44 Winchester Cartridge Timeline
"Chasing The 44-40"

Website Since Oct 2019, by Bryan Austin

Winchester's 44W.C.F. and Marlin's 44-40

In Memory of John Kort a.k.a w30wcf/44wcf  "1943 - 2018"

"Two Peas In A Pod"

"Winchester's "New Model of 1873"

The 44 Center Fire Cartridge Is Born

The New Model of 1873 was not shown in Winchester's 1873 catalog. It has been reported that only about 16 of these new rifles were shipped by the END of 1873. The delays were supposedly caused by the ill-fated Milbank primers. 

 Milbank Primer Issues

The Delays 

On 9-24-1962, W.M. Bellemore wrote about the Milbank Primer. He tells us that it was patented (Pat. #103,641) on May, 31, 1870. During the early development of the Winchester 73's 44 cal. cartridge, the Milbank primer design was used. It appears that this centerfire primer design was flawed and troublesome. Mostly from loose primers by the way they were inserted into the primer pocket. The primer was developed with a dimple in it and it much resembled a spent cartridge when in fact they were not fired. The wedged shape primer was notorious for coming loose and causing problems. 

This cartridge, with the new primer, was very short lived and it has been said that some of the earliest deliveries of the 73' were delayed until the newly Winchester patented primer system was released.

Folded-Head or Solid-Head ?

REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF ORDNANCE, Page 300-301

As a single loader [referring to the Winchester .45 cal. Musket Lever Action].-- In this case, with the exception of the loading, which is done through the side before the piece is opened, or through the top of the receiver when the bolt is drawn back, the motions are the same as when using the magazine. 

The ammunition used in this arm was ignited by the Milbank primer, in which the fulminate is contained in a small tube passed through the head of the cartridge and having its outer end conically recessed, so as to protect the fulminate from accidental ignition in the magazine by impact from the cartridge lying next below it. When fired, the point of the firing pin enters this cavity and wedges the fulminate around it against the external walls of the primer, in this way causing the explosion.

ORDNANCE MEMORANDA NO. 14. 

[MAJOR TJ TREADWELL, FRANKFORD ARSENAL] 

METALLIC CARTRIDGES, (REGULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL, ) AS MANUFACTURED AND TESTED AT THE FRANKFORD ARSENAL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE CHIEF OF ORDNANCE BY MAJOR T. J. TREADWELL, ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, COMMANDING FRANKFORD ARSENAL. DEPARTMEN ORDNANCE U.S.A. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1873. 

Ordnance Memoranda No. 14, 1873, Plate XXXV. Milbank’s Primer and Reloader, Patented May 1870. Class1 (Folded-Head).



Remarks

    A number of the above cartridges, Milbanks Patent, ( May 1870) manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Co. New Haven, Conn. labeled solid head, central fire, reloading cartridges, were tested at this Arsenal April, 1873. It is unclear of which cartridge was tested, and only calls out a .45 caliber. This could be the 45-70 cartridges used in the Springfield and Remington rifles of the time.


    The head is claimed to be a solid one, which is presumed to mean one, folded closely as at 0, similar to the Dutch Carbine cartridge. As it does not fulfill the conditions of a solid head it is rated under Class 1 [rather than Class 4 (Solid-Head)]. The metal of which the case is made is quite thick, about .05”. The flanges have a greater variation in thickness than any other cartridge tested here, from .062” to .079” and one variable in thickness in the same flange at different points, showing bad work at an important point.


The primer is made somewhat like a rimfire - case, having a recess in the center holding the priming, partly in the folded rim and at the bottom. 

The composition is of a dark color resembling that in the Ely cap and is covered by a paper wad, the open end being slightly closed to facilitate its insertion into the pocket of the case. 


It was claimed to be superior in the following points : 


Comparative performance of Winchester and service ammunition - object of trial - certainty of fire of both cartridges with the Springfield and Remington guns. Recapitulation - Winchester ammunition. Springfield gun - Fired in all 352 rounds with the following results: 70 required 2 blows to explode; 5 failed with 2 blows to explode The primers were in a number of instances discolored by leaking gasses. Winchester ammunition, Remington gun- Fired in all 250 rounds with the following results: 14 cartridges required 2 blows to explode. 7 cartridges failed to explode on 2 blows. 


