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The term Kerala was first epigraphically recorded as Ketalaputo (Cheras) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by emperor Ashoka of Magadha.^[1] It was mentioned as one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being the Cholas, Pandyas and Satyaputras.^[2] The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by establishing trade relations across the Arabian Sea with all major Mediterranean and Red Sea ports as well those of the Far East. The dominion of Cheras was located in one of the key routes of the ancient Indian Ocean trade. The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring Cholas and Rashtrakutas.

During the early Middle Ages, Namboodiri Brahmin immigrants arrived in Kerala and shaped the society on the lines of the caste system. In the 8th century, Adi Shankara was born at Kalady in central Kerala. He travelled extensively across the Indian subcontinent founding institutions of the widely influential philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. The Cheras regained control over Kerala in the 9th century until the kingdom was dissolved in the 12th century, after which small autonomous chiefdoms, most notably the Kingdom of Kozhikode, arose. The port at Kozhikode acted as the gateway to medieval South Indian coast for the Chinese, the Arabs, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and finally the British.^[3]

In 1498, Vasco Da Gama established a sea route to Kozhikode during the Age of Discovery, which was also the first modern sea route from Europe to South Asia, and raised Portuguese settlements, which marked the beginning of the colonial era of India. European trading interests of the Dutch, French and the British East India companies took centre stage during the colonial wars in India. After the Dutch were defeated by Travancore king Marthanda Varma, the British crown gained control over Kerala through the creation of the Malabar District in northern Kerala and by allying with the newly created princely state of Travancore in the southern part of the state until India was declared independent in 1947. The state of Kerala was created in 1956 from the former state of Travancore-Cochin, the Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara District of Madras state.^[4]

Other names[edit]

Until the arrival of British, the term Malabar was used in foreign trade circles as a general name for Kerala.^[3] Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.^[5][6] The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium called Male, which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from the Malayalam word Mala ('hill').^[7][8] Al-Biruni (AD 973 - 1048) must have been the first writer to call this state Malabar.^[3] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.^[9] The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills. According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Malayalam word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent).^[3]

Traditional sources[edit]

Mahabali[edit]

Perhaps the most famous festival of Kerala, Onam, is deeply rooted in Kerala traditions. Onam is associated with the legendary king Mahabali (Maveli), who according to tradition and Puranas, ruled the Earth and several other planetary systems from Kerala. His entire kingdom was then a land of immense prosperity and happiness. However, Mahabali was tricked into giving up his rule, and was thus overthrown by Vamana (Thrikkakkarayappan), the fifth Avatar (earthly incarnation) of Lord Vishnu. He was banished from the Earth to rule over one of the netherworld (Patala) planets called Sutala by Vamana. Mahabali comes back to visit Kerala every year on the occasion of Onam.^[10]

Other texts[edit]

The oldest of all the Puranas, the Matsya Purana, sets the story of the Matsya Avatar (fish incarnation) of Lord Vishnu, in the Western Ghats.^{[citation needed]} The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by name as Cherapadah is the Aitareya Aranyaka, a late Vedic work on philosophy.^[11] It is also mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.^[12]

Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna to part the seas and reveal Kerala.

Parasurama[edit]

There are legends dealing with the origins of Kerala geographically and culturally. One such legend is the retrieval of Kerala from the sea, by Parasurama, a warrior sage. It proclaims that Parasurama, an Avatar of Mahavishnu, threw His battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of Kerala arose, and thus was reclaimed from the waters.^[13]

Ophir[edit]

Ophir, a port or region mentioned in the Bible,^[14] famous for its wealth, is often identified with some coastal areas of Kerala. According to legend, the King Solomon received a cargo from Ophir every three years (1 Kings 10:22) which consisted of gold, silver, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, apes, and peacocks.^[15] A Dictionary of the Bible by Sir William Smith, published in 1863,^[16] notes the Hebrew word for parrot Thukki, derived from the Classical Tamil for peacock Thogkai and Cingalese Tokei,^[17] joins other Classical Tamil words for ivory, cotton-cloth and apes preserved in the Hebrew Bible. This theory of Ophir's location in Tamilakam is further supported by other historians.^{[18][19][20][21]} The most likely location on the coast of Kerala conjectured to be Ophir is Poovar in Thiruvananthapuram District (though some Indian scholars also suggest Beypore as possible location).^[22][23] The Books of Kings and Chronicles tell of a joint expedition to Ophir by King Solomon and the Tyrian king Hiram I from Ezion-Geber, a port on the Red Sea, that brought back large amounts of gold, precious stones and 'algum wood' and of a later failed expedition by king Jehoshaphat of Judah.^[i] The famous 'gold of Ophir' is referenced in several other books of the Hebrew Bible.^[ii]

1. ^ The first expedition is described in 1 Kings 9:28; 10:11; 1 Chronicles 29:4; 2 Chronicles 8:18; 9:10, the failed expedition of Jehoshaphat in 1 Kings 22:48

2. ^ Book of Job 22:24; 28:16; Psalms 45:9; Isaiah 13:12

Cheraman Perumal[edit]

Main article: Legend of Cheraman Perumals

The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumal (literally the Chera kings) of Kerala.^[24] The Cheraman Perumals mentioned in the legend can be identified with the Chera Perumal rulers of medieval Kerala (c. 8th - 12th century AD).^[25] The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.^[26] The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).^[27][28] According to the legend, Rayar, the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats, invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri, Manichchan, and Vikkiran of Eranad). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar.^[29] The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).^[29] Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him.^[24][27][28] The Eradis of Nediyiruppu, who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode, who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal's sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").^[28][29]

A portrait of the sword of the Zamorins of Kozhikode, related with the legend of Cheraman Perumals

According to the Cheraman Juma Mosque and some other narratives,^[30][31] "Once a Cheraman Perumal probably named Ravi Varma^[31] was walking with his queen in the palace, when he witnessed the Splitting of the moon. Shocked by this, he asked his astronomers to note down the exact time of the splitting. Then, when some Arab merchants visited his palace, he asked them about this incident. Their answers led the King to Mecca, where he met Islamic prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam. Muhammad named him Tajuddin or Thajuddin or Thiya-aj-Addan meaning "crown of faith".^[32][33][34] The king then wrote letters to his kingdom to accept Islam and follow the teachings of Malik bin Deenar".^[35][36][30] It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous authorship known as Qissat Shakarwati Farmad.^[37] The 16th century Arabic work Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen authored by Zainuddin Makhdoom II of Ponnani, as well as the medieval Malayalam work Keralolpathi, also mention about the departure of last Cheraman Perumal of Kerala into Mecca.^[38][39]

Prehistory[edit]

A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowland and the plains of midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery, thus supporting the hypothesis.^[40] Archaeological studies have identified many Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites in the eastern highlands of Kerala mainly centred around the eastern mountain ranges of Western Ghats.^[41] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.^[42][43] These findings have been classified into Laterite rock-cut caves (Chenkallara), Hood stones (Kudakkallu), Hat stones (Toppikallu), Dolmenoid cists (Kalvrtham), Urn burials (Nannangadi) and Menhirs (Pulachikallu). The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic ages.^[44] However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation.^[45] The studies suggest possible relationship with Indus Valley Civilization during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.^[46]

Archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).^[47] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves in Wayanad are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 5000 BCE.^[42][48][49] Historian M. R. Raghava Varier of the Kerala state archaeology department identified a sign of "a man with jar cup" in the engravings, which is the most distinct motif of the Indus valley civilisation.^[50]

Classical period[edit]

Ezhimala, the early historic headquarters of Mushika dynasty, which was succeeded by the kingdom of Kolathunadu later.

Kerala's dominant rulers of the early historic period were the Cheras, a Tamil dynasty with its headquarters located in Vanchi.^[51] The location of Vanchi is generally considered near the ancient port city of Muziris in Kerala.^[52][53] However, Karur in modern Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the location of the capital city of Cheras.^[54] Another view suggests the reign of Cheras from multiple capitals.^[42] The Chera kingdom consisted of a major part of modern Kerala and Kongunadu which comprises western districts of modern Tamil Nadu like Coimbatore and Salem.^[54][55] The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu.^[56] Old Tamil works such as Patiṟṟuppattu, Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku and Silappatikaram are important sources that describe the Cheras from the early centuries CE.^[57] Together with the Cholas and Pandyas the Cheras formed the Tamil triumvirate of the mūvēntar (Three Crowned Kings). The Cheras ruled the western Malabar Coast, the Cholas ruled in the eastern Coromandel Coast and the Pandyas in the south-central peninsula. The Cheras were mentioned as Ketalaputo (Keralaputra) on an inscribed edict of emperor Ashoka of the Magadha Empire in the 3rd century BCE,^[2] as Cerobothra by the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and as Celebothras in the Roman encyclopedia Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The Mushika kingdom existed in northern Kerala, while the Ays ruled south of the Chera kingdom.^[58]

Trade relations[edit]

Further information: Spice trade

The region of Kerala was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE with Arabs, Sumerians and Babylonians.^[59] Phoenicians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and Chinese were attracted by a variety of commodities, especially spices and cotton fabrics.^[60][61] Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.^[60] The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries.^[60] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.^[60] The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.^[60]

Muziris, Tyndis, Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal trading port centres of the Chera kingdom.^[62] Megasthanes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Magadhan king Chandragupta Maurya (4th century BCE) mentions Muziris and a Pandyan trade centre. Pliny mentions Muziris as India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days from the Red Sea ports of Egypt purely depending on the South west monsoon winds. Later, the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea notes that "both Muziris and Nelcynda are now busy places". There were harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Kozhikode, and Barace near Alappuzha, which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire.^[63] Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana; the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.^[64][65] Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty).^[66] The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period.^[3] The port of Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere near Kozhikode.^[3] Its exact location is a matter of dispute.^[3] The suggested locations are Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.^[3]

According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However the Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrike's starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces.^[67] Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone by pirates.^[68] The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of Malabar peppers.^[69][70] Contemporary Tamil literature, Puṟanāṉūṟu and Akanaṉūṟu, speak of the Roman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search of Malabar pepper and other spices, which had enormous demand in the West. The contact with Middle East and Romans might have given rise to small colonies of Jews, Mappila Muslims, and Syrian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.

Formation of a multicultural society[edit]

Further information: Religion in Kerala

Buddhism and Jainism reached Kerala in this early period. As in other parts of ancient India, Buddhism and Jainism co-existed with early Hindu beliefs during the first five centuries. Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.^[71] Jews arrived in Kerala as early as 573 BCE.^[72][73] The Cochin Jews believe that their ancestors came to the west coast of India as refugees following the destruction of Jerusalem in the first century CE. Saint Thomas Christians claim to be the descendants of the converts of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Jesus Christ. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.^[62] They intermarried with local people, resulting in formation of the Muslim Mappila community. In the 4th century, the Knanaya Christians migrated from Persia and settled in southern Kodungallur.^[74][75] Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Muslim Mappilas, and Nasrani Mappilas.^[76][77] According to the legends of these communities, the earliest Christian churches,^[78] mosque,^[79] and synagogue (CE 1568)^[80] in India were built in Kerala. The combined number of Jews, Muslims, and Christians was relatively small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association.^[81]

Early medieval period[edit]

Political changes[edit]

Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.^[1] From the Kodungallur line of the Cheras rose the Kulasekhara dynasty, which was established by Kulasekhara Varman. At its zenith these Later Cheras ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekhara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvananthapuram was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Cheras.^[83][84] Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.^[85] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period.^[86] The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.^[87][88][89] For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chieftains known as Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.^[85] The era witnessed also a shift in political power, evidenced by a gradual increase of Namboothiri Brahmin settlements established the caste hierarchy in Kerala by assigning different groups separate positions.^[90][91] As a result, many temples were constructed across Kerala, which according to M. T. Narayanan "became cornerstones of the socio-economic society".^[91] Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram, on the bank of river Bharathappuzha.^[3] Athavanad, the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.^[3]

Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam.^[92] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 AD), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100-1165 AD), Abulfeda (1273-1331 AD), and Al-Dimashqi (1256-1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.^[93] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia.^[94][95]

The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism.^[96] The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines.^[97] The Kulasekhara dynasty was finally subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of the Pandyas and Cholas.^[83] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.^{[citation needed]} After his death, in the absence of strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle.^[98][99] The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi, and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.^[100]

Rise of Advaita[edit]

Adi Shankara (CE 789), one of the greatest Indian philosophers, is believed to be born in Kaladi in Kerala, and consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta.^[101][102] Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta.^[102] Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmatatradition of worship.

His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism). He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.^{[103][104][105]} His activities in Kerala was little and no evidence of his influence is noticed in the literature or other things in his lifetime in Kerala. Even though Sankara was against all caste systems, in later years his name was used extensively by the Brahmins of Kerala for establishing caste system in Kerala.^{[dubious – discuss]}

Kingdom of Kozhikode[edit]

Main article: Zamorin of Calicut

Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode is obscure. However, its generally agreed that the Samoothiri were originally the Nair chieftains of Eralnadu region of the Later Chera Kingdom and were known as the Eradis.^[106] Eralnadu (Eranad) province was situated in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district and was landlocked by the Valluvanad and Polanadu in the west. Legends such as Keralolpathi tell the establishment of a local ruling family at Nediyiruppu, near present-day Kondotty by two young brothers belonging to the Eradi clan. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the Cheras.^[107][108] M.G.S. Narayanan, a Kerala-based historian, in his book, Calicut: The City of Truth states that the Eradi was a favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him, as a mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu province). Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands and established the kingdom of Kozhikode^[109] They later assumed the title of Samudrāthiri ("one who has the sea for his border") and continued to rule from Kozhikode.

Samoothiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. They became the most powerful king in the Malayalam speaking regions during the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered large parts of central Kerala following the seize of Tirunavaya from Valluvanad, which was under the control of the king of Perumbadappu Swaroopam. He was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from Kodungallur to Kochi. In the 15th century, Cochin was reduced in to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler of Kolathunadu (Kannur) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of 15th century.^[3]

At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north.^[110][111] Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".^[112] Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)^[113] states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.^[114][115]

The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered about the whole of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.^[111] He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443.^[111] Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.^[111] Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.^[111] As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.^[111] He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.^[111]

Kingdom of Venad[edit]

Main article: Venad

Venad was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala, which acted as a buffer between Cheras and Pandyas. Until the end of the 11th century, it was a small principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from Nagercoil in the south to Thiruvananthapuram in the north. Their capital was at Kollam. A series of attacks by the Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of Ays although the dynasty remained powerful until the beginning of the 10th century.^[40] When Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the Second Chera Kingdom^[116] Invasion of Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, fell in the subsequent attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.^[117] Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last emperor of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of Chera kings, Kulasekara, was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad. The end of Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of the Venad.^[118] The Venadu King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.

