Modes of Functioning of the Mind as Described in Yoga-darshanam

The sage Patanjali has dealt with the subject of the mind in his celebrated work ‘Yoga Darshanam’, which is also one of the six systems of Indian Philosophy, known as Shad Darshanani. While the main subject of his work is uniting the Soul with the Supreme, he has had to cover many subjects around this theme, as they are necessary for understanding the subject at hand. Thus, in order to control the mind through Dhyaana, Dhaaranaa and Samaadhi, he has described the various modes of functioning of the mind. Without understanding the mind, it cannot be controlled. These modes are called ‘chittavrttis’, and are five in number (Yogadarshanam Chapter 1| Sutra 6). While a few of them are easily understood, most are difficult to understand as a ‘function’. The commentary of Vyaas throws some light on the subject, but greater elaboration is needed. This article is an attempt in that direction.

The five modes of functioning of the mind described in Yoga-Darshanam are – Pramaana, Viparyaya, Vikalpa, Nidraa and Smrti. Out of these, Nidraa or Sleep, and Smrti or Memory, are fairly obvious.

Consider Nidraa or Sleep. Patanjali says (1|10) that, in Sleep, the incoming signals from the five sense organs do not reach the mind. Thus, the connection to the external world is cut off during Sleep, and the mind only transacts inside. This state itself can be divided into two parts, as given in Maandookya Upanishad – Swapna or REM/Dream Phase, and Sushupti or Non-REM/Deep Sleep Phase. From the occurrence of dreams, it is obvious that the mind is still functioning, albeit differently. In Dream Sleep, the mind picks up material recorded in memory and creates an almost haphazard narrative out of it. This has been found to be useful for assimilating information, and reducing deeply-felt emotions. In Deep Sleep, the mind is more inactive, but, again, not entirely so. That is why, on waking up, we have a good sense of whether we had a phase of Deep Sleep that was long enough because we feel refreshed; if not, we feel sleepy and cranky. Also, one must note that the mind is not totally divorced from the external surroundings. If there is a loud noise, or we are shaken violently, or the lights are switched on, or some such other strong stimulus is given, we come out of our slumber. This is obviously needed for our survival, as it represents a possible emergency. Thus, we are forced to conclude that the mind rests during Nidraa, but does continue to function in a reduced way.

In the physical brain, this function is controlled by the Thalamus and the Hypothalamus.

Similarly, Smrti or Memory is not difficult to understand. Patanjali says (1|11) that those experiences that we have captured, and not allowed ourselves to forget, constitute Memory. So, is Memory like a hard disk of the computer? In a way, yes. But here we are talking of the ‘functioning’ of the mind, not static data (read ‘knowledge’). So, how is it a function? Just as in a computer, there are processes to ‘save’ data on the hard disk, and then other processes to access (read ‘remember’) data from the disk, there are similar processes in the brain. These processes are the ones that are being referred to here, rather than the hard disk itself. Also, modern science has shown that there are two types of memory – Short Term and Long Term. These can be likened to the RAM and hard disk of a computer, respectively. In fact, the analogy is good enough to explain the transient nature of Short Term Memory vis a vis Long Term Memory. The save and retrieval processes for Long Term memory are being referred to here, rather than the Short Term Memory, as Patanjali mentions ‘the information that is not allowed to leave’. Short Term Memory is automatic, and dissipates after some seconds. It is part of direct perception itself (Pratyaksha). But Long Term Memory requires either a strong emotional reaction, or effort, in order to retain the information. Also, in meditation, Short Term Memory has no role to play, since there is no incoming data from the external world – one has to control incoming data from only the stored data.

In other shaastras, where the mind is functionally divided in four, this function is performed by the Chitta. (This functional classification of the Antahkarana is not strictly uniform, and varies somewhat from text to text.)

In the brain, the performance of this function is still not very clearly understood, as different areas seem to be involved at different times. In particular, the Hippocampus has been associated with Long Term Memory.