Service ammunition, Springfield gun - Fired in all 200 rounds with the following result: no failures of any kind except 1 case burst at flange. Fired 100 rounds each of Winchester and service ammunition that were in water for five (5) days, with the following results, using a Springfield gun with both cartridges: 


      Winchester Ammunition                                                            Service Ammunition 

          70 % required two blows                                                               No failure of any kind, all exploded 

                                                     11% hangfire, 2 on 1st blow & 9 on 2nd blow                                promptly on 1st blow

                                                       3 Cartridges failed on second blow



An x-rayed cartridge, shows a typical 200gr lead round nose, flat point bullet. The case is shorter than the 44-40 case we have today but the AOL was the same. The bullet is only seated about .21". The "Dimple" in the primer is evident as well. Not only did Winchester have to come up with a new primer, they had to redesign the whole case!

However, it is still not clear if these new rifles were shipped with Milbank Primed cartridges or if no rifles were shipped until the new cartridge was finished.

The Milbank primer is evident sticking up from the pocket of this only known Milbank primed 44-40 cartridge x-ray example. The 45-70 test cartridges were reported to not fulfill the conditions of a solid head, and it is rated under Class 1 (folded-head) . The sketch drawing is not part of this particular 44-40 cartridge, and may be of the "folded" head design. However, there is debate from a "ghost" ledger, that the early 44-40 cartridge cases were of the folded design until after 1880 and before 1884. No folded-head cartridge have been found in my collections. Unfortunately, if we go look at the cartridge box linage, there is no room for a 44-40 folded head case to have been manufactured except of the Milbank primed probable. The earliest 44-40 (44/100) does not mention "Solid Head" cases but, the 1874 boxes do...but then again, so did those 45-70 cartridges tested prior to 1873. The only three known 44/100 boxes contain normal solid head cases and not the early Milbank primed cases. These early boxes were never sealed from the factory so we may never really know for sure if the cartridges they contain are original to that box or not. Also, think of all of the tooling that would have been needed for all three case designs to have been manufactured in the span of only one year...or less! Scroll down further for more cartridge information...

Solid-Head vs Balloon-Head

Note Dimpled Primer, and how perfectly it is centered.


Rifle Production Begins

Meanwhile, only a few Model 73's were even assembled in 1873, here are a few examples. Whether shipping was delayed due to the cartridge or whether production was just off to a slow start...not many were even built by the end of 1873.

73's Shipped in 1873

At least...or only...16 rifles sold and shipped before Dec 1873

By April 10th, 1874, Winchester had mailed out a four page brochure introducing the new Model of 1873. The first page discusses their restructure under the new name "Winchester Repeating Arms Company" as well as continuing to manufacture the Model of 1866. Explanations of the new improvements of the new arm, military advantages, variety of arms, testimonials, price list, cartridges and sights. Below is a printed copy of the letter and the replica envelope that it fits of that time frame.

The first target testimonial seen by the general public. What I wish I knew is if Mr. Hutton used the new Winchester primed cartridge or the Milbank primed cartridge.

Winchester Model 73' sn# 6, S.W. Hutton

5 Shots, off-hand at 100 yards, 3 Shots, off-hand at 100 yards

Winchester's first announcement in their very own catalog was not offered until 1875. Of course the catalog was dominated by the introduction of the 73' rifle. There are no less than 62 testimonials and one 110 yard group by Doc Pardee, which should give a hint as to how many were received by their new owners by the end of 1874. Aside from Winchester's 1875 catalog, Winchester also placed adds in the 1875, August 21st, Forest & Stream publications. These adds actually took the place Remington's add, pushing Remington down to a smaller add. Included in one add are more long distance shooting targets to include Doc's 110 yard group. The 73' had already proven itself and in just a tad over a year, Winchester dropped the Forest & Stream ads (Nov 1876).

This gun case above once belonged to Enoch Pardee. Inside this old case is the distinctive silhouette of a Model 1873 Winchester rifle. Enoch H. Pardee (1826-1896) was born in Greece, NY, migrated to California to mine for gold, and followed with a career as an optometrist in San Francisco, mayor of Oakland, state assemblyman and state senator. His son, George C. Pardee (1857-1941) also became an optometrist in San Francisco and Mayor of Oakland. George was also Governor of California, 1903-1907, notably during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Governor Pardee was a close ally with President Theodore Roosevelt and among their similarities was a shared belief regarding conservation. –The Pardee Home Historic Museum Inc. Rob Kassab Collection

E.H. Pardee, M.D. of San Francisco, California sent in, as a testimonial to Winchester, as to the accuracy and repeatable performance of the Model 1873 (target on right, originally printed halfsize of 2 ¼” dia.): His testimonial was published in Winchester's 1875 catalog, as well as the target being published in the 1875, August 21st, Forest & Stream publications. 