In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay Dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava, merged into the Venad family and established the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as Thrippappur Moopan. While Chrirava Moopan had his residence at Kollam, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, 9 miles (14 km) north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple.^[116] The most powerful kingdom of Kerala during the colonial period, Travancore, was developed through the expansion of Venad by Mahahrajah Marthanda Varma, a member of the Thrippappur branch of the Ay Dynasty who ascended to the throne in the 18th century.

Kingdom of Kolathunadu[edit]

Main article: Kolathunadu

See also: Kannur and North Malabar

The ancient kingdom of Ezhimala had jurisdiction over the North Malabar which consisted of two Nadus (regions)- The coastal Poozhinadu and the hilly eastern Karkanadu. According to the works of Sangam literature, Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt between Mangalore and Kozhikode.^[119] Karkanadu consisted of Wayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts of Kodagu (Coorg).^[120] It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of Ezhimala dynasty, took refuge at Wayanad hills in 5th century CE when he was lost to Cheras, just before his execution in a battle, according to the Sangam works.^[120] Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded by Mushika dynasty in the early medival period, most possibly due to the migration of Tuluva Brahmins from Tulu Nadu. The Mushika-vamsha Mahakavya, written by Athula in the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of the Mushika Royal Family up until that point.^[121] The Indian anthropologist Ayinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of the Bunt community of Tulu Nadu was called Kola Bari and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.^[122]

The kingdom of Kolathunadu, who were the descendants of Mushika dynasty, at the peak of its power reportedly extended from Netravati River (Mangalore) in the north^[121] to Korapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south with Arabian Sea on the west and Kodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of Lakshadweep in Arabian Sea.^[119] An Old Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa dynasty of Mangalore, can be found at Ezhimala near Kannur.^[123] The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.^[124] In his book on travels (Il Milione), Marco Polo recounts his visit to the area in mid 1290s. Other visitors included Faxian, the Buddhist pilgrim and Ibn Batuta, writer and historian of Tangiers. The Kolathunadu in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e., Kadathanadu (Vadakara), Randathara or Poyanad (Dharmadom), Kottayam (Thalassery), Nileshwaram, Iruvazhinadu (Panoor), Kurumbranad etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.^[125] The Nileshwaram dynasty on the northernmost part of Kolathiri dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as the Zamorin of Calicut, in the early medieval period.^[126] The kingdom of Kumbla in the northernmost region of the modern state of Kerala, who had jurisdiction over the Taluks of Manjeshwar and Kasaragod, and parts of Mangalore in Southern Tulu Nadu, were also vassals to the kingdom of Kolathunadu until the Carnatic conquests of 15th century CE.^[121]

According to Kerala Muslim tradition, the North Malabar region was also home to several oldest mosques in Indian subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom near Kannur to Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632).^{[127][128][94][129]} According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayani, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent.^[130] It is believed that Malik Dinar was died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.^[131] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque in the erstwhile Kolathunadu contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.^[132] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala.^[132]

Colonial period[edit]

The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean stayed with the Arabs during the High and Late Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.^{[133][134][135]} Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.^[136][137]

Portuguese period[edit]

See also: History of Kozhikode, Kingdom of Tanur, History of Kannur, History of Kochi, and History of Quilon

The path Vasco da Gama took to reach Kozhikode (black line)

Vasco da Gama was sent by the King of Portugal Dom Manuel I and landed at Kozhikode in 1497-1499.^[138] The Samoothiri Maharaja of Kozhikode permitted the Portuguese to trade with his subjects. Their trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Samoothiri and finally led to conflict. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode.^[3] As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin.^[3] Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from Vettom.^[3] However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504).^[125] However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut.^[139]

The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Samoothiri and Rajah of Kochi—they allied with Kochi and when Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters at Kochi. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a number of fortresses along the Malabar Coast.^[140] Nonetheless, the Portuguese suffered severe setbacks due to attacks by Samoothiri Maharaja's forces, especially naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Kozhikode known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.^[141][142] Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.^{[143][144][145]} It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast.^[145][143] Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period.^[3] The medieval Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics that flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries, was also primarily based in Vettathunadu.

The St. Angelo Fort at Kannur was built by the Portuguese in 1505, which was later captured by Dutch and Arakkal kingdom.^[148] The Portuguese Cemetery, Kollam (after the invasion of Dutch, it became Dutch Cemetery) of Tangasseri in Kollam city was constructed in around 1519 as part of the Portuguese invasion in the city. Buckingham Canal (a small canal between Tangasseri Lighthouse and the cemetery) is situated very close to the Portuguese Cemetery.^[149][150] A group of pirates known as the Pirates of Tangasseri formerly lived at the Cemetery.^[151] The remnants of St. Thomas Fort and Portuguese Cemetery still exist at Tangasseri. The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, near Kannur, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over the Lakshadweep islands.^[152] The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod, which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi.^[153]

French Region in Kerala[edit]

The French East India Company constructed a fort on the site of Mahé in 1724, in accordance with an accord concluded between André Mollandin and Raja Vazhunnavar of Badagara three years earlier. In 1741, Mahé de La Bourdonnais retook the town after a period of occupation by the Marathas.

In 1761 the British captured Mahé, India, and the settlement was handed over to the Rajah of Kadathanadu. The British restored Mahé, India to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé, India. In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé, India was handed over to the French in 1785.^[154]

Dutch period[edit]

Bolgatty Palace, built in 1744 by Dutch Malabar, also acted as the British Residency in Kochi

In 1602, the Zamorin sent messages to Aceh promising the Dutch a fort at Kozhikode if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of Tanur, and handed over to the Portuguese.^[155] A Dutch fleet under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived at Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Kozhikode on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the Dutch East India Company made with an Indian ruler.^[3] By this time the kingdom and the port of Kozhikode was much reduced in importance.^[155] The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.^[155]

The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company, who took advantage of continuing conflicts between Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control of the trade. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in 18th century.^[156] The Dutch Malabar (1661–1795) in turn were weakened by their constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. The Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region. In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Kerala.^[157] Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.^[158] In 1757, to check the invasion of the Zamorin of Calicut, the Palakkad Raja sought the help of Hyder Ali of Mysore. In 1766, Haider Ali of Mysore defeated the Samoothiri of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode to his state.^[159]

British period[edit]

Kerala in British India (1804). Thalassery, Kozhikode, and Kochi, were the major cities of the state at that time as indicated in the map

Kanakakkunnu Palace at Thiruvananthapuram. Thiruvananthapuram became a major city on Malabar Coast after the ruler Marthanda Varma annexed all minor kingdoms upto Cochin to form Travancore in 18th century CE.

The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.^[3] It was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, as British envoy.^[3] The island of Dharmadom near Kannur, along with Thalassery, was ceded to the East India Company as early as 1734, which were claimed by all of the Kolattu Rajas, Kottayam Rajas, and Arakkal Bibi in the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following the cession.^[160][125]

The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar region) including Kolathunadu, Kottayam, Kadathanadu, Kozhikode, Tanur, Valluvanad, and Palakkad were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore in the latter half of 18th century CE. Hyder Ali and his successor, Tipu Sultan, came into conflict with the British, leading to the four Anglo-Mysore wars fought across southern India. Tipu Sultan ceded Malabar District to the British in 1792 as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam, and South Kanara, which included present-day Kasargod District, in 1799. The British concluded treaties of subsidiary alliance with the rulers of Cochin (1791) and Travancore (1795), and these became princely states of British India, maintaining local autonomy in return for a fixed annual tribute to the British. Malabar and South Kanara districts were part of British India's Madras Presidency.

Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (Kerul Varma Pyche Rajah, Cotiote Rajah) (3 January 1753 – 30 November 1805) was the Prince Regent and the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Kottayam in Malabar, India between 1774 and 1805. He led the Pychy Rebellion (Wynaad Insurrection, Coiote War) against the English East India Company. He is popularly known as Kerala Simham (Lion of Kerala). The municipalities of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November 1866^{[161][162][163][164]} of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala.

Colonial Native Thiyyar Shipayies in Thiyyar Regiment The British Indian Army

Organised expressions of discontent with British rule were not uncommon in Kerala. Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support in Thalassery-Wayanad region.^[165] Other uprisings of note include the rebellion by Velu Thampi Dalawa and the Punnapra-Vayalar revolt of 1946. The Malabar Special Police was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at Malappuram.^[166] There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the 20th century; most notable among them is the 1921 Malabar Rebellion and the social struggles in Travancore. In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rebelled against the British Raj.^[167] The Battle of Pookkottur adorns an important role in the rebellion.^[168] Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of 20th century, leading to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes.^[169] Kerala also witnessed several social reforms movements directed at the eradication of social evils such as untouchability among the Hindus, pioneered by reformists like Srinarayana guru and Chattambiswami among others. The non-violent and largely peaceful Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924 was instrumental in securing entry to the public roads adjacent to the Vaikom temple for people belonging to untouchable castes. In 1936, Sree Chithira Thirunal Balaramavarma, the ruler of Travancore, issued the Temple Entry Proclamation, declaring the temples of his kingdom open to all Hindu worshipers, irrespective of caste.

Modern history[edit]

Formation of Kerala state[edit]

The two kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin joined the Union of India after independence in 1947. On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 January 1950, Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was reorganised to form Madras State in 1947.

On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar District (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep), Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.^[170][171] In 1957, elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, Communist-led government came to power, under E. M. S. Namboodiripad.^[171] It was the first time a Communist government was democratically elected to power anywhere in the world. It initiated pioneering land reforms, aiming to lowering of rural poverty in Kerala. However, these reforms were largely non-effective to mark a greater change in the society as these changes were not effected to a large extend. Lakhs of farms were owned by large establishments, companies and estate owners. They were not affected by this move and this was considered as a treachery as these companies and estates were formed by and during the British rule. Two things were the real reason for the reduction of poverty in Kerala one was the policy for wide scale education and second was the overseas migration for labour to Middle east and other countries.^[172][173]

Liberation struggle[edit]

It refused to nationalise the large estates but did provide reforms to protect manual labourers and farm workers, and invited capitalists to set up industry. Much more controversial was an effort to impose state control on private schools, such as those run by the Christians and the NSS, which enrolled 40% of the students. The Christians, NSS and Namputhiris and the Congress Party protested, with demonstrations numbering in the tens and hundreds of thousands of people. The government controlled the police, which made 150,000 arrests (often the same people arrested time and again), and used 248 lathi charges to beat back the demonstrators, killing twenty. The opposition called on Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to seize control of the state government. Nehru was reluctant but when his daughter Indira Gandhi, the national head of the Congress Party, joined in, he finally did so. New elections in 1959 cost the Communists most of their seats and Congress resumed control.^[174]

Coalition politics[edit]

See also: Saptakakshi Munnani and United Front (Kerala)

Later in 1967-82 Kerala elected a series of leftist coalition governments; the most stable was that led by Achutha Menon from 1969 to 1977.^[175]

From 1967 to 1970, Kunnikkal Narayanan led a Naxalite movement in Kerala. The theoretical difference in the communist party, i.e. CPM is the part of the uprising of Naxalbari movement in Bengal which leads to the formation of CPI(ML) in India. Due to ideological differences the CPI-ML split into several groups. Some groups choose to participate peacefully in electoralism, while some choose to aim for violent revolution. The violence alienated public opinion.^[176]

The political alliance have strongly stabilised in such a manner that, with rare exceptions, most of the coalition partners stick their loyalty to the alliance. As a result, to this, ever since 1979, the power has been clearly alternating between these two fronts without any change. Politics in Kerala is characterised by continually shifting alliances, party mergers and splits, factionalism within the coalitions and within political parties, and numerous splinter groups.^[177]

Modern politics in Kerala is dominated by two political fronts: the Communist-led Left Democratic Front (LDF) and the Indian National Congress-led United Democratic Front (UDF) since the late 1970s. These two parties have alternating in power since 1982. Most of the major political parties in Kerala, except for Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), belong to one or the other of these two alliances, often shifting allegiances a number of time.^[177] As of the 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, the LDF has a majority in the state assembly seats (99/140).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At its zenith, the kingdom covered most of modern-day Southern parts of Kerala (Idukki, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam, and Thiruvananthapuram districts, and some portions of Ernakulam district), and the southernmost part of modern-day Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari district and some parts of Tenkasi district) with the Thachudaya Kaimal's enclave of Irinjalakuda Koodalmanikyam temple in the neighbouring Kingdom of Cochin. However Tangasseri area of Kollam city and Anchuthengu near Attingal in Thiruvananthapuram district , those were British colonies, were parts of Malabar District until 30 June 1927, and Tirunelveli district from 1 July 1927 onwards.^[2][3] Travancore merged with erstwhile pricely state of Cochin to form Travancore-Cochin in 1950. The five Tamil-majority Taluks of Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, and Sengottai were transferred from Travancore-Cochin to Madras State in 1956. The Malayalam-speaking regions of the Travancore-Cochin merged with the Malabar District (excluding Laccadive & Minicoy Islands) and the Kasaragod Taluk of South Canara district in Madras State to form the modern Malayalam-state of Kerala on 1 November 1956, according to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 passed by the Government of India.

The official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell (Turbinella pyrum) at its center. The coat of arms had two elephants standing on the left and right with the conch shell (Turibinella pyrum) in the center. The ribbon (white) with black Devanagari script. Travancore was bounded by the pricely state of Kingdom of Cochin and Coimbatore district of Madras Presidency to north, Madurai and Tirunelveli districts of Pandya Nadu region in Madras Presidency to east, Indian Ocean to south, and Arabian Sea to west. As of 1911 Census of India, Travancore was divided to five divisions, Padmanabhapuram, Trivandrum, Quilon, Kottayam, and Devikulam, of which the first and last were predominantly Tamil-speaking areas.

King Marthanda Varma inherited the small feudal state of Venad in 1723 and built it into Travancore, one of the most powerful kingdoms in southern India. Marthanda Varma led the Travancore forces during the Travancore-Dutch War of 1739–46, which culminated in the Battle of Colachel. The defeat of the Dutch by Travancore is considered the earliest example of an organised power from Asia overcoming European military technology and tactics.^[6] Marthanda Varma went on to conquer most of the petty principalities of the native rulers. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.

In the early 19th century, the kingdom became a princely state of the British Empire. The Travancore Government took many progressive steps on the socio-economic front and during the reign of Maharajah Sri Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, Travancore became a prosperous modern princely state in British India, with reputed achievements in education, political administration, public work, and social reforms. In 1903–1904 the total revenue of the state was Rs.1,02,01,900.

Etymology

The kingdom takes its name from Thiruvithamcode in present-day Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu.

The regions had many small independent kingdoms. Later, during the peak time of Chera-Chola-Pandya, this region became a part of the Chera Kingdom (except for the Ay kingdom which always remained independent). During that era, when the region was part of the Chera empire, it was still known as Thiruvazhumkode. It was contracted to Thiruvankode, and anglicised by the English to Travancore.