Now, consider Pramaana. In Nyaaya, Vaisheshika, and other Darshanas, this is considered as the proof by means of which the veracity of any fact is determined. How, then, has Patanjali considered this as a mode of functioning of the mind? For the answer, let us look at the details. Patanjali (1|7) divides Pramaana into three, as follows –

1. Pratyaksha – that which is perceived directly through the five senses in the present, e.g., we smell the perfume of the rose in our hand.

2. Anumaana – that which can be surmised based on the knowledge gained in the past through Pratyaksha, e.g., we learn from everyday experience (Pratyaksha) that for an object to change its location relative to another, it needs to move, or be moved, in relation to the other. Then, when we see the Sun rise in the East and set in the West, we can deduce that the Earth and the Sun have moved relative to each other, even though the movement of the Sun in the sky is hardly perceptible.

3. Aagama – that which has been perceived (Pratyaksha) or deduced (Anumaana) by learned people and is transmitted to us by means of words, e.g., Einstein told us that Space and Time are linked to each other. We cannot figure this out ourselves, but we can either accept Einstein’s final result, or go over his experiments and deductive logic to satisfy ourselves. Since the transmission of this knowledge is through words, this Pramaana is also called Shabda Pramaana.

But these definitions still seem to refer to knowledge, and not the functioning of the mind! To look at these as functions, we need to change our angle of view as follows –

1. Pratyaksha – The signal being received from the senses is first interpreted in its raw form – this is light, this is a smell, this is a touch, etc. Then it accesses the existing knowledge-base (same process as Smrti) for a match. Then, it is able to identify the signal – this is red light, this is the smell of a rose, this is the touch of cloth. It now stores the identified signal in Short Term Memory. (This may be consciously moved into Long Term Memory by us later.) It is combined with more signals to give us even more complex information, e.g., “the person coming towards me is Usha”. All these processes are together grouped as Pratyaksha Chitvrtti for the purpose of Yoga Darshanam.

We should also note that this includes actions made by the body – the moving of the eye, the hand, the foot. In our ancient texts, this is called Sankalpa – the resolve to act, and then the action itself. These actions require immediate inputs from the environment, like the path to walk. That is why they are integrated with Pratyaksha. However, Yoga-Darshanam is not much involved with bodily movement, as it is not relevant for a meditating yogi sitting still on a mat. That is why no emphasis is given to this activity of the brain in this shaastra.

In other shaastras, this function is performed by the Mana (or Manas).

In the brain, these activities are controlled by three main areas – the sensory cortex for sensing, the motor cortex for movement, and the cerebellum for coordinating movements with the senses. The Frontal Lobe is largely responsible for taking a decision to act – Sankalpa.

2. Anumaana – We have now successfully identified the object under consideration through Pratyaksha, and want to know more about it – that which is not available directly to the senses. We then apply deduction – “When I had seen Usha last month, she was planning to go to Shimla. She has either gone and come back, or she did not go at all.” This analysis falls in the realm of Anumaana. In fact, all analysis, reasoning - all that we loosely call ‘mental activity’ – falls under the scope of Anumaana Chitvrtti.

In other shaastras, this function is performed by the Buddhi.

In the brain, these functions are performed largely by the Neocortex.

3. Aagama – The mental processes involved in interpreting words is very different from those that analyze signals from the senses. As each syllable of a word is heard by the ear, it has to be connected or separated to form a string of words. The meaning of each word has to be retrieved from Memory. The meanings then have to be combined applying the rules of grammar. This then could lead to a mental image of what is being said, e.g., as you are reading this article, you are forming a mental map of the subject. Usually, all this happens so fast, that you are unaware of the steps involved. But how complex this process is can be gauged from the fact that of all the animals, only human beings are blessed with the gift of language. Also, it explains why a child takes so long to speak, while it would have already learnt to walk, eat, etc. This, then, is Aagama Chitvrtti.

Again, we must include here the production of speech. Here, the ‘raw thought’ must be translated into words and then brought together into sentences, which are then verbalized through the mouth.