It affords me much pleasure to communicate to you the result of thirty consecutive shots at the distance of 110 yards. The firing was done without wiping, which proves the Winchester to be steady in her performance, and gives assurance to the sportsman that if he only performs his part in the manipulation of the piece, he need not fear the California jaguar, or grizzly bear.

The 44 W.C.F. Cartridges

Oliver F. Winchester's patented primer of July 14, 1874 pushed Winchester well into production.

Primers

The earliest produced cartridges that I can find by Winchester, with the exception of the Milbank primer, is the 1874 Patent "Anvil" primer design by Oliver Winchester. More on this later.

Cartridge Cases (Solid-Head)

Winchester began headstamping their cases during 1884. The W.R.A. Co. 44 W.C.F. "serif letter" stampeded cases in the rows to the right are examples of the post 1884 design, both used the new No. 1 primers. Note the unheadstamped case heads to the left are somewhat "rounded" like a doughnut while the stamped case heads are flat. Pressure tests show higher pressures with black powder loads in these large balloon pocket cases when compared to the same loads in later headstamped cases and even modern cases with no pocket at all. More on this later in the handloading section.
This cut-away example shows a true Class 4 Solid-Head case.

Winchester Swaged Bullets

Also offered in 1875 was Winchester's factory swaged bullets for handloading. The box shown has the same design as seen in the 1895 catalog of the 2nd style ammo box. The graphics are very close to the 1877 to 1890's designs. These bullets are of the 200gr types. Ideal/Lyman, whom worked along side Remington, used the same basic design but increased the weight to 217gr...which made them a tad longer. More on this in the hand tools and casting section.

1873 - 1874

1st style box, 44/100 for the Winchester Repeating Rifle "New Model of 1873". The Milbank primer can be seen on the cartridge picture. The only three known boxes to survive today do not contain Milbank primed cartridges.

1874-1876

The 2nd style box, 1st variation. Top label wraps over the end but remains on the top lid. The boxes then were still not factory sealed.  Note the "Solid Head" call-out, indicating solid head cases were manufactured from the inception of this cartridge...at least by Winchester!

Replicated loads shot in the aforementioned unheadstamped cases yielded two results based on Swiss FFg and Goex FFFg, 40gr loads by weight and compressed .17".

1876-1877

 This is a late 2nd Style Box label. Rather than wrapping over one end, the label is only on the top, and the newer side label design seals the box. Winchester started sealing their boxes mid 1870's. Even so, Winchester still uses the exposed grease groove cartridge picture.

1877 through the 1890's

This third style, Green label black powder box, is fairly typical and is always in great demand by collectors. The lack of the headstamp on the picture cartridge shows pre-1884. Other variations include the headstamp after 1884 and the rare Blue label. Dissected cartridges yielded 40gr by weight with between .17" and .21" powder compression.

Replicated loads shot in W.R.A.Co., as well as REM-UMC headstamped cases yielded the following using Goex FFFg, 40gr loads by weight and compressed about .19".

The Official "44-40"

 Marlin/UMC's 44-40

Between 1886 and 1904 the UMC .44 WCF cartridge would carry a heavier 217 gr. bullet at 1,190 f.p.s. while Winchester still offered the 200gr at a slightly faster 1,245 f.p.s. (less than was offered in 1873 @ 1,325fps) By 1894 UMC designated the cartridge as a 44-40 for Marlin and by 1900 it was referred to as a 44-40 by Winchester as well, and printed on their cartridge boxes at a later date. Some load data into the 1930's reference both Winchester and Marlin designations. I have seen references such as "44 Winchester", "44 Marlin" and even "44 W & M", Remington even called it a 44 Remington for a while.

The late John Kort provided examples of bullets pulled from original cases. He replaced the primers and lube, poured in the original powder and shot them into water for expansion tests. Water slightly over expands the bullets relative to using ballistics gel. Still good enough for a general comparison.  Below far right is a bullet from a Bridgeport (BGI) cast that directly replicates Winchester's 200gr cast bullet.


