are more interested in being entertained than being informed, skim news no detail (particularly TV and Radio)
C) Measuring Public Opinion
1) Through results of previous elections – approval or disapproval of candidates or platforms, Mandate for the Winners – not necessarily accurate
2) Through Pressure Groups – chief means through which public opinion is made known
a) How many people does the group represent?
b) How strongly do the people actually support the group?
3) Through the Media – views expressed by editorials, columns, magazines, commentators
4) Through Personal Contact – mail, phone, telegram, face-to-face meetings with public officials
a) Can be valuable – problem only those highly motivated bother to do these
5) Public Opinion Polls – scientific polling began in the 1930s – early attempts often inaccurate
a) 1,000s of organizations today – about 200 deal exclusively with politics (Gallup)
b) Procedure followed in a proper poll
5 Basic Steps for Scientific Polling
1) Define population to be surveyed – example: all voters in Peoria, Illinois, all students at PND
2) Construct a sample – best sample is to chose all, if not possible a random sample is best
a) Quota sample – select people to be polled by age, race, sex, etc.
b) Random sample – based on probability theory, if you randomly select people they will accurately reflect the larger population – approximately 1,500 out of 190 million, accurate to within + or – 3%
3) Prepare valid questions – must be prepared properly, no loaded terms, slang, prejudicial terms, must be specific and to the point
4) Select means by which the poll will be taken – face-to-face, telephone, mail – same technique must be used for all questions – pollsters appearance, dress and speech can affect the outcome
5) Report your findings – analyze data with computers and report findings to the public
a) Polls can cause some problems (Bandwagon) but are the most effective and reliable method of determining public opinion
D) Pressure Groups (Interest Groups) – organizations that try to persuade all levels and branches of Government that their viewpoints are correct – differ from political parties because they usually don’t nominate candidates and have a narrower scope of interest
E) Functions of Pressure Groups
1) Help stir up interest in public affairs
2) Represent members on the basis of shared ideas – make ideas national in scope
3) Provide detailed information to government officials and agencies
4) Add another check and balance feature to government
F) Criticisms of Pressure Groups
1) Some have more influence than their size would dictate
2) It is difficult to determine how many people actually belong to a particular group
3) Some don’t represent as many people as they claim to
4) Some use unethical tactics – bribery, etc.
E) Types of Pressure Groups – 2 major types private and public
1) Business – National Association of Manufacturers, Chamber of Commerce
2) Labor – AFL-CIO, Teamsters, UAW – represent 1/5 of American labor
3) Agricultural – National Grange, American Farm Bureau
4) Professional – AMA, ABA, NEA
5) Cause or Idea – NOW, Sierra Club, Right to Life, NRA
6) Welfare – American Legion, NAACP, Urban League, Gray Panthers
7) Religious – National Council of Churches
8) Public Interest Groups – groups that appeal to a larger % of the population, try to help all
Common Cause, League of Women Voters, ACLU
D) Tactics used by Pressure Groups
1) Propaganda – persuade others to your point of view, used in all forms of the media
a) Plain folks – we are the representatives of the common people
b) Bandwagon – everybody is supporting our cause/candidate you should to
c) Glittering Generalities – vague statements that are difficult to prove or disprove
d) Card Stacking – telling only one side of the issue
e) Transfer – use of symbols for an unintended purpose
f) Testimonial – endorsement by a celebrity
g) Name Calling – commie, liar, pervert etc.
2) Working through political parties
a) Have members of the group run for political office
b) Major source of campaign funds – through PACs
E) Lobbying – Hire professional lobbyists to bring their views to all levels and branches of public policy makers
a) Requirements for a Lobbyist – up to date with current political situation, experts in persuasion, close contacts with public officials
1) Most are lawyers, journalists, public relations experts and former politicians
b) Techniques used by Lobbyists
1) Provide articles and reports to officeholders
2) Testify before committees
3) Bring grass-roots pressure to bear on politicians
c) Regulation of Lobbying and Lobbyists
1) Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946 requires that lobbyists must register with the
House and Senate – law is inadequate over 20,000 lobbyists in D.C. only 6,000 registered