In course of time, the Ay kingdom, part of the Chera empire, which ruled the Thiruvazhumkode area, became independent, and the land was called Aayi Desam or Aayi Rajyam, meaning 'Aayi territory'. The Aayis controlled the land from present-day Kollam district in the north, through Thiruvananthapuram district, all in Kerala, to the Kanyakumari district. There were two capitals, the major one at Kollam (Venad Swaroopam or Desinganadu) and a subsidiary one at Thrippapur (Thrippapur Swaroopam or Nanjinad). The kingdom was thus also called Venad. Kings of Venad had, at various times, travelled from Kollam and built residential palaces in Thiruvithamcode and Kalkulam. Thiruvithamcode became the capital of the Thrippapur Swaroopam, and the country was referred to as Thiruvithamcode by Europeans even after the capital had been moved in 1601 to Padmanabhapuram, near Kalkulam.

The Chera empire had dissolved by around 1100 and thereafter the territory comprised numerous small kingdoms until the time of Marthanda Varma who, as king of Venad from 1729, employed brutal methods to unify them. During his reign, Thiruvithamcode or Travancore became the official name.

Geography

Map of TRAVANCORE in 1871 AD

The Kingdom of Travancore was located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, Travancore was divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains).

History

Ay dynasty

Main article: Ay dynasty

India in 1320 CE. The Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram-Kanyakumari area in the southernmost tip of Indian Subcontinent, which was the main seat of Ay dynasty, was under the influence of Pandya dynasty.

Thambiran Vanakkam was printed at Kollam, the capital of Venad in 1578, during the Portuguese Era. It holds the record of the first book printed in any Indian language. It was written in the language Lingua Malabar Tamul, which was spoken in Southern Kerala (Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram-Kanyakumari area) during the medieval period.

Venad was a former state at the tip of the Indian Subcontinent, traditionally ruled by rajas known as the Venattadis. Till the end of the 11th century AD, it was a small principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from Nagercoil in the south to Trivandrum in the north. Their capital during the first Sangam age was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the 8th century AD, was at Quilon(Kollam). Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful till the beginning of the 10th century. Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam.

When the Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the Second Chera Kingdom. An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama Varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last emperor of the Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of the Chera kings, Kulasekara, was thenceforth kept by the rulers of Venad. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad.

In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay Dynasty, Thrippappur and Chirava, merged in the Venad family, which set up the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as Thrippappur Moopan. While the Chrirava Moopan had his residence at Kollam, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, 9 miles north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple.

Formation and development of Travancore

The ancient political and cultural history of Central and Southern Travancore was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai than Cheras.

Present-day Thiruvananthapuram city, district, and Kanyakumari district, were parts of Ay dynasty during ancient and medieval ages, which was a Tamil kingdom based in the southernmost part of Indian Subcontinent. Ay kingdom had experienced attacks and conquests by Cholas and Pandyas in various periods. Later it became a part of Venad in late middle ages, which was eventually expanded as the princely state of Travancore in 18th century CE. The Tamil-Dravidian kind of architecture is also found in Padmanabhaswamy temple, which makes it distinct and unique from the architectural style of temples in northern and central parts of Kerala.

Modern-day Southern Kerala (The districts like Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, etc.) had been ruled by Tamil dynasties such as Ay kingdom, Pandya dynasty, and Chola dynasty, for a long time until 16th-17th century CE. The official language of Venad, based at Kollam, was also identified as Tamil, by the natives of Venad in those times. The place names, the dialects of Malayalam spoken, and the customs, those exist in Southern parts of Kerala, still reveal a close relationship with Tamil heritage. Malayalam became more prevalent with the expansion of Venad into Travancore by annexing the regions up to present-day Ernakulam district.

Venad Swaroopam

Eustachius De Lannoy of the Dutch East India Company surrenders to Maharaja Marthanda Varma of the Kingdom of Travancore after the Battle of Colachel. (Depiction at Padmanabhapuram Palace)

In the early 18th century CE, the Travancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family of Kolathunadu based at Kannur, and Parappanad based in present-day Malappuram district. The history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad (Thrippappur), and expanded it into Travancore during his reign (1729–1758). After defeating a union of feudal lords and establishing internal peace, he expanded the kingdom of Venad through a series of military campaigns from Kanyakumari in the south to the borders of Kochi in the north during his 29-year rule. This rule also included Travancore-Dutch War (1739–1753) between the Dutch East India Company who had been allied to some of these kingdoms and Travancore.

In 1741, Travancore won the Battle of Colachel against the Dutch East India Company, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in the region. In this battle, the Dutch Captain, Eustachius De Lannoy, was captured. He later defected to Travancore.

De Lannoy was appointed as Captain of His Highness' Body-guard and later Senior Admiral ("Valiya kappittan") and he modernised the Travancore army by introducing firearms and artillery. From 1741 to 1758, De Lannoy remained in command of the Travancore Forces and was involved in annexation of small principalities.

Travancore became the most dominant state in the Kerala region by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. Ramayyan Dalawa, the Prime Minister (1737–1756) of Marthanda Varma, also played an important role in this consolidation and expansion.

On 3 January 1750, (5 Makaram, 925 Kollavarsham), Marthanda Varma virtually "dedicated" Travancore to his tutelary deity Padmanabha, one of the aspects of the Hindu God Vishnu with a lotus issuing from his navel on which Brahma sits. From then on the rulers of Travancore ruled as the "servants of Padmanabha" (the Padmnabha-dasar).

At the Battle of Ambalapuzha, Marthanda Varma defeated the union of the kings who had been deposed and the king of the Cochin kingdom.^[

The Mysore invasion

Main article: Mysore invasion of Kerala

Marthanda Varma's successor Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (1758–1798), who was popularly known as Dharma Raja, shifted the capital in 1795 from Padmanabhapuram to Thiruvananthapuram. Dharma Raja's period is considered as a Golden Age in the history of Travancore. He not only retained the territorial gains of his predecessor Marthanda Varma, but also improved and encouraged social development. He was greatly assisted by a very efficient administrator, Raja Kesavadas, who was the Diwan of Travancore.

Travancore often allied with the English East India Company in military conflicts. During Dharma Raja's reign, Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of Mysore and the son of Hyder Ali, attacked Travancore in 1789 as a part of the Mysore invasion of Kerala. Dharma Raja had earlier refused to hand over the Hindu political refugees from the Mysore occupation of Malabar, who had been given asylum in Travancore. The Mysore army entered the Cochin kingdom from Coimbatore in November 1789 and reached Trichur in December. On 28 December 1789 Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta (Northern Lines) from the north, causing the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789), resulting in the defeat of Mysore army.

Velu Thampi Dalawa's rebellion

Main article: Travancore Rebellion

On Dharma Raja's death in 1798, Balarama Varma (1798–1810), the weakest ruler of the dynasty, took over crown at the age of sixteen. A treaty brought Travancore under East India Company protection in 1795.

Colin Macaulay, British Resident of Travancore, by John Smart (1792)

The Prime Ministers (Dalawas or Dewans) started taking control of the kingdom beginning with Velu Thampi Dalawa (Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi) (1799–1809) who was appointed as the divan following the dismissal of Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri (1798–1799). Initially, Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi and the English East India Company got along very well. When a section of the Travancore army mutinied in 1805 against Velu Thampi Dalawa, he sought refuge with the British Resident Colonel (later General) Colin Macaulay and later used English East India Company troops to crush the mutiny. Velu Thampi also played a key role in renegotiating a new treaty between Travancore and the English East India Company. However, the demands by the East India Company for the payment of compensation for their involvement in the Travancore-Mysore War (1791) on behalf of Travancore, led to tension between the Diwan and Colonel Colin Macaulay. Velu Thampi and the diwan of Cochin kingdom, Paliath Achan Govindan Menon, who was unhappy with Macaulay for granting asylum to his enemy Kunhi Krishna Menon, declared "war" on the East India Company.

The East India Company army defeated Paliath Achan's army in Cochin on 27 February 1809. Paliath Achan surrendered to the East India Company and was exiled to Madras and later to Benaras. The Company defeated forces under Velu Thampi Dalawa at battles near Nagercoil and Kollam and inflicted heavy casualties on the rebels, following which many of his supporters deserted and went back to their homes. The Maharajah of Travancore, who hitherto had not taken any part in the rebellion openly, now allied with the British and appointed one of Thampi's enemies as his Prime Minister. The allied East India Company army and the Travancore soldiers camped in Pappanamcode, just outside Trivandrum. Velu Thampi Dalawa now organised a guerrilla struggle against the Company, but committed suicide to avoid capture by the Travancore army. After the mutiny of 1805 against Velu Thampi Dalawa, most of the Nair army battalions of Travancore had been disbanded, and after Velu Thampi Dalawa's uprising, almost all of the remaining Travancore forces were also disbanded, with the East India Company undertaking to serve the Rajah in cases of external and internal aggression.

Cessation of mahādanams

The Rajahs of Travancore had been conditionally promoted to Kshatryahood with periodic performance of 16 mahādānams (great gifts in charity) such as Hiranya-garbhā, Hiranya-Kāmdhenu, and Hiranyāswaratā in which each of which thousands of Brahmins had been given costly gifts apart from each getting a minimum of 1 kazhanch (78.65 gm) of gold. In 1848 the Marquess of Dalhousie, then Governor-General of British India, was apprised that the depressed condition of the finances in Travancore was due to the mahādanams by the rulers. Lord Dalhousie instructed Lord Harris, Governor of the Madras Presidency, to warn the then King of Travancore, Martanda Varma (Uttram Tirunal 1847–60), that if he did not put a stop to this practice, the Madras Presidency would take over his state's administration. This led to the cessation of the practice of mahādanams.

All Travancore kings including Sree Moolam Thirunal conducted the Hiranyagarbham and Tulapurushadaanam ceremonies. Maharajah Chithira Thirunal was the only King of Travancore not to have conducted these rituals as he considered them extremely costly.

19th and early 20th centuries

Malayalam letters on old Travancore Rupee coin

In Travancore, the caste system was more rigorously enforced than in many other parts of India up to the mid-1800s. The rule of discriminative hierarchical caste order was deeply entrenched in the social system and was supported by the government, which had transformed this caste-based social system into a religious institution. In such a context, the belief in Ayyavazhi, apart from being a religious system, served also as a reform movement in uplifting the downtrodden section of the society, both socially and as well religiously. The rituals of Ayyavazhi constituted a social discourse. Its beliefs, mode of worship, and religious organisation seem to have enabled the Ayyavazhi group to negotiate and cope with, and resist the imposition of authority. The hard tone of Vaikundar towards this was perceived as a revolution against the government. So the King Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma initially imprisoned Vaikundar in the Singarathoppu jail, where the jailor Appaguru ended up as a disciple of Vaikundar. Vaikundar was later set at liberty by the King.

Travancore's postal service adopted a standard cast iron pillar box, made by Massey & Co in Madras, and similar to the British Penfold model that was introduced in 1866. This Anchal post box is in Perumbavoor.

Ayilyam Thirunal of Travancore (centre) with the first prince (left) and Dewan Rajah Sir T. Madhava Rao (right).

The last King of Travancore, Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma.

Travancore Nair Brigade in 1861.

After the death of Sree Moolam Thirunal in 1924, Sethu Lakshmi Bayi became the regent (1924–1931), as the Heir Apparent Sree Chithira Thirunal was then a minor (12 years old).

In 1935, Travancore joined the Indian State Forces Scheme and a Travancore unit was named 1st Travancore Nair Infantry, Travancore State Forces. The unit was reorganised as an Indian State Infantry Battalion by Lieutenant Colonel H S Steward who was appointed Commandant of the Travancore State Forces.

The last ruling king of Travancore was Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, who reigned from 1931 to 1949. "His reign marked revolutionary progress in the fields of education, defence, economy and society as a whole." He made the famous Temple Entry Proclamation on 12 November 1936, which opened all the Kshetrams (Hindu temples in Kerala) in Travancore to all Hindus, a privilege reserved to only upper-caste Hindus till then. This act won him praise from across India, most notably from Mahatma Gandhi. The first public transport system (Thiruvananthapuram–Mavelikkara) and telecommunication system (Thiruvananthapuram Palace–Mavelikkara Palace) were launched during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal. He also started the industrialisation of the state, enhancing the role of the public sector. He introduced heavy industry in the State and established giant public sector undertakings. As many as twenty industries were established, mostly for utilizing the local raw materials such as rubber, ceramics, and minerals. A majority of the premier industries running in Kerala even today, were established by Sree Chithira Thirunal. He patronized musicians, artists, dancers, and Vedic scholars. Sree Chithira Thirunal appointed, for the first time, an Art Advisor to the Government, Dr. G. H. Cousins. He also established a new form of University Training Corps, viz. Labour Corps, preceding the N.C.C, in the educational institutions. The expenses of the University were to be met fully by the Government. Sree Chithira Thirunal also built a beautiful palace named Kowdiar Palace, finished in 1934, which was previously an old Naluektu, given by Sree Moolam Thirunal to his mother Sethu Parvathi Bayi in 1915.

However, his Prime Minister, Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, was unpopular among the communists of Travancore. The tension between the Communists and Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer led to minor riots in various places of the country. In one such riot in Punnapra-Vayalar in 1946, the Communist rioters established their own government in the area. This was put down by the Travancore Army and Navy. The Prime Minister issued a statement in June 1947 that Travancore would remain as an independent country instead of joining the Indian Union; subsequently, an attempt was made on the life of Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, following which he resigned and left for Madras, to be succeeded by Sri P.G.N. Unnithan. According to witnesses such as K.Aiyappan Pillai, constitutional adviser to the Maharaja and historians like A. Sreedhara Menon, the rioters and mob-attacks had no bearing on the decision of the Maharaja. After several rounds of discussions and negotiations between Sree Chithira Thirunal and V.P. Menon, the King agreed that the Kingdom should accede to the Indian Union in 1949. On 1 July 1949 the Kingdom of Travancore was merged with the Kingdom of Cochin and the short-lived state of Travancore-Kochi was formed.

Travancore in the Madras Presidency in 1909

On 11 July 1991, Sree Chithira Thirunal suffered a stroke and was admitted to Sree Chithira Thirunal hospital, where he died on 20 July. He had ruled Travancore for 67 years and at his death was one of the few surviving rulers of a first-class princely state in the old British Raj. He was also the last surviving Knight Grand Commander of both the Order of the Star of India and of the Order of the Indian Empire. He was succeeded as head of the Royal House as well as the Titular Maharajah of Travancore by his brother, Uthradom Thirunal Marthanda Varma. The Government of India issued a stamp on Nov 6, 1991, commemorating the reforms that marked the reign of Maharajah Sree Chithira Thirunal in Travancore.

Formation of Kerala

The State of Kerala came into existence on 1 November 1956, with a Governor appointed by the President of India as the head of the State instead of the King. The King was stripped of all his political powers and the right to receive privy purses, according to the twenty-sixth amendment of the Indian constitution act of 31 July 1971. He died on 20 July 1991.