1895-1925

1895-1925

Beginning in 1895, and for the following 30 years, Winchester used Dupont No. 2 smokeless rifle powder in the 44-40 cartridges. This new powder created less pressures then black powder.

"Twenty two years after its introduction, the first .44 W.C.F. smokeless powder cartridge is found in Winchester's catalog No. 55, dated August, 1895. In its manufacture, Winchester used 17 grains of DuPont No. 2 which was a "bulk" type smokeless powder patented on August 22, 1893. DuPont's description of "bulk" smokeless powder indicated that it was to be loaded in "bulk" measure just like black powder. In the .44 W.C.F., 17 grs. of DuPont No. 2 Bulk Smokeless occupied the same volume as 40 grs. of FFg. Velocity was cataloged at 1,300 f.p.s. To identify the new .44 W.C.F. smokeless powder cartridges from those containing black powder, which looked identical, Winchester put a "W" in a circle on the primer." ~John 

The first smokeless powder "Red" labels!

1895 offered the first smokeless powder loads for this great cartridge. Early Red Label (signifying smokeless powder) cartridge boxes. Early boxes were not noted, but by 1900 "NOT FOR PISTOLS" was noted on the side labels. More than likely referring to...at the time...black powder frame pistols due to their weak metal and thin cylinder walls. They were, however, labeled for use in the Winchester 73' and later between 1900-1903 both the 73' and 92' Models...busting the myth that smokeless powder loads of the day should not be used in the 73'. However, by 1909, the words "Not For Pistols" was replaced by the words "Soft Point". The .4225" JSP bullet was also first offered in 1895.
More of this "not for pistols" mess will be covered in the powder section later.

On the bottom of this box there is a label that reads:

These cartridges are loaded by The WINCHESTER REPEATING ARMS COMPANY. The benefit of our great experience and careful supervision is given, beyond this we assume no responsibility. They should never be reloaded.

1926-1959

By 1926 Winchester switched from Dupont "No. 2" smokeless rifle powder to Dupont/Hercules "Sharpshooter" smokeless powder.

Replicated loads shot in 1914 smokeless powder cases yielded the following results.

 1903-1938

This is a 1903 44 W.H.V. "Draw Set". This was Winchester's first year production of this cartridge. The cartridge in this set contained 20.8gr of Sharpshooter powder. Dissected REM-UMC loads of the time-frame also used 20.0gr of Sharpshooter. By 1938, Winchester's cartridge powder samples on hand had dropped to 14gr of Sharpshooter powder and discontinued. Remington still sold HV loads into the 1970's, but they were no more than normal pressure/velocity loads. Remington's final offers were called "Express" loads and matched Winchester's normal "substandard" load performance by 1979.

1903 -Although Winchester was still using Dupont No. 2 smokeless rifle powder for the Winchester 73' loads, Winchester offered the first "High-Velocity", "Low-Pressure" cartridges using Sharpshooter smokeless powder and Jacketed Soft Point bullets. NOTE the "Low-Pressure" on the box in the photo.  Although this is a low-pressure load, it is still unfit for the older Winchester 73' and pistols. The 44-40 W.H.V. loads generated 18,000cup but was still a low-pressure load compared to the hotter, faster .30 caliber types like the 30-40 and the 30-30. What was popular by 1903 was the 34-40 W.H.V. and the 38-55 W.H.V. loads that created nearly twice the pressures. A recent acquisition of a 1903 W.H.V. Draw Set shows 20.8gr of the low-pressure, Sharpshooter powder, thus the reason for the "Low Pressure" call-out seems misleading since it generated 18,000cup and certainly misunderstood as compared to normal loads. Another note is that the cartridge was reported to have a service pressure average of 18,000 c.u.p. by Feb 1917, however, hand-loaders charged loads to 22,000cup and higher. Thus there is no reason to believe that these loads produced any less than 18,000cup through it's lifespan.  Another item of interest is the ".44-40" call-out on the top label. This appears to be the first time the designation "44-40" is seen on Winchester's ammunition boxes.

"We first see these new improved performance cartridges in Winchester’s Catalog #70 dated March, 1903. (Winchester catalog #83 is dated 1925). Cartridges were head stamped .44 W.C.F. W.H.V. ’M92. Velocity with a 200 gr. metal patched bullet was cataloged at 1,500 f.p.s. in a 24” barrel.   ~John Kort

"They should never be used in the Winchester Model 73" rifle" noted on the side panel information as well as at the bottom of the side label in large letters "Not For Pistols". 
photo credit: Wade Payne Collection

Replicated loads shot in 1930's smokeless powder cases yielded the following results.