In the brain, language ability is focused mainly in two specialized areas of the left hemisphere - Wernicke’s Area and Broca’s Area.

Figure : Parts of the Brain

Let us turn to Viparyaya. Patanjali says (1|8) that this is delusion - mistaking something for something else. The classic example of this is the Soul thinking that it is the Body when, actually, it is something distinct from it. We can compare this definition with another sutra (2|5) defining Avidyaa Klesha, or the sorrow of (i.e., generated by) wrong knowledge, as that where we understand the transient as eternal, the impure as pure, sorrow as joy, the inanimate as animate. The two match completely. In fact, in Sutra 2|11, Patanjali calls all Kleshas as Vrttis only. However, again, we must distinguish between knowledge and a function of the mind. Then, we must understand Viparyaya as the mental process based on this wrong knowledge, e.g., when our body is cut, we feel sad, not realizing that the cut is on the body that is distinct from us. Similarly, we experience joy seeing our children grow, not realizing that actually they are independent souls that have no connection with us per se. In fact, all the five Kleshas Patanjali has enumerated lead to Viparyaya, or misplaced behavior, comprising of fear, anger, depression, jealousy, pleasure, etc. Essentially, Viparyaya represents the emotional aspect of the brain’s functioning, as emotions are largely connected with the body rather than the Soul itself.

The physical brain executes this function mostly through the Limbic System.

Next, Vikalpa. Patanjali characterizes it (1|9) as that which exists only in words, and lacks any substance in real terms. So, is it a mix of Aagama and Viparyaya? Yes and no! In effect, Vikalpa stands for imagination. When a writer writes a story, the word-picture she creates are only in her mind, and do not represent reality. By extension, we can conclude that this includes all creative pursuits, e.g., painting, music, etc. These all originate in the mind of the artist, but are not ‘wrong’ knowledge - as in Viparyaya. For this very reason, the name Vikalpa, or alternative, is extremely appropriate – the creative functioning of the mind throws up innumerable possibilities! Not only the process of creating an artistic piece, but even the process of appreciation by another is included here, because we apply our own mind while experiencing art and, hence, experience it uniquely. Listening to a piece of music, somebody may cry, while another may laugh. In effect, we are creating our own imaginative pictures based on the incoming signals. That is Vikalpa Chittavrtti.

In the physical brain, this part of intelligence is regarded as ‘intuition’, which is associated with the Right Hemisphere.

Interpreting the five chittavrttis in this fashion, we realize that we have covered all the modes of functioning of the brain – perception of and action upon the external world (Pratyaksha), deduction, logic and reasoning (Anumaana), language interpretation (Shabda), emotions (Viparyaya), creative thinking (Vikalpa), sleep (Nidraa), and remembering (Smrti). There is no other mode left. Conversely, if we do not interpret the Chittavrttis as above, we will leave out one or the other mode of functioning of the brain. Having missed out that mode, we will not be able to control it and switch it off in Chittavrtti-nirodh (1|2) – the ultimate goal of Yoga.

Not only this, we also note that each Vrtti represents a different area of the brain, or a different way of making connections there. Thus, the Vrttis are deeply grounded in the physiology of the brain. Modern Science has made strikingly similar classification of the functions the brain performs.

However, we must be careful not to compartmentalize these functions too much. The Vrttis do not operate in isolation. In such a simple application as identifying a flower seen by the eyes (Pratyaksha), we do have to take the help of Memory (Smrti). In fact, Memory forms the bedrock for all the other Vrttis. Without Memory we may not even be able to walk straight! Similarly, Anumaana is necessary to confirm that the table we are seeing today (Pratyaksha) is the same one that we left in the room yesterday.

This small analysis of the modes of functioning of the mind reveals the deep inner knowledge available to our forefathers, that has been covered over by the sands of time, and is not being understood properly today. Modern Science is discovering the same facts by its own – sometimes unethical - methods, and taking many wrong turns on the way. Would it not be wonderful if we could revive some of our lost knowledge, connect it with modern understanding, and make it available for the benefit of all humanity?!