Merger of Kanyakumari with Madras State

Main article: Merger of Kanyakumari with Madras State

Tamils lived in large numbers in the Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Sengottai, Eraniel, Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Devikulam, Neyyattinkara, Thiruvananthapuram South and Thiruvananthapuram North taluks of erstwhile Travancore State. In the Tamil regions, Malayalam was the official language and there were only a few Tamil-medium schools. So the Tamils met many hardships. Travancore State Government continued rejecting the requests of Tamils. During that period the Travancore State Congress favoured the idea of uniting all the Malayalam speaking regions and the formation of a "Unified Kerala". In protest against this idea, many Tamil leaders vacated the party. Tamils gathered together at Nagercoil on 16 December 1945 under the leadership of Sam Nathaniel and formed the new political party All Travancore Tamilian Congress. That party was continuously compelling for the merger of Tamil regions in Travancore with Tamil Nadu. During the election propaganda campaign, clashes occurred between the Tamil Nadar community and the Malayali Nair community at various places in Kalkulam - Vilavancode Taluks. police force suppressed the agitating Nadars. On February 1948 police opened fire and two Tamil speaking Nadars were killed.

In the working committee meeting of Tamilian congress at Eraviputhur on 30 June 1946, the name of the political party was changed to Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress (T.T.N.C). T.T.N.C was popular among the Tamils living in Thovalai and Agateeswaram Taluks. Mr. Ma. Po. Sivagnanam (Ma.Po.Si) was the only leader from Tamil Nadu who functioned in favour of T.T.N.C. After the independence of India, State Assembly Elections were announced in Travancore. As a consequence, T.T.N.C improved its popularity among Tamils. A popular and leading advocate from Vilavancode Mr. A. Nesamony organised a meeting of his supporters at Allan Memorial Hall, Nagercoil on 8 September 1947. In that meeting it was declared that they must achieve their objective through their political organisation, the T.T.N.C. And T.T.N.C started gaining strength and momentum in Kalkulam - Vilavancode Taluks.^[56] T.T.N.C won in 14 constituencies in the election to the State Legislative Assembly. Mr. A. Nesamony was elected as the legislative leader of the party. Then under his leadership, the awakened Tamil population was prepared to undergo any sacrifice to achieve their goal.^[57]

In 1950, a meeting was held at Palayamkottai to make compromises between state congress and T.T.N.C. The meeting met with failure and Mr. Sam Nathaniel resigned from the post of president of T.T.N.C Mr. P. Ramasamy Pillai, a strong follower of Mr. A. Nesamony was elected as the New President.^[56] The first general election of Independent India was held on 1952. T.T.N.C won 8 legislative assembly seats. Mr. A. Chidambaranathan became the minister on behalf of T.T.N.C in the coalition state government formed by the Congress. In the parliamentary Constituency Mr. A. Nesamony was elected as M.P. and in the Rajyasabha seat. Mr. A. Abdul Razak was elected as M.P. on behalf of T.T.N.C.^[56] In due course, accusing the Congress government for not showing enough care the struggle of the Tamils, T.T.N.C had broken away from the coalition and the Congress government lost the majority. So fresh elections were announced. In 1954 elections, T.T.N.C gained victory in 12 constituencies.^[56] Pattom Thanu Pillai was the chief minister for Thiru - Kochi legislative assembly. He engaged hard measures against the agitations of Tamils. Especially the Tamils at Devikulam - Peermedu regions went through the atrocities of Travancore Police force. Condemning the attitude of the police, T.T.N.C leaders from Nagercoil went to Munnar and participated in agitations against the prohibitive orders. The leaders were arrested and an uncalm atmosphere prevailed in South Travancore.

On 11 August, Liberation Day celebrations were held at many places in South Travancore. Public meetings and processions were organised. Communists also collaborated with the agitation programmes. Police opened fire at the processions in Thoduvetty (Martandam) and Puthukadai. Nine Tamil volunteers were killed and thousands of T.T.N.C and communist sympathizers were arrested in various parts of Tamil main land. At the end, Pattom Thanu Pillai's ministry was toppled and normalcy returned to the Tamil regions. The central government had appointed Fazal Ali Commission(1953 dec) for the states reorganisation based on language. It submitted its report on 10 August 1955. Based on this report, Devikulam - Peermedu and Neyyattinkara Taluks were merged with Kerala state. On 1 November 1956 - four Taluks Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilavancode were recognised to form the New Kanyakumari District and merged with Tamil Nadu State. Half of Sengottai Taluk was merged with Tirunelveli District. The main demand of T.T.N.C was to merger the Tamil regions with Tamil Nadu and major part of its demand was realised. So T.T.N.C was dissolved thereafter.

Retainment of Devikulam and Peerumedu Taluks in Kerala

Apart from Kanyakumari district, the Taluks of Devikulam and Peermade in present-day Idukki district also had a Tamil-majority until late 1940's. The T.T.N.C had also requested to merge these Taluks with Madras State. However it was due to some decisions of Pattom Thanu Pillai, who was the first prime minister of Travancore, that they retained in the modern-state of Kerala. Pattom came up with a colonisation project to re-engineer the demography of Cardamom Hills. His colonisation project was to relocate 8,000 Malayalam-speaking families into the Taluks of Devikulam and Peermade. About 50,000 acres in these Taluks, which were Tamil-majority area, were chosen for the colonisation project. As a victory of the Colonisation project done by post-independence Travancore, these two Taluks and a larger portion of Cardamom Hills retained in the state of Kerala, after States Reorganisation Act, 1956.

Politics

Under the direct control of the king, Travancore's administration was headed by a Dewan assisted by the Neetezhutthu Pillay or secretary, Rayasom Pillay (assistant or under-secretary) and a number of Rayasoms or clerks along with Kanakku Pillamars (accountants). Individual districts were run by Sarvadhikaris under supervision of the Diwan, while dealings with neighbouring states and Europeans was under the purview of the Valia Sarvahi, who signed treaties and agreements.

Rulers of Travancore

Main article: Rulers of Travancore

1. Anizham Tirunal Marthanda Varma 1729–1758

2. Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (Dharma Raja) 1758–1798

3. Balarama Varma I 1798–1810

4. Gowri Lakshmi Bayi 1810–1815 (Queen from 1810 to 1813 and Regent Queen from 1813 to 1815)

5. Gowri Parvati Bayi (Regent) 1815–1829

6. Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma II 1813–1846

7. Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma II 1846–1860

8. Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma III 1860–1880

9. Visakham Thirunal Rama Varma IV 1880–1885

10. Sree Moolam Thirunal Rama Varma VI 1885–1924

11. Sethu Lakshmi Bayi (Regent) 1924–1931

12. Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma II 1924–1949

Prime Ministers of Travancore

Main article: List of Diwans of Travancore

Dalawas

· Arumukham Pillai 1729–1736

· Thanu Pillai 1736–1737

· Ramayyan Dalawa 1737–1756

· Martanda Pillai 1756–1763

· Warkala Subbayyan 1763–1768

· Krishna Gopalayyan 1768–1776

· Vadiswaran Subbrahmanya Iyer 1776–1780

· Mullen Chempakaraman Pillai 1780–1782

· Nagercoil Ramayyan 1782–1788

· Krishnan Chempakaraman 1788–1789

· Raja Kesavadas 1789–1798

· Odiery Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri 1798–1799

· Velu Thampi Dalawa 1799–1809

· Oommini Thampi 1809–1811

Dewans

Dewan Rajah Sir T. Madhava Rao

· Col. John Munro 1811–1814

· Devan Padmanabhan Menon 1814–1814

· Bappu Rao (acting) 1814–1815

· Sanku Annavi Pillai 1815–1815

· Raman Menon 1815–1817

· Reddy Rao 1817–1821

· T. Venkata Rao 1821–1830

· Thanjavur Subha Rao 1830–1837

· T. Ranga Rao (acting) 1837–1838

· T. Venkata Rao (Again) 1838–1839

· Thanjavur Subha Rao (again) 1839–1842

· Krishna Rao (acting) 1842–1843

· Reddy Rao (again) 1843–1845

· Srinivasa Rao (acting) 1845–1846

· Krishna Rao 1846–1858

Administrative divisions

In 1856, the princely state was sub-divided into three divisions, each of which was administered by a Divan Peishkar, with a rank equivalent to a District Collector in British India. These were the:

· Northern ([Cottayam) comprising the talukas of Sharetalay, Vycome, Yetmanoor, Cottayam, Chunginacherry, Meenachil, Thodupolay, Moovatupolay, Kunnathnaud, Alangaud and Paravoor;

· Quilon (Central), comprising the talukas of Amabalapulay, Chengannoor, Pandalam, Kunnattur, Karungapully, Kartikapully, Harippad, Mavelikaray, Quilon; and

· Southern (Padmanabhapuram) comprising the talukas of Thovalay, Auguteeswarom, Kalculam, Eraneel, and Velavencode.

Divisions according to the 1911 Census of Travancore

1. Padmanabhapuram Division

The 1911 Census Report of Travancore states that Padmanabhapuram Division was the original seat of Travancore, where Thiruvithamcode and Padmanabhapuram are located. The report further states that a vast majority of this division was ethnic Tamils. Padamanabhapuram Division consisted of the present-day district of Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. The report also states that the two southernmost Taluks of this division, namely Thovalai and Agastheeswaram, geographically too more resembles to Pandya Nadu of Tamil country and the eastern Coromandel Coast of the Madras Presidency than the rest of Malayalam country.

2. Trivandrum Division

It was the headquarters of Travancore since 1795. The Neyyattinkara taluk was a main seat of industry according the 1911 census report of Travancore. This division also contained many ethnic Tamils, mostly concentrated in the southern Taluks of Neyyattinkara and Thiruvananthapuram. The Trivandrum Division consisted of the present-day Thiruvananthapuram district excluding the British colony at Anchuthengu.

3. Quilon Division

Quilon was the capital of Venad and the largest port town in Travancore, and was also one of the oldest ports on Malabar Coast. The 1911 Census of Travancore states that it was from Quilon division onwards that the genuine country of Malayalam starts. However, the Sengottai taluk of this division which was earlier under Kottarakkara Thampuran, was a Tamil-majority region. Geographically too Sengottai resembled to Madurai and Pandya Nadu than rest of the Malayalam country.

4.Kottayam Division

It was situated in the northernmost area of Travancore. It was a pure Malayalam-speaking and geographical region. The Vembanad Lake was a speciality of this division.

5. Devikulam Division

It consisted most of the present-day Idukki district. It was also related to Pandya Nadu and Kongu Nadu. Devikulam division was Tamil-speaking region.

Demographics

Culture

Travancore was characterised by the popularity of its rulers among their subjects. The kings of Travancore, unlike their counterparts in the other princely states of India, spent only a small portion of their state's resources for personal use. This was in sharp contrast with some of the northern Indian kings. Since they spent most of the state's revenue for the benefit of the public, they were naturally much loved by their subjects.

Just like many British Indian states, violence rooted in religion or caste was common in Travancore. Swami Vivekananda described Travancore as The Lunatic Assylum in India due to the level of caste discrimination. Vaikom Satyagraha point out the high-level Casteism existed in Travancore. Tamil Brahmins and Nairs alone dominated the bureaucracy until 20th century. Many political ideologies (such as communism) and social reforms were not welcomed in Travancore, and in Punnapra, communist protesters were fired at. Travancore royal family were devout Hindus. Some kings practiced untouchablity with British officers, European aristocrats and diplomats (for instance, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, has reported that Maharaja Visakham Thirunal had to take bath after touching Richard's Mrs., to remove ritual pollution, when they visited in 1880).

Unlike most of India, just like in Dakshina Kannada, in Travancore (and the rest of Kerala), the social status and freedom of women in Higher castes were relatively high. However, the Upper cloth revolt of 19th century is an exception to this. The women of lower caste hadn't the permission to wear upper cloth in Travancore. In some communities, the daughters inherited the property (though property was exclusively administered by men, their brothers) (until 1925), were educated, and had the right to divorce and remarry, but due to laws passed starting from 1925, by regent queen Sethu Lakshmi Bayi proper patriarchy was established and now women have relatively little rights.

Kowdiar Palace, Trivandrum

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History of KERALA (CHERA Kingdom).

LEGEND

The mother-country of Travancore was the Mandala kingdom Chera. The present day Travancore (19^th Century) with an area of 6653.5 sq. miles is situated between the 8^th and 10^th degree of North latitude. Travancore was strongly protected by natural boundaries, the south and west by the Indian Ocean, the east by the range of high ghats, and the northern parts being mostly covered with backwaters, rivers and lakes. The situation of Travancore being unfavourable for the march of horses and elephants that formed the best portion of an army in those days saved it from incursions of foreign invaders.

From its original state as Chera Mandalam, the largest of the three Mandala kingdoms covering the best portion of Southern India, it was reduced to a small province bounded by Canara, Coimbatore, Tinnevelly and the Indian Ocean. Subsequently it flourished under its present name Travancore and continued as a vassal state to the Rayers of Vijayanagar, when Viswanatha Naicker assumed the government of Madura. Under the Rayer dynasty, Travancore was still reduced and humiliated by being degraded to the low position of a feudatory chief. During the rule of Thirumali Naicker of Madura, the Malayalam Nanjenaud Rajah (King of Travancore) was included among the seventy two feudal chiefs to guard the bastions of the Pandian capital. From the position of a feudal State, Travancore rose again, slowly but surely, and recovered many of its lost possessions, both in the east and in the north.

From the 3^rd century A.D, to the 7^th century A.D appears to have been the most flourishing period in modern history of the Chera kingdom. It then extended over the present Mysore, Coimbatore, Salem, South Malabar and Cochin. It was one of the three great old Dravidian kingdoms and already existed in the 3^rd century B.C.

The Puranas describe the origin, in the Kirti Yugam (the first age) of three contemporary kings in South India called Cheran, Cholan and Pandyan, who ruled over three countries called after their names; Chera Mandalam, Chola Mandalam and Pandya Mandalam. These kings were brothers and were Soma Vamsa Kshatrias.

The Kshatrias are of two classes, namely, the Soorya Vamsa and the Soma Vamsa. The Hindu Chronology divides the age of the world into four Yugams (Periods). Kirti Yugam equals 4800 years, Theertha Yugam equals 3600 years, Dwapara Yugam equals 2400 years and Kali Yugam equals 1200 years. The whole being equivalent to 12,000 years.

In the Kirti Yugam two races of Kshatriyas were begotten; one from the sun and the other from the moon, on whom the administration of the whole earth originally fell. The mode of Government from the earliest times was that any king on becoming more powerful than all the others conquered them and declared himself Emperor. So also we have instances of Southern kingdoms of Pandya, Chola and Chera being ruled alternately by one among themselves as Emperor.

In Theertha Yugam (the second age), Kerala is said to have been recovered from the sea by Parasu Rama, the sixth incarnation of Vishnu. There are several versions, but the gist is almost the same. Parusu Rama flung his axe from Gokurnam and it fell at Cape Comorin, whereupon the sea receded from these two points to the present extend of the Malabar Coast and he called it Keralam. A large portion of the land between Kollam and Mangalapuram remained uncultivated during the reign of the Chera king Keralan, when the Bhramin warrior Parusu Rama visited the land of Keralam, established himself there. He organised a Brahmin community, introduced new system of Government, lived there for a considerable period of time and then retired.

The land between Gokurnam and Kannya Kumari have been submerged under the ocean at one time in the Theerth Yugam (the second age). The low-lands of the Malabar Coast have been raised from beneath the sea by subterranean forces.

Parusu Rama was born in the Theertha Yugam. He is the descendant of the renowned Rishi Bhrigu. Jamadagni and Renuka had five sons of whom the youngest was Parasu Rama. When Rama was a minor, one day Jamadagni left to procure things for his devotional services, while Renuka went to bring water from the nearby river Nurbuda. Renuka was distracted by seeing the beautiful reflection of a Gandharvan (Genii) called Chithrangaden, passing through the air. When Jamadagni returned he could not find his wife as usual. So when Renuka returned and on being questioned she confessed that she was delayed by seeing the beauty of Chithrangaden. The enraged Rishi asked each of his sons to kill their mother, but four of them refused on the plea that law prohibits killing of a womn and also that the woman was their mother. But Rama on being ordered immediately obeyed. The father pleased, asked Rama for any boon. Rama wished for his mother to be restored to life, which the father granted.

Subsequently, Rama was sent to his great-grand father Brigu, to be educated in the Vedas and other literature. After completing his education he went to the Himalayas to meditate to Siva. This pleased Siva and he granted Rama all sorts of blessings and directed him to visit all the holy places on earth. Rama after his pilgrimage resumed his meditation in the Himalayas. It was during this time that a war broke out between the Devas and the Asuras, which the Asuras won. The Devas driven out of heaven appealed to Siva for help. Siva summoned Rama and asked him to help the Devas. Siva presented Rama with an axe called Parasu. From that day onwards he was known as Parasu Rama. He proceeded to war with the Asuras and gained a decisive victory. The Devas and Siva were extremely pleased with Parasu Rama and conferred on him the choicest blessings. Parasu Rama again repaired to the Himalayas for meditation. Siva, extremely pleased with Parasu Rama, paid him a visit and presented him with a supernatural chariot and an arrow which were to appear before him whenever he wished them. Parasu Rama then left the Himalayas and came to his great-grand father Brigu and spend time with him before returning to his parents’ home.

Karthaveerarjuna, the king of Hehaya, on a hunting expedition entered the Jamadagni hermitage for a little refreshment. He took a fancy to the Rishi’s cow Kamadhenu. Jamadagni on refusing to part with the cow at any cost was beset by the king’s soldiers and left for dead. Parasu Rama on returning and seeing his father’s mutilated body was mortified. Brigu divining the state of affairs immediately repaired to the scene and on careful examination found that life was not extinct and with the aid of certain medicines restored life to Jamadagni. Parasu Rama went to the king Karthaveerarjuna and asked him to restore the cow and seek the pardon of the venerable sage. The king refused and in the ensuing battle the king was defeated and slain. The five sons of the king met Rama in battle and when they were about to fall victims to Rama’s Parasu, lay down their weapons and sought Rama’s pardon. They gave up the cow and made full reparation for the wrongs done by their father. Parashu Rama retired to the Himalayas and resumed his meditation. In his absence, the then reigning king, one of the sons of the late king Karthaveera of Hehaya, happened to pass by the hermitage of Jamadagni. On learning whose property it was, the king sword in hand entered the hermitage and decapitated Jamadagni with one blow. Renuka also perished on the funeral pyre. Sometime afterwards, Parasu Rama returned from the Himalayas and learning the fate of his parents, set out for the kingdom of Hehayas. He vowed to destroy all the Kshatriya kings. After going one round and finishing his work of destruction, he retired to the Himalayas to do penance. He repeated these deeds twenty one times. He then retired to the Mahendra hills to meditate. Kasyapa and other Rishies visited him there and advised him the best means for expiation for the sin of killing his mother and the Kshatriya race was to give up the whole of the conquered lands to the Brahmans. After which Parasu Rama passed many ages doing penance in a grotto in the Mahendra hills.

During the interval, certain peculiar circumstances occurred which caused a sudden rise of the ocean, and the sacred shrine of Gokurnan, together several other remarkable shrines on the coast were submerged in the ocean. The Rishies interested in these sacred places sought Parasu Rama’s help. Rama came to Gokurnam and after making arrangements with Varuna, the God of the sea, flung his wooden spoon thus causing the sea to recede from Gokurnam to Cape Comorin.

Parusu Rama then invited the Brahmins, who having received grants of lands were located in sixty four gramams. He invited other castes also from foreign countries to occupy his new land. He restored the sovereignty of the original Chera, and after living on the coast for a long time, retired to his grotto on the Mahendra hills, where he is supposed to be still living.

The time occupied in establishing Keralam and as well as the period of Parusu Rama’s abode in land according to Kerala Ulppathy is fifty thousand years. According to details in Kerala Mahatmyam, Parusu Rama invited Brahmins from the north to settle in the country which he divided into 64 gramams and named Bhanu Vicrama as King over his land of Keralam (from Cape Comorin to Gokurnam). A gold coin, called Rasi, was then minted and made currency throughout his dominions. In ‘Valmiki Ramayanam’ we find that the emissaries of Rama were ordered to search for Seetha in Keralam also. We have now come to the end of the second age (Thretha Yugam).

In the third age, ‘Dwapara Yugam’ the king of Kerala is often mentioned in ‘Maha Bharatha’. The king of Kerala was one of the tributaries of Emperor Yudhishtira, and during the Great War, the Kerala king fought on the side of the Pandavas and died in the war. It is also said that the Pandavas, during their secret wanderings, visited Thiruvananthapuram and made several vows to the deity Padmanabha Swamy. During his pilgrimage Arjuna visited Madura, where he married the daughter of the Pandyan king, and by her had a son named Bebhruvahanen. On his way to Dwaraka, Arjuna visited Cape Comorin and Thiruvananthapuram and is generally believed to have consecrated a temple dedicated to Goddess Durga on the banks of a tank, which is still called Phalgunan Kulam (Arjuna’s tank).

In the fourth age (Kali Yugam) India was under the rule of Emperor Yudhistira, which is said to have ended in the 36^th year of the Kali Yugam. Up to the tenth century of the Kali Yugam, 48 kings reigned over Chera kingdom. In the 1860^th year of Kaliyugam there was born at Thiruvanjikolam, one of the most celebrated of the Chera Kings, Kulasekhara Perumal, who was installed as king when he passed his minority. His father was Kshatriya Dhrida Vritha Maha Rajah.

In our continuing researches, we find that the rule of Vicramadithya is said to have ended in 3179^th year of the Kali Yugam. In the Bhavishyat Purana, it was predicted that Vicramadithya will be born one thousand years after the commencement of the Kali Yugam. He will live and rule, by divine blessing for 2000 years; that Dheera Kerala Vurmah, king of Keralam will be a contemporary of Vicramadithya and that the king will rule Keralam with great vigour and success. Now from this prediction we may conclude that Vicramadithya was born in the 1179^th year of Kali Yugam and there were kings of Chera during the reign of that great monarch.

Of the Pandyan kings who ruled Madura hundreds of years subsequent to the reign of Vicramadithya, Salivahana and Bhoja, had jurisdiction over Chera and Chola kings and that ‘Veera Vurmah Pandyan’ inherited the Pandyan kingdom and reigned forty years. He conquered Malayalam (Chera) country and other places and derived tribute from them. Thus we have come down to above 4000 years in the Kali Yugam.

Though there were continual feuds between Chola and Chera, and occasional misunderstandings, and quarrels with the Pandya kingdom, Chera appears to have been of peaceable disposition and during any great struggle, retired to his Kerala possessions, which always afforded him an asylum from its peculiar position. It is seen that the Malayalam country afforded an asylum to the Pandyan king whenever his kingdom was invaded by his enemies.

EARLY HISTORY

The Chera dynasty continued in power, though constantly engaged in warfare with its neighbours Pandya and Chola, till central Chera was overrun by the Konga Rajahs. The original dynasty of Chera finally retreated to its southern possessions and joined the family residing in the south (Travancore). In the 13^th and 14^th centuries Konga kings Narasinha II (1237-1278) and Hari Hara Raya, (1367-1391) exacted tribute from Chera kings. The remnant of the Chera kingdom extended up to Mysore frontier on the north, the district of Salem on the east, the Travancore coast up to Calicut on the North West. This kingdom of Chera is generally recognised as Kerala or Travancore. It must have been at this period that the old Chera was finally incorporated with Travancore and its original name Chera forgotten. This area was again reduced by their conquest by the Madura rulers and from them by the Carnatic Nabob.

It would appear that after the retirement of Parasu Rama from Keralam, the Brahmins rose to power, shook off the yolk of the Kerala kings and commenced their own rule within the limits of their 64 gramams. In the first century BC, the people of the 64 gramams convened a congress and after holding a consultation, resolved to establish four divisions of their gramams called Kalakams which division they denominated; Parinchaloor, Payennoor, Parppoor and Chenganiyoor respectively. Thus, the Brahmanical possession within the gramams was ruled for a very long time. But owing to dissention amongst them, anarchy and misrule prevailed. The Brahmins again resolved to have a president called Rakshapumshen, appointed to each of these four kalakams for a term of three years. This form of rule continued for a considerably long period, and these presidents who were also called numpies (trustees), were paid at the rate of one sixth of the produce of the land. But considering that they had each only three year’s tenure of office they availed themselves of their position to amass wealth for themselves and thus brought on ruinous results. The Brahmin community finally resolved to introduce a system of elective government and to appoint ruler for a term of twelve years but disputes having arisen at the election, they at last determined to apply to the king Cheran (Keralan) and so proceeded to Ceyapuram (Coimbatore) and brought from there a viceroy called Ceya Perumal to Keralam. The name of this perumal was ‘Cheraman Keralan’. The date of his installation have been in the Kali year 3316 (216 AD). It further observes that in all 25 perumals ruled over Keralam. The last finished his rule in Kali year 3528 (428 AD). The Perumal period is 212 years.

In the days of Parusu Rama and during the sway of the Perumals as Emperors of Keralam, several local chieftains appear to have been nominated to assist him in the administration. The families of these governors of the temples assumed power in course of time and became petty chiefs under the supreme sovereign, the Chera king. The families of these Kshatriyas are called Kovil Adhikarkel or Kovil of whom the Cochin Rajah is one. This Rajah’s caste name is Koviladhikarikal or Kovil. The first Perumal was ‘Cheraman Keralan’ and the last Perumal was Bhaskara Revi Vurmah. The ancient copper plates in the possession of the Syrian Christians of Kottayam and the Jews of Cochin contain grants made by three of the Cheraman Perumals, viz, Sree Veera Ragava Perumal, Sthanu Revi Gupta Perumal and Sree Bhaskara Revi Vurmah Perumal. The Cochin Rajah was the creature of the last Perumal and is said to have been his heir. The Zamorin was also created by the last Perumal who granted him his own sword and two small pieces of ground called Kolikode and Chullicaud, and invested him with regal power giving him the title Kunnala Konathiri (Zamorin).

Manigramam is a distinction given to the Syrian Christians by the Perumals, as they were regarded as a class of respectable people. Parusu Rama divided Keralam into 64 Brahmin gramams, each having a particular name. But to the new community of Syrians the second Perumal must have granted a gramam, denominated Manigramam, with the title of a principality. The original settlements of the Syrian community appears to have been at Makothayepatnam near the port of Cranganore and Curakkeni Kollum at Quilon. Tradition states that the Syrians came to this country in two bodies, one party landed near the modern Quilon at a place now engulfed by the sea. The other party at Kodungalore or Maha Devapatnam. Cheraman Perumal assumed his vice regal power in the Kali year 3445 (345 AD). The copper plate document referred to above was executed in the 36^th year of his reign in the Kali Year 3481 (381 AD).

Though several rajahs and petty chiefs rose up subsequent to the Perumal period, still the Namboory community maintained its power with the sixty four gramams, but owing to the neglect of devotional observances and religious performances, the prosperity of the community began to decline. At such a period, the great and renowned Vedanthist, Sankara Acharyar was born, which is said to have been half a century before the beginning of the Malayalam year and in the 8^th century AD of the Christian era. Sankara Acharyar introduced various improvements amongst the Namboory community of Keralam in modification of the laws and ordinances of Parasu Rama, which are observed by the Brahmins as their religious bye laws. Sankara Acharayar finished his worldly career at the age of thirty two years at Baderikasramam near the Himalayas.

The Kovil Adhikarikal rose in power and became petty chiefs. These Devaswams became possessed of immense wealth and landed property to which numerous tenants were attached. These tenants became subject to the rules enacted by the trustees, independent of the king, within the limits of their landed property. In every Kovil (pagoda) before the hoisting of the annual festival flag, such tenants who had committed breach of the Devaswam rules were gibbetted. By such arbitrary conduct of the Devaswam people the sovereign power was over shadowed, and the king became indifferent to the mode in which the affairs were administered within the jurisdiction of the Devaswam and Brahmaswam lands. These powers of the Devaswam appear to have continued up to the early part of the eighth century. The rise of the Devswam to power greatly affected the military resources of the king, whose forces are chiefly constituted of the military trained out of the populace.

By the appointment of Parasu Rama, the king of Travancore and his relative the chief of Kolathnaud, had each 350,000 militia men each. The system of training soldiers by Parasu Rama and followed by the kings of Travancore and Kolathnaud was that every village should maintain its own militia. The name of every male child of the Nairs and others were to be registered as belonging to the militia six months after birth. Fencing and gymnastic schools called Kalery were to be established in every district under certain authorised masters called Gurukals and Asans to educate boys in the art of war. It consisted chiefly of sword exercises, arrow shooting, spear, lance and dagger exercises, wrestling and the use of shield, and the use of several other arts of offences and defence. These master were also required to train them in gymnastic exercises, sword and rope dancing for the entertainment of the public.

THE MALAYALAM ERA (MALABAR ERA)

For the command of the militia, trained men were expressly nominated, such as Munnilakaran (one who stands in the front of a company), Cherumanakaren (the one behind or close to the first, ranking perhaps with the present grades Subadar). Over several of these men there were noblemen, with titles of Karthavu (Lord),Kymal (nobleman) and such others like the old Barons and Knights of England. The head of the number of these noblemen was a petty chief of a State called Rajah who had to appear before the king with his levee of fighting men in time of war. The Gurukal had means of livelihood called Virithi, allowed them by the king, which consists of portions of lands. Similar privileges on a larger scale were granted to all the chiefs for maintaining the militia. The Rajahs and chiefs and their nobles were each head of 30,000, 15,000, 10,000, 5,000, and 3000 men of the militia.

The currency of Keralam was a gold coin called Rasi, first introduced by Parasu Rama. The coin Rasi has been extinct these last few centuries. Travancore minted its coins from the early Kali Yugam, called Kaliyuga Rajen fanam, which coin is not current during the 18^th century. The gold fanam closely resembled the Rasi currency. A silver coin called the Chuckram was also issued from the mint from the earliest period.

After the period of the Perumals, for the next two or three hundred years there are no precise accounts of the affairs of North Kerala. It was the period of the flourishing dynasties of Kadamba and Chalukya, and northern Kerala had been subject to the supremacy of these powers. During this interval there was an alliance between the Travancore and Kolathnaud Rajahs to repel the invaders of northern Kerala.

In the Kali year 3831 (731 AD) the Travancore king Veera Marthanda Vurmah performed Hirannya Garbham and Thulapurusha danam and ruled the kingdom for a long time. His nephew succeeded him. This Soveriegh died in the Kali year 3902 (802 AD). He was succeeded by his nephew Udaya Marthanda Vurmah who was educated and a highly accomplished monarch. His rule was prosperous and more remarkable than that of many of his predecessors.

In the Kali year 3926 (825 AD) when king Udaya Marthanda Vurmah was residing in Kollam, he convened a council of all the learned men of Kerala with the object of introducing a new era. It was resolved to adopt the new era from the first of Chingam of that year (15^th August 825 AD), as Kollam year one. This arrangement was approved by all the wise men of the time and every neighbouring country began to adopt the same.

King Udaya Marthanda Vurmah died in the Kollam year five (830 AD). The names of succeeding kings are not in the records. It was about this period that the combined army of Travancore and Kolathnaud drove out the Vellalas from Kerala. Subsequently the kings reverted to the enjoyment of their respective possessions. On northern Kerala being cleared of the outsiders, the local chieftains began to rise and much fighting among them resulted. The descendants of the Eradi whom Perumal called Kunnala Konathiri now rose up and with the assistance of the Arabs conquered almost all of the northern chiefs, acquired large territories between Ponnani and northern Keralam and established himself as a powerful monarch.

The Cochin Rajah being considered the legitimate heir to the Perumal rose in the estimation of the people, especially of the Syrian community, who were rich and very influential, some of them being merchants carrying on business between Kodungalore and Quilon, and greatly attached to the chief ever since the end of Perumal rule. In the course of a few years the Cochin Rajah also became a great power. The then reigning king of Travancore being of a quiet and peaceable disposition, the ascendancy of Cochin was easily established. Hence the king of Travancore lost his sovereignty over almost all his northern possessions. The boundaries lay between Edavaye near Vurkalay in the north, Eratta Malay (eastern side of Udayagherry) in the south, to a distance of 70 miles in length and 20 miles in breadth. Nanjenaud and all other southern possessions have been taken over by the Pandyan king. This little country was ruled without and disturbances, either externally or internally, for a long period.

THE MIDDLE AGES

In the Kollam year 225 (1050 AD) the ancient pagoda at Trivandrum was rebuilt by a Travancore sovereign, whose name is not known. About this period, the Pandyan kingdom was invaded by the Mahommedans and the reigning king Paracarma Pandyan was taken prisoner and sent to Delhi. On this occasion the tutelary God of Madura was taken to Travancore for better security. The Travancore king showed no ill will to the Pandyans for appropriating territories of Travancore earlier. During the Mahommedan rule of the Pandyan kingdom, which lasted half a century, a feudatory chief under Travancore obtained possession of Nanjenaud, the southern part of Travancore and established himself as the ruler there. Subsequent to the conquest of Mysore by the Mahommedans and the relief of Madura kingdom, Nanja Koraven and his confederacy were driven away by the king of Travancore in the kollam year 292 (1117 AD).

During the 5^th century Malayam Era, and in the reign of King Adithya Vurmah, the Travancore royal family was under the necessity of adopting two females from the Kolathnaud royal family. They were settled at Attingal. The country around Attingal was assigned to them. King Adithya Vurmah extended his northern boundary till Vaikom in 505 M.E. (1330 AD). He died in 510 ME. (1335 AD). The son of the senior Rani of Attingal Sree Veera Rama Marthanda Vurmah, who was 28 years old then, was crowned king. This king reconstructed the palace near the pagoda at Trivandrum and built a fort around it. His government was most prosperous and his reign ended with his death in 550 M.E. (1376 AD). He had ruled for a period of 40 years. He was succeeded by his third brother, Eravi Vurmah, who resided at Trivandrum like his deceased brother, and ruled the kingdom with great credit to himself and to the entire satisfaction of his subjects. The king was anxious to perform the coronation ceremonies and collected the necessary funds for the same. While the preparations were advancing for this ceremony, the sovereign died in 557 M.E. (1382 AD), after a reign of seven years. He was succeeded by his nephew, Kerala Vurmah, who soon after ascending the throne performed the coronation ceremonies, and became ‘Kulasekhara Perumal’, but his highness died three months after his coronation.

Kerala Vurmah Kulasekhara Perumal was succeeded by his twin brother Chera Udaya Marthanda Vurmah. The reign of this sovereign was longer than that of all the Travancore monarchs. He ascended the throne at the age of sixteen and died at the ripe old age of seventy eight, after a reign of 62 years. After his coronation ceremonies he was styled ‘Kulasekhara Perumal’. During his reign all the southern possessions of Travancore on the Tinnevelly side were regained. His rule was of a mixed character, partly prosperous, and partly with troubles and vicissitudes. In consequence of the mild and unwarlike disposition of this king some of the subordinate chiefs in the east became refractory and there was constant fighting and uprising. The chief of Rettiapuram invaded Valliyoor and the king’s nephew was defeated in battle. Fearing disgrace the nephew committed suicide. The sovereign died in 619 M.E. (1444 AD).

He was succeeded by Venaud Mootha Rajah, who reigned for 14 years and died in 633 M.E. (1458 AD). From this year up to 855 M.E. (1680 AD), a period of about 225 years no detailed accounts of the reigns of the sovereigns can be found, except a list of their names and their dates of accession to the throne and the period of their reign. Venaud Mootha Rajah was succeeded by Sree Veera Marthanda Vurmah, who after a reign of 13 years died in 646 M.E. (1471 AD) and was succeeded by Adithya Vurmah whose reign lasted only 7 years. The successor of this sovereign was Eravi Vurmah who was installed on the throne in 653 M.E. (1478 AD), and ruled the country for 25 years, and his successor was Sree Marthanda Vurmah, who died in the very year of his installation. In 679 M.E. (1504 AD), Sree Veera Eravi Vurmah assumed the sovereignty and governed the kingdom for 24 years and on his death in 703 M.E. (1528 AD), King Marthanda Vurmah succeeded him and ruled for 9 years. He was succeeded by Udaya Marthanda Vurmh in 712 M.E. (1537 AD), who governed the kingdom for a period of 23 years and died in 735 M.E. (1560 AD). This sovereign was succeeded by Kerala Vurmah, who ruled only for 3 years. On his death in 738 M.E. (1563 AD) he was succeeded by Adithya Vurmah who died in the 4^th year of his reign. Udaya Marthanda Vurmah was them installed on the throne in 742 M.E. (1567 AD) and ruled for a period of 27 years before he died.

In 769 M.E. (1594 AD) Sree Veera Eravi Vurmah assumed the sovereignty and after performing the coronation ceremonies took the family title ‘Kulashekara Perumal’. Several of his predecessors were unable to perform the coronation ceremony on account of difficulties in collecting the revenue, or in consequence of the obstructions thrown by the feudatory chiefs and nobles, as well as the Ettu Veetil Pillamars. Sree Veera Eravi Vurmah ruled the kingdom for 10 years and died in 779 M.E. (1604 AD) and was succeeded by Sree Veera Vurmah, whose rule ended after two years. Ravi Vurmah ascended the throne in 781 M.E. (1606 AD) and ruled for 13 years. Unny Kerala Vurmah succeeded him and began his reign in 794 M.E. (1619 AD), and ruled the country for 6 years. His successor Ravi Vurmah commenced his reign in 800 M.E. (1625 AD), reigned 6 years and died. He was succeeded by Unni Kerala Vurmah in 806 M.E (1631 AD) and he ruled the country for 30 years.

King Adithya Vurmah succeeded him in 836 M.E (1661 AD) and died in the 16^th year of his reign under shocking circumstances. In 225 M.E (1050 AD) the ecclesiastical society was reorganised and was called Ettara Yogam – A society was formed consisting of eight and a ‘half member’, of whom eight were Potty Brahmins, each of whom had the privilege of a casting vote, and the sovereign who was considered a half member and had no vote in the transactions of the Devaswam affairs. By such an arrangement the affairs of the Devaswam became virtually vested in the hands of the 8 potty Brahmins, and they began to work the institution through their attaches, the Ettu Veetil Pillamar, who were the representatives of eight noble families. The sovereign had little or no influence over the Devaswam. He was simply required to be present at the usual periodical ceremonies. The power of the Yogakar became so great that they even imposed heavy fines upon the sovereign for wrongs done to the Devaswam institution. Devaswam possessed extensive landed property. Its sole managers were the Yogakar, who had the powers of despotic rulers over the Devaswam property and over every tenant and holders of the devaswam lands. The Ettu Veetil Pillamar were entrusted with the collection of the Devaswam revenue, and the villages where the Devaswam lands lay were divided into eight Adikarems. Each of the Ettu Veetil Pillamar was appointed a collector over the Adikarem, with powers of a petty chief. The king had no authority over these men. They rose in power and importance, and gradually became supreme lords in their villages, and in time became Madempimar (nobles and petty chiefs) who were not loyally attached to the crown.

The principal royal residence was at Sreevalumcode about 30 miles from the Devaswam headquarters at Trivendrum, which was solely under the despotic rule of the Yogakar and the Ettu Veetil Pillamar for a period of 235 years. So the reconstruction of the royal residence at Trivandrum in 510 M.E. (1335 AD) was not quite to the liking of the Yogakar. They were antagonised when the king took interest in their affairs and insisted upon having accounts submitted for periodical inspection. Though the king’s command was resisted by the Yogakar, Sree Veera Marthanda Vurmah quietly but effectively control during his reign of 40 years. The sovereign’s next two successors maintained the same policy in regard to Devaswam affairs. But subsequently the Yogakar and the Ettu Veetil Pillamar seemed to have regained their ascendancy and they gradually began to oppose the royal power. During the reign of the next seventeen sovereigns, extending a period of 187 years the hostilities from the Yogakar and the Ettu Veetil Pillamar and their confederates the Madempimar continued, but through the vigilant and pragmatic rule of those sovereigns no open outbreaks occurred.

During the rule of Adithya Vurmah (1661 – 1677), on a certain night the palace caught fire and was burnt down. Not a single person from the villages or the Devaswam people who resided around the palace came forward to help put out the fire. It was suspected the the Yogakar and Ettu Veetil Pillamar were behind this nefarious act. The mild and spiritual king retired to the Puthencotta palace. The leaders of the confederates came in a body to the Puthencotta castle and requested an audience with the king, which was granted. They pretended to know nothing about the fire and attributed it to a mere accident and expressed their regret and professed to sympathise with the king. The Yogakar had come with nefarious intentions. They began to forward every day Nivedyams (sweetmeat) offered to the image of Padmanabha Swamy, for Pooja. One day the Nivedyam was poisoned. The king took ill and died suddenly.

The whole royal family at the time of the king’s death consisted of the king’s niece Umayamma Rani, and her six under age sons. On the death of the king, the confederates offered their condolences to the Rani and gave assurances of allegiance to her highness. They occupied the palace pretending to guard it against the intrusion of the disaffected and rebellious subjects.

A few boys of the confederates befriended the five princes and played with them daily. One day these boys took the princes secretly, without the knowledge of the Rani, to a reservoir a few furlongs distant from the palace to play on the white sandy plane there and to bathe in the crystal clear water. While they were bathing some confederate came and seized the princes and drowned them in the reservoir. The Queen on receiving this sad news was plunged in sorrow, but she saw things in their true light and cursed the perpetrators. Unayamma Rani became Queen Regent in 852 M.E. (1677 AD). Her Highness finding the palace unsafe for her and her only son abandoned it and proceeded to a small palace in Neduvangaud.

At this time dissentions broke out amongst the confederates, and each feudatory chief became sole master of his own possessions. Misrule and anarchy prevailed throughout the country. Taking advantage of the situation in Travancore, a petty sirdar, under the Mogul Emperor wandering in the southern part of the peninsula with a brigade of horsemen plundering the unprotected territories invaded the southern part of Travancore. None of the nobles or chiefs were able to oppose this Mogul or arrest his progress. He advanced to Trivandrum and made his headquarters there. The Devaswam Yogakar shut the pagoda and fled the city for their lives. The Ettu Veetil Pillamar and the Madempimar too adopted the same course leaving the country at the mercy of the Mogul. A few Mahomedan servants attached to the Travancore royal house prevailed upon the mogul not to demolish or contaminate the pagoda or to convert any of the Hindus to Muslims.

Her Highness Umayamma Rani finding it difficult to recover her kingdom from the Mogul sirdar invited one Kerala Vurmah a member of the Kottayam Rajah’s family. This Rajah was well versed in the art of warfare and was appointed Her Highness’s principal counsellor. He lost no time in raising an army. Rajah Kerala Vurmah led the army against the over confident Mogul sirdar and attacked him unexpectedly at Manacaud near Trivandrum. The Mughal did not have a sufficient force near him as his forces having been scattered taxes. The sirdar retreated and made a stand at Thiruvatar where he was reinforced by a contingent of horsemen and a fierce battle ensued. But the terrain was advantages to the foot soldiers of Rajah Kerala Vurmah. The Mogul cavalry was routed and the sirdar killed. Kerala Vurmah Rajah marched into Trivandrum. The Rani and her son soon followed. The palace a t Trivandrum was rebuilt. Kerala Vurmah reorganised the army, with the three hundred horses captured from the Mogul he created a battalion of cavalry, one regiment of swordsmen and one regiment of archers. He secured Trivandrum. After this he found no difficulty in bringing to obedience all the refractory chiefs and nobles. The Yogakar and the Ettu Veetil Pillamar were cowed, and became obedient to her Highness the Rani. The disaffected Madampimar and Ettu Veetil Pillamar perceiving that the strength of Her Highness the Rani’s Government rested with the Kerala Vurmah, conspired against him. On a certain night he was assassinated in his own house. The murderers remain unknown to date.

In 859 M.E (1684 AD) Umayamma Rani’s son, Prince Revi Vurmah attain his 16^th year, and in accordance with the custom of the country, the sovereignty was transferred to him. On request of the Rani, the Kolatunaud king send two girls and two boys from the royal family for adoption in the Travancore family. A year after the adoption the Dowager Rani died and was soon followed to the grave by the elder of the two adopted girls. This younger of the girls became Attingal Mootha Thampuran. This Raani gave birth to a prince named Marthanda Vurmah in the year 881 M.E. (1706 AD). In 893 M.E. (1718 AD), King Revi Vurmah died and the eldest of the adopted princes, Unny Kerala Vurmah was proclaimed king of Travancore. This king was a quiet and weak ruler, and consequently the mischief makers began to acquire strength. In the course of two years they became powerful once more.

ANIZHAN THIRUNAL MARTHANDA VURMAH KULASEKHARA PERUMAL ( 1729–1758 )

The 14 year old Marthanda Varma could not tolerate such a state of affairs, and therefore requested his uncle, the reigning sovereign to let him take an active interest in the affairs of the Government. Armed with such powers the Prince lost no time in checking the rebellious spirit of the confederacy. He became the enemy of the Yogkar, the Ettu Veetil Pillamar and the Madempimar. The confederacy plotted against the prince and under these disagreeable circumstances the Prince was forced to shift from place to place, to avoid falling into the hands of the assassins. At different times and places the Prince was waylaid and nearly fell into the hands of the conspirators; but in every instance he providentially escaped. Once the Prince was trapped inside the pagoda. It was dusk and the priest changed clothes with the priest. Then the Prince carrying a brass vessel full of rice on his head, chanting manthras like a priest walked out. He whispered to the mob, like the priest told him to, that the Prince was lying concealed inside the temple. The priest donning the Prince’s clothes walked inside the temple peeping here and there as if he were in great anxiety. The mob entered the pagoda and fell upon the counterfeit prince and killed him. During his wanderings the Prince had to sleep on top of trees, under the roof of poor peasants, as well as in the midst of jungles.

After six years of reign, Unny Kerala Vurmah died and was succeeded by his younger brother Rama Vurmah in 899 M.E. (1724 AD). His Highness in consultation with his nephew proceeded to Trichinopoly in 901 M.E (1726 AD) and entered into a treaty with the Madura Government by offering to renew the lapsed attachment to that crown and pay a certain sum of money annually. The sovereign was successful in obtaining from the Madura Government a force consisting of one thousand cavalry, and two thousand Carnatic sepoys. On the arrival of the force in Travancore all the Madempimar and refractory chiefs and insurgents fled, and consequently there was no work for the army, which was however retained for the purpose of overawing the insurgents.

The Yogakar and the Ettu Veetil Pillamar could not be brought under control, for they full well knew that the king could not take harsh measures against the Devaswam community. They continued their arrogant ways to the annoyance of the royal family. Consequently Prince Marthanda Vurmah was obliged to reside at Mavelikara and Attingal, with the senior Rani and her son, the little Prince Rama Vurmah. In 903 M.E. (1728 AD) when this prince was being taken to Attingal from Trivandrum, a party of men under Ettu Veetil Pillamar attacked the travellers at a place called Calakoottem. The vigilant measures adopted by the Kilimanoor Koil Thumpuran who was escorting the party saved the rani and her son. The Koil Thumpuran after sending the Rani and her son under a disguise to a neighbouring village got into the Rani’s palanquin and moved forward, with all the attendants. Thus drawing the attention away from the Rani. When the attack happened the koil Thumpuran jumped out sword in hand and killed many of the assailants, but was killed in the fierce fighting.

In the same year 903 M.E. (1728 AD) king Rama Vurmah died after a short illness. Various improvements were introduced by King Revi Vurmah during his reign. The power of the local chiefs were curtailed and special agents were appointed to various parts of the country, which was divided into districts, with the power to collect the revenue, which was roughly estimated before their appointment. After defraying the expenditure on religious and other institutions the agent was to pay the surplus into the king’s treasury. All such agents were recognised as king’s officers and thus the authority and influence of the Madempimar and petty chiefs were destroyed. After the death of this sovereign his successor Unny Kerala Vurmah was unable to enforce the above system generally, and in many parts of the country, especially in the southern districts of Nanjenaud anarchy once more prevailed. It was this state of affair that Rama Vurmah strove to remedy. Unfortunately he died before he could fully implement this system.

Marthanda Vurmah succeeded his uncle King Rama Vurmah to the throne in 904 M.E. (1729 AD). His Highness was only 23 years old when he became king. The Kings attention was first directed to laying of the foundation of a good Government. The Maha Rajah raised an army of Maravers. He then send back the Trichinopoly forces back to the Pandyan Government. The feudatory chiefs and nobles after the withdrawal of the Pandyan forces began to rebel again. They combined and formed a confederacy as before and were joined by the two sons of the late sovereign, known as Kunju Thambies. One of them was Papu Thamby and the other Raman Thamby.

In addition to the new regiment of Maravars and Nairs, regiments of infantry with firearms were formed and maintained, fortifications were constructed at all the important frontiers and were garrisoned by detachments. Thus in a couple of years the country enjoyed peace and tranquillity. The Maha rajah was able to recover longstanding arrears from his chiefs and nobles, who were overawed by the sight of the new army. The restless and turbulent Kunju Thambies and the chiefs and nobles renewed their schemes and plots against the king’s life. Their leader was Papu Thamby and through him all the chiefs and nobles between Padmanabhapuram and Attingal were invited to join in the confederacy. The king received private intelligence about their foul designs. He employed spies to move about in disguise and to procure information.

One night two of the Ettu Veetil Pillamar convened a meeting of the confederacy and planned the assassination of the king. The assembly agreed that on the day of the Aarattu procession, the king would have to walk some distance preceding the idols, and that every one of the Ettu Veetil Pillamar and four Brahmin chiefs connected with the Yogakar should attend the Aarattu procession with their men (militia), armed with swords, lances and daggers should attend the procession. Near the sea beach, when the idols are housed as customary for pooja and when the king retires to the shed a party of men should suddenly attack and assassinate the king. This resolution was committed to writing on Ola (Palmyra leaf) and several copies were made for the information of the absent chiefs. In order to ensure secrecy these were put inside the soles of the footwear of the messengers and were dispatched to various places.

An old Pandaram, who was living in that building, which was a public inn, overheard the consultations. The chiefs who gathered for the treacherous plotting paid no heed to the old man as he was in the employ of Venganoor Pillay, one of the main plotters. But this man was one of the king’s spies. Thus the king came to know of the plot before daybreak and fortunately the king could secretly apprehend two of the messengers. The captured messengers were kept in private confinement in the palace and the two Olas (messages) were secured in the king’s own desk and everything was hushed up for the time being. The king as not alarmed by the conspiracy, which he was determined to trace to its origin and then extirpate the race of the conspirators. A strong force of cavalry and infantry accompanied the king on Aaratt day. An unusual force escorted the idols both in the front and rear. The king fearlessly walked in front of the idols. On seeing such preparations and precautions being taken during the procession, the chiefs and nobles were cowed and none of them had the boldness to strike the premeditated blow.

Soon after the Aaratt festival the king made all the necessary arrangement for protecting the capital and defending himself against the chiefs and nobles. In 908 M.E (1733 AD) the king proceeded from Trivandrum to Nagercoil. While there he decided to extirpate his old enemies and punish their leaders, the Kunju Thambies. Secret instructions were given to seize all the nobles and chiefs simultaneously on a prearranged signal being given and to post horses between Nagercoil and Trivandrum for conveying the signal. The king then invited the Kunju Thambies. One morning as the king was sitting upstairs in the palace the Thambies came to see him. The king’s attendants were ordered to stop the Thamby at the door leading to the stair and to cut him down if he resisted. Papu Thamby came in and walked to the door leading to the stairs where he was stopped. Being the son of the late Rajah, he had the privilege of going to the royal presence without special permission. So when the guards wouldn’t let him through without special permission, he became irritated. Affronted, a quarrel ensued, which resulted in a bloody conflict. Papu Thamby drew his sword and was cut down. His brother, Raman Thamby witnessing the tragedy, without waiting to remonstrate, rushed upstairs with drawn sword and aimed a deadly blow at the king who was seated on a swinging cot. Providentially the point of the sword struck a low beam and the aim was deflected. Before he could strike a second time the king dexterously sprang upon the Thamby and seized the sword had and threw him down. The king was a tall and strong man, and a trained warrior. The king pinned the Thamby down and drew his knife from his girdle and thrust it deep into the chest of Raman Thamby. During the scuffle the king’s dress was smeared with blood. Rising up he opened the window and showed himself to his officers and men and gave the pre-arranged signal. Some of the Thambies followers who flocked to the spot to help their masters were cut down and a few of them escaped.

Before daybreak every one of the Madempimar and Ettu Veetil Pillamar, together with the three Pandarams and the Potty (the four Yogakar) were apprehended. The next day they were arraigned before the king at Kulculam. The king presided over the trial, the two ‘Olas’ were produced and both the apprehended messengers were called as witness. Each of the nobles and chiefs so arraigned was called to answer the charge of treason on which he was indicted. 42 of the nobles and chiefs and their confederates were tried, pleaded guilty and were sentenced to death. They were all hanged at a place called Mukhamandapam. The four Brahmins and a few others of the same cast were tried and found guilty, but the punishment of death in the case of Brahmins were not allowed by the laws of Manu, by which the Hindus are governed. The king sentenced them to be banished from the country, after making them outcastes by branding their foreheads with the figure of a dog. Orders were given to seize the women and children of the families of the traitors and give them over to the fishermen who lived on the sea beach, so that they might become out-castes and the race of Madempimars and Ettu Veetil Pillamar might not be revived in this age.

In 906 M.E. (1731 AD) the king of Quilon (Dasinganaud) formed an alliance with the king of Kayemkulam by adopting some members of the ruling family of the latter. This adoption was in direct opposition of the King of Travancore. Marthanda Vurmah led a powerful army towards Quilon under his command. After several battles at the Quilon frontier, Marthanda Vurmah being victorious advance to the capital of Dasinganaud. The king of Quilon sued for peace. Marthanda Vurmah acceded to the proposal, but compelled the Quilon king to cancel the adoption and .break off the alliance with Kayemkulam. Moreover, he decided that Dasinganaud should be annexed to Travancore, on the death of the only remaining king of the family. All these conditions were agreed to by the Quilon king. Marthanda Vurmah returned to Trivandrum with the king of Quilon, who was accommodated in one of the palaces called Valia Koikel. There he lived a more luxurious life than Marthanda Vurmah himself.

The Kayemkulam King made a pact with the Cochin rajah. A consultation was held by all the northern kingdoms presided over by the Cochin Rajah. They resolved upon assisting the king of Quilon. Spies spirited the king of Quilon to Kayemkulam. From there he was send with a strong force to Quilon. Marthanda Vurmah proceeded to reconquer Quilon, but the fortifications raised and the defensive measures adopted there with the assistance of the Cochin Rajah, supplemented by the European fire arms procured from the Dutch Governor of Cochin, made success for the Travancore army doubtful. After many fierce battles and loss of life suffered on both sides Marthanda Vurmah wisely retreated.

The Travancore army was strengthened with additions of Cavalry and infantry, new fire-arms were procured through English merchants. In 909 M.E. (1734 AD) was despatched against Quilon and Kayemkulam under the command of Thanu Pillay and Sthanapathy Cumaraswamy Pillay, aided by the able secretary Ram Iyen. The Kayemkulam king applied for the Dutch help, but it was refused on the plea that the war was brought on by the aggression of the Kayemkulam king. He was however supported by the king of Cochin. After several battles no advantage was gained by either side. The king of Kayemkulam finding that he could not hold out much longer decided to make a final push. He gambled, committing everything. He was a bold and powerful personage, took chief command of the army and the battle was severe and fierce. It lasted many hours and during the heat of the battle one of the bullets fired by the mounted sepoys of the Travancore army felled the king of Kayemkulam. The death of the king was not immediately noticed and so the battle continued for some time longer. When the loss of the sovereign became known all the commanders became disheartened gradually withdrew from the field. The spirit of the Kayemkulam army was revived by the younger brother of the fallen king. He took over the reins and being more courageous and obstinate than the late king, rallied the troop and the war continued with redoubled vigour.

Marthanda Vurmah came to Quilon and infused fresh courage into the Travancore army. A special body of recruits was raised for the war with Kayemkulam. Secretary Rama Iyen proceeded to Tinnevelly and brought back a regiment of Maravers under the command of Ponnam Pandya Devan, procured a thousand mounted sepoys from Palayapattucar (Poligars) and marched the reinforcements by the hill roads through Kottarakaray. In the battle next day the Kayemkulam forces met with defeat for the first time. The war continued and slowly Rama Iyen’s army gained ground and advanced into Kayemkulam territories day by day. The Kayemkulam Rajah finding it impossible to hold out much longer appealed for help from the Dutch Governor and the Kochi Rajah. Since no help came from both the parties the Kayemkulam rajah sued for peace. Marthanda Vurmah suspended hostilities and the war came to a close. Marthanda Vurmah annexed Elayada Swaroopam (embracing, Shencottah, Clangaud, Kerkudi and Valliroor) on the Tinnevelly side, and Kottarakara and Pathanapuram on the northern side.

Sometime later in 909 M.E. (1734 AD) the king of Quilon died and the country was taken possession by the Kayemkulam rajah. The king of Kayemkulam was well supported by his friend the king of Cochin and the Dutch Governor in Cochin this time. All negotiations failed over time. The result was the declaration of a second war. In 914 M.E (1739 AD) Travancore forces marched against Kayemkulam. In 916 M.E (1741 AD) the Dutch installed the Rani of Eladaya Swaroopam as sovereign of that state. Marthanda Vurmah declared war on the Dutch. Marthanda Vurmah’s forces were victorious over the small Dutch detachment, with the large allied forces which supported the Rani. Many Dutch soldiers were killed and the allied forces fled. The Rani herself escaped and was given shelter in Cochin by the Dutch. After this signal defeat the Dutch retired to Cochin. The Travancore forces besieged Kayemkulam. Meanwhile the Dutch reinforcements from Ceylon landed at Colachel, and commenced to attack the villages and the small Travancore garrisons there. Marthanda Vurmah who was at Trivandrum hastened with all the forces at hand to the south. Rama Iyen Dalawah came from the north with a large reinforcement. When the fighting commenced it lasted a full two months. The Dutch after suffering much loss retreated to fort leaving behind several of their comrades dead, wounded and prisoners. Of the last there were 24 men consisting of both officers and privates. The siege of the Colachel fort began soon after. In the course of a few hours the fort was taken and the enemy driven to their ships, which sailed for Cochin.

Of the Dutch prisoners two men attracted the Dalawah’s notice and were taken before the king. The king was struck with the appearance of one of them. The Dutch prisoners were overcome with the kind treatment they received from the king and decided to serve the king and were enlisted in the king’s army. Most of them distinguished themselves in the king’s service as Captains and Majors, and some of their descendants are still to be found in Travancore. Eustatious D’ Lanoy, a Flemish man whom the king had taken special notice of was made a Captain and was assigned to train a few companies of the king’s sepoys. D’Lanoy trained the sepoys so satisfactorily in a few months, that the king was delighted with his ability and military knowledge, appointed him Captain of the King’s body guards.

Many battles were fought with the Kayemkulam kingdom, without either side obtaining any decisive victory. This was continued for an unusually long time, the Dutch rendering every support to the Kayemkulam king and also attacking certain parts of the Travencore country. The only actual defeat that the Travancore army met was when 6000 Travancore troops attacked the Dutch fort at Quilon. It was defended by a number of Nairs under the leadership of Autchutha Warrier, a Kariakar of the Kayemkulam king. He commanded the fort garrison and fought with desperate courage. The Travancore troops were forced to retreat. But the war still continued. In early 917 M.E. (1743 AD) the combined forces of the Kayemkulam Rajah and the Dutch forces marched to Kilimanoor and captured the fort there. Marthanda Vurmah raise an army of 5000 Nairs, and a corps of Sappers and Miners. He procured arms and ammunition from the English at Anjengo and the French at Mahe. He collected all the best guns from his forts. He divided his army into three divisions. The king assumed the chief command, the prince (heir apparent), Rama Iyen and Captain D’Lanoy were appointed to command each division. The siege of Kilimnoor fort commenced. The enemy held out for 68 days. After this defeat the remnants of the Dutch and Kayemkulam forces retreated to Quilon. The Travancore army advanced towards Kayemkulam. The hurdles were great and the fighting severe, but ultimately Marthanda Vurmah was victorious. The king of Kayemkulam sued for peace. He concluded a treaty in late 917 M.E (1743 AD) with Marthanda Vurmah, ceding the greater portion of his country to Travancore and binding himself to be a tributary and ally, paying an annual tribute of one elephant and 1000 rupees.

The Kayemkulam Rajah had not paid the tribute since the ratification of the treaty, evidently considering it degrading and beneath his dignity to do so. Marthanda Vurmah had reasons to believe that there existed a confederacy among the kings of Kayemkulam, Ambalapuzha and Changanacherry, and that was the cause of the non-payment of the tribute. Marthanda Vurmah send a force under Rama Iyen Dalawah in 921 M.E (1746 AD) to enforce the conditions of the treaty. The Kayemkulam king asked for 10 days’ time to decide whether to pay the tribute or give up the country, which was allowed by the Dalawah who had camped at Mavelikara. The king of Kayemkulam secretly removed all his family, his treasures, jewels and all that could be conveyed to the north in covered boats, accompanied by trustworthy attendants, with orders to proceed beyond Trichoor. Every night he emptied his palace of everything valuable in huge baggage boats called Kattu Munchee. After a week on the 8^th day, the Rajah stole away from the palace to the north. On the 10^th day Rama Iyen Dalawah found the palace empty and desolate.

The Quilon king after the fall of Kayemkulam dissociated himself from the fallen king and with the secret aid of the Dutch defied Marthanda Vurmah’s authority. The Travancore army was sent against the Quilon Rajah, and after several battles the King of Quilon was defeated and his country was annexed to Travancore.

King Marthanda Vurmah now directed Rama Iyen Dalawah to proceed against the king of Ambalapuzha. Though Ambalapuzha was a small kingdom, it had a well-trained army. The Ambalauzha king ordered his force under the command of Mathoo Panicker and several others, to garrison his southern frontier town of Thottappally, where the armies met and severe fighting commenced. The Ambalapuzha king was an ingenious chieftain and had invented different kinds of arrows, the points of which were all poisoned, so that even small wounds inflicted by these arrows resulted in death. The Travancore suffered severe losses and were forced to retreat. Superstition spread among the Nair troops that Deva Narayanen (Krishna Swamy) the household deity of the Rajah was personally conducting the war. Panic seized the Nair troops and none of the Hindu portion of the troops could be persuaded to fight the Ambalapuzha king’s forces. Rama Iyen Dalawah had to bring in Captain D’Lanoy with his Artillery and the Muslim and Christian corps. When the fighting renewed, Captain D’Lanoy worked his artillery with deadly effect. In the course of a few hours great loss was sustained by the Ambalapuzha forces. The Hindu forces were encouraged by the gains the Travancore Army made and joined the fight. Soon a good part of the Ambalapuzha forces were slain. Mathoo Panicker the commander in chief of the Ambalapuzha Army and Thekkaydathu Bhattathiry, the family priest of the Ambalauzha king, seeing their inability to resist the Travancore power, advised their king to yield and negotiate for peace, but the king would not listen. He placed too much confidence on his inventions and his archers and ordered the battle to be continued. Whereupon the battle was renewed and the Travancore army proved victorious and began advancing towards the capital. The king was adamant and willing to fight to the end, but Panicker and Bhattathiry seeing the senseless loss of life asked for a truce, suspending action on their part at the same time. When the Ambalapuzha King was informed of their conduct, he calmly turned to his favourite game of chess. Rama Iyen Dalawah advanced to the capital took the chess playing king prisoner and sent him to Trivandrum under a strong escort. The Ambalapuzha forces were disarmed and the territories were annexed by the Travancore kingdom. The prudent behaviour of Thekkaydathu Bhattathiry and Mathoo panicker were brought to the attention of King Marthanda Varmah, who conferred all the privileges exercised by the King of Ambalapuzha over the great temple of Ambalapuzha on the Bhattathiry and gave large grants of lands, in addition to the title of nobility upon Mathoo Panicker.

Marthanda Vurmah did not stop here. Finding that the King of Kottayam and Vadakkankoor King had rendered assistance to the Kayemkulam Rajah, he directed his army under the command of the prince (his nephew), to attack these two countries. The war against the two kings were carried on and several battles fought, in the course of which Kottayam fort was captured and the king taken prisoner. As a consequence of the fall of Kottayam, the Vadakkankoor king fled to Calicut leaving his country to the mercy of the prince. Kottayam and Vadakkankoor were annexed to Travancore.

The last king of Kottayam (Thekkumkur) was Aditya Varma Manikandan and he resided in the Neerazhi Palace at Changanassery. It was a time when there arose a difference of opinion between Adityavarma and his younger brother Goda Varman. The king was willing for the alliance with Kochi, however, the crown prince was sympathetic to Travancore and Marthanda Varma. Goda Varman (crown prince of Thekkumkur) and Marthanda Varma of Travancore were classmates at Madurai when they were studying of Rajyadharma. After hearing of the military advance of the Travancore under the leadership of Ramayyan Dalawa and Captian De Lannoy; the crown prince of Thekkumkur (Goda Varman) then advised king Aditya Varma Manikandan to make a friendship with Travancore kingdom citing the downfall of princely state of Ambalapuzha (Chempakassery) and the fall of princely state Kayamkulam. Meanwhile, when Marthanda Varma seized Kayamkulam and Chempakassery, Aditya Varma realized that they were the next victims and sent his brother to Thiruvananthapuram for an unconditional peace mission and met Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma of Travancore and requested help.

Unfortunately, Marthanda Varma asked Goda Varman, for a deal whereby Goda Varman will be in power in Kottayam as a vassal state of Travancore, if he helped to oust King Adithya Varman. Marthanda Varma had already heard of the rift between the brothers. The younger king was well-received in the southern part of Thekkumkur kingdom. The self-righteous crown prince would not betray his elder brother and decided to stay and persuade Marthanda Varma for a favourable treaty. The evil intelligence of Marthanda Varma and Ramayyan Dalawa planned together. He sent a messenger to the younger king and told him the fake news, saying, "Depart to Kottayam immediately; the mother's health is bad". The crown prince Goda Varman decided to leave, boarded the boat and headed north; Marthanda Varma gave him some gifts for Thekkumkur king Aditya Varma Manikandan. On the way, he descended on Anchuthengu Fort and received eleven ritual fire by the British authorities. From there he reached via Paravur Lake, Ashtamudi Lake, Kayamkulam Lake and Vembanadu Lake. The next day the boat of the crown prince reached Illyakkadavu at Thazhathangadi. Ramayyan's servants who followed by another boat and they slaughtered the crown prince Goda Varman and his servants. The next day was the declaration of war by Travancore. Crown prince's "classmate” king Marthanda Varma challenges the Kottayam King Aditya Varman Manikandan for cheating and the killing of his younger brother. Ramayyan Dalawa spread the news that the Thekkumkur king Adithya Varman killed crown prince Goda Varman. He also said that king Adithya Varman send a false message saying that the mother of the prince was extremely ill and requested the attendance of the prince at her death bed. The prince it seems told king Marthanda Varma that the message was a lure to trap him, but Marthanda Varma disbelieved the prince and send him back saying that he ought to respect his mother’s wishes. And that the fears of the young prince proved to be true as King Aditya Varman had his brother strangled as he neared Changanachery and spread a report saying that the crown prince had died of a snake bite. In 925 M.E (1750 AD).

Rama Iyen Dalawah took possession of Changanacherry. Many of the nobles and chiefs called Karthavu, Kaimal, Elayadam and Panicker under the Kottayam (Thekkumkur) kingdom as well as those of Ambalapuzha and Vadakkunkur kingdoms are said to have presented themselves before King Marthanda Vurmah when he came to Changanacherry and acknowledged his sovereignty over them, and paid homage with large nuzzers. Rama Iyen Dalawah then marched north, and after fortifying the positions between Thekkumkur and Vadakkumkur from Kumarakam to the east up to the hills of Koondoor, marched to the north to settle the northern boundary which was extended to the southern bank of Periar, which runs to the west by Alwaye. The newly acquired territories included those lying on the south-east and north of the Cochin Rajah's capital, Thripoonithara, with the exception of the small kingdoms of Alangaud and Paravoor.

The Dutch on seeing the final fall and annexation of Kayemkulam, and knowing that they could not get pepper from Travancore, their rivals the English having monopolised the pepper trade in Marthanda Vurmah’s territory, were anxious to ratify the treaty with Travancore. In 923 M.E (1748 AD) the draft treaty was sanctioned, and the Cochin Governor was instructed to get it ratified without delay, but the Cochin council having made some slight modifications to which Marthanda Vurmah made fresh objections. The treaty was not ratified before a further reference to the Dutch Government. In 928 M.E (1753 AD) it was finally ratified.

About this time the deposed king of Ambalapuzha escaped from Kodamaloor, where he was interred. He proceeded north and was joined by the Vadakkumkur and Thekkumkur kings and in consort with them resolved to recover their kingdoms. They appealed for support from the then most influential nobleman Paliathu Menon (Paliathu Autchen) and other nobles Kodasherry Karthavu, Koratee Kaimal and others who were all feudatory chiefs of the king of Cochin. Together they persuaded the king of Cochin to break the treaty with Travancore. As preparations for the war began, many disaffected Nairs from Kayemkulam, Ambalapuzha, Changanacherry and Ettumanoor joined them. The Dutch Governor at Cochin, though a friend of the Cochin Rajah, leaked information of the war preparations to the King of Travancore. When he Cochinites landed at Poracaud, the Travancore army was ready and waiting. They allowed the Cochin army to land and proceed forward. Squadrons of Travancore army by their right and prevented the retreat of the Cochin army. The Cochin army was decimated. The Cochin commanders Paliathu Menon and Kodakasherry Karthavu and several nobles of minor importance were captured. The many Nairs from Kayemkulam and other provinces in Travancore were searched out from the captured men and decapitated as an exemplary punishment. Rama Iyen then proceeded north and crossed Madathumkaray the southern boundary of the Cochin kingdom, about five miles north of Alleppey. He marched as far as Arookutty where he pitched his camp. Cochin Rajah sued for peace. The Dutch Governor also requested Marthanda Varmah to respect their limits. Marthanda Vurmah immediately ordered to return to Mavelikaray. Though Rama Iyen returned, he took care to retain possession of the country between Alleppey and Arookutty, which extends to about 24 miles into the Cochin kingdom.

In 927 M.E (1752 AD), Marthanda Vurmah purchased the country lying between Cape Comorin and Kalacaud, which had earlier belonged to the Travancore kingdom but was captured by the Pandyan king. He purchased if from Moodemiah, the Viceroy of the Carnatic Nabob. In 930 M.E (1755 AD) the kingdom of Travancore extended from Periar in the north to Kalacaud in the south.

Towards the middle of 930 ME (1755 AD) the Zamorin of Calicut sent a formidable army to invade the Cochin Rajah’s territories. All the countries north of Cochin were taken possession of and military stations at Trichur, Cranganore and Paravoor established. On the remonstration of the Dutch further progress of the army, which was on its way to Thripoonithara to attack was arrested. The Dutch informed the Travancore king the plan of Zamorin to invade Travancore, and every preparation was made by Marthanda Vurmah to meet the invasion. The Zamorin’s forces came in a large fleet of native craft, and as it was being landed, Captain D’Lanoy’s force, accompanied by Raman Iyen’s met the enemy and after a fierce encounter, compelled the Zamorin’s forces to retreat with great loss of life and ammunition. Many of the boats were captured and destroyed and a part of the force was drowned. This defeat checked the Zamorin, but chagrined and humiliated as he was, he again began to prepare for another invasion. He gathered a huge force of Arabs and Nairs and was about to begin a second invasion, when Hyder Ali from Mysore made a descent on Malabar. He had to hasten back to protect his own dominions.

In 932 M.E (1757 AD) a new treaty with the Cochin Rajah was signed by King Marthanda Vurmah. General D’Lannoy was entrusted with the further improvements of the Travancore army, which now numbered above 50,000 trained troops of all branches such as infantry, cavalry, artillery and irregular troops, trained and drilled according to the European discipline. They were mostly armed with European weapons, procured from the English and the Dutch. The forces were commanded by Europeans, Eurasians, Nairs and Pathans. In 931 M.E (1756 AD) Rama Iyen Dalawah fell ill at Mavelikaray and soon afterwards expired. No successor was appointed in the place of Rama Iyen for the next two years. Marthanda Vurmah though only 53 years old, began to feel unwell and gradually became weak and infirm. Marthanda Vurmah expired, sinking quietly as if in a sleep, in the presence of all the members of the royal family, in the year 933 M.E (1758 AD).

POST MARTHANDA VURMAH PERIOD (King Rama Vurmah. 1758–1798 )

Rama Vurmah, the nephew of King Marthanda Vurmah succeeded him. He was 34 years old when he ascended the throne. The rules and regulations adopted by Marthanda Vurmah, had not been fully established in the newly acquired northern territories, which the new sovereign fully implemented. He further improved and remodelled the army, training and disciplining additional men and bringing the Travancore army to an equal footing with that of the Carnatic Nabob and the English. The revenue and judicial administration of the kingdom was improved. The acting Dalawah, Iyeppen Marthanda Pillay was confirmed in his appointment. The whole kingdom was made into three divisions, each under a Valia Sarvadhikariakar. These regions again were subdivided and placed under Sarvadhikariakar. The same was again made into districts and over each district a Kariakar was appointed. The districts were again subdivided into Maniums, Kelvies, Adhikarems and Proverthies. These were placed under the charge of Manikarens, Adhikaries and Proverthikars. All these officers had a staff or sub-officials such as writers, accountants, peons etc.

The Zamorin of Calicut still retained the possession of Cochin’s northern frontier from Trichur up to Paravoor and Alangaud, and threatened further encroachment on