Label date Oct 1909

22 Sept 1913

Standard Ballistics Sheet, showing a 7 1/2" Group from 200 yards with a Model 92', using #4 American Black Powder. 

John Kort, in 2016, reported that other charts showed the following results;

14 Feb 1917

Thanks to Jim Martin for providing this information.

WRA Co. Cartridge Engineering Office, Definitive Proof Pressures, 1917

14 Feb 1917

With the above pressure information and the photos seen here, it would appear that this barrel was weaker than the toggles and toggle pins. If you push the limits of the modern Italian 73's like I sometimes did, I suggest...URGE... inspecting these areas frequently.

 1925-1942

By 1925, Velocity was increased to 1,564 f.p.s. and increased again by the end of production in 1938. A 1941 advertisement also shows 1,570fps and last advertised during 1942. However, it has been reported that there were sold until at least 1945. This later 1930's Yellow label depicts "Especially Adapted To Winchester Rifles Model 92'" and shows the "Not For Pistols" now on the top label. This example shows a two piece box with the "K" code on the end indicating post 1920. However, the "Special Sight Adjustment" sticker was reported as being common by the 1930's. This is a one piece label that wraps across the top, ends and across the bottom edge to seal the lid. No mention of not to be used in the model 73' that I can see but certainly not a wise thing to do. Still listed in Winchester's 1942 Price List.

On a side note, the 38 W.H.V. (38-40) used the same charge of Sharpshooter powder (although some data shows one grain less) as the 44 W.H.V. (44-40), although it used the .3955" 180gr Soft Point (1,770fps) rather than the .4255" 200gr Soft Point (1,570fps).

Western Field Magazine, 1902

The Winchester Repeating Arms Co. are out with an announcement of new high-velocified but very low-pressured smokeless cartridges for use in their famous 86 Model rifles in 45 -70, 45-90, and 50-110 calibres. These cartridges are especially designed for use in rifles originally built to use black powder only. Many thousands of these excellent weapons of Winchester make are in the hands of rifiemen who have become greatly attached to them on account of their wonderful efficiency, accuracy, and strength, but who nevertheless, want to be abreast of the times and enjoy all the advantages and conveniences of smokeless powder. For their benefit has the present ammunition been devised. The powder contained in them is a special Winchester product which combines all the safety of black explosives with the multifold advantages of the best smokeless. It increases the efficiency of the rifles to a wonderful degree giving flatter trajectory, better penetration, range, and accuracy and can be used in any Winchester rifle of the appropriate calibres with perfect safety. 

Western Field Magazine, 1903

HIGH VELOCITIED WINCHESTERRIDGES

The Winchester Repeating Arms Co. announces it is now able to furnish through the regular channels high velocity low pressure cartridges 25-20, 32-20, 38-40, 44-40, 45-70, 45-90, and 50-110 calibers loaded with smokeless powder and soft metal patched bullets for Winchester Model 1892 and 1886 rifles. These cartridges, although they are high-velocity and great muzzle energy, develop only relatively slightly increased initial pressure. By their use, owners of Winchester Model 1892 and 1886 rifles of the calibers mentioned can greatly increase the power of their guns. For fine shooting, an alteration of sights may be necessary when these ridges are used. When ordering new rifles, when in it is intended to use these new cartridges, it should be stated in the order so that the proper sights may fitted.

The advantages of the 25-20, 32-38, and Model 1892 high velocity cartridges are increased velocity, flatter trajectory, greater striking power, and better mushrooming of the bullets. The .45 and .50 caliber high velocity cartridges are desirable for same reason and also because their energies at 200 yards are practically the same as those of the small caliber high power cartridges. An additional advantage is that the results they give are obtained with bullets of large cross section, which make these ridges unsurpassed in striking and killing power at distances at which most big game is killed. A feature of all the high velocity cartridges is that they be used by persons who dislike the high power caliber cartridges on account of their great range. For literature showing tabulated data of velocity, penetration, trajectory and other interesting details, address  A. Muller, Pacific Coast Agency, 127-135 First St. San Francisco 

By 1930, the standard load boxes took on major design changes. Adding the new "Staynless" primer words and one piece box in 1928 and "Non-"Mercuric by 1932. Check in the Ballistics pages for performance details. Advertised velocities are not always true.

Late 20's & 30's 1,300fps

By 1932 Winchester switched to the larger pistol style primers but continued to use Sharpshooter powder through the 1950's. The examples I have only contain 12.4gr of Sharpshooter smokeless powder. These loads were not tested

Early 1940's  1,300fps

During the 1940's Winchester continued using Sharpshooter powder. Some of my examples yield a charge of 15.7gr. 

Replicated loads shot in 1944 smokeless powder cases yielded the following results.

Late 1940's  1,310fps

The cartridges in this 1958 stamp code box in my collection contained 14.7gr of Sharpshooter powder while cartridges in a 1949 Western box contained 15.3gr of a Ball powder. These loads were not tested.

July 5th, 1950, Winchester and Western increased the advertised velocity from 1,300fps to 1,310fps and is the same timeframe they dropped Sharpshooter and switched to a Ball powder. However, some Winchester loads through the late 1950,s...as late as 1858...still show cartridges filled with Sharpshooter smokeless rifle powder. 

60's and 70's 1,310fps

Cartridges from a 1976 Western box, cousins to the Winchester box with same colors and design, yielded 12.1gr of a Flattened Ball powder. These loads were not tested

1963 High Pressure Proof Set

This 1963 stamp code box is an example of Winchester's pressure proof set. The cartridges contained 16.3gr. 

Fired examples yielded the following results,

Mid-Late 70's 1,190fps

By late 1976 Winchester switched from a ball powder to a disk powder, typically called "Flake" powders today. My Feb 1979 date code box cartridges contained 7.5gr of this new disk powder and advertised velocities dropped to only 1,190fps. 

Fired examples yielded the following results,

1978 to 1982 1,190fps

By the time Winchester completely "merged" with Western, the cartridges in this box contained 8.0gr of a disk powder. These loads were not tested.

1956/1960 up to Today- sometime after WWII the 44-40 settled down to two offerings, the Standard load and the High Velocity load. I can't find it but somewhere I inquired John Kort about the neutered HV loads from Remington. John informed me that the later Remington HV loads were nowhere near the 1,600fps as the original HV Winchester loads. Early HV boxes noted to NOT use them in pistols, and only designated for Winchester 92's and Marlins. Early REM-UMC loads contained 19gr of Sharpshooter. However, the 1960's or so Remington HV boxes note they are safe for all firearms. 

The last 1,310fps load Winchester offered was in 1978. 

From 1979 to today,

Fired examples, 1992 Orange Banner Super-X loads, yielded the following results,

Winchester cartridges claim 1,190fps but recent trials showed 1,013fps from a 20" barrel and 1,055 from a 24" barrel. However, Buffalo Bore Ammunition [Link] started manufacturing loads safe for all firearms that clock in at 1,300fps. My test results came in @ 1,335fps in my 24" Marlin and 955fps in my 7 1/5" barrel revolver. I grouped 2 1/4" shots @ 100 yards with Buffalo Bore and 4 1/8" groups @ 100 yards with Winchester's 1980's box loads.

Early to Mid 1990's Orange Banner (JSP) Hunting loads and the first Low Recoil/Velocity Blue (lead)"Cowboy" loads

It is also worth noting here the pressure differences between the Black Powder Loads, Early Smokeless Powder Loads and the the High Velocity Loads. For a more complete explanation visit the PRESSURE TESTING PAGE

SAAMI's max chamber pressure for the 44-40 is 13,000cup/11,000psi and noted as such by WRACo. in early 1917. During my testing I discovered that early black powder loads could have produced 14,000+ cup. This higher pressure would not be as hard on the firearms as 14,000 psi of smokeless powder. It has been experienced and noted that early smokeless rifle powders actually produced lower chamber pressures with the 44-40. It is possible that the early smokeless powder pressures of 13,000 cup was actually lower than actual BP pressures, if the BP pressures were indeed 14,000 psi. 1903 High Velocity replicated loads produced 1,586fps @ 18,450cup which correlates to WRA's 1917 44 WHV Service Pressures of 18,000cup NOT 22,000cup. There is not much difference between 14,000 psi and 18,000 psi...but there MAY BE a difference between black powder 14,000 psi pressures curves and smokeless powder 18,000 psi pressure curves for this cartridge. The proof is in the data!!

Uberti Winchester 73' with Malcom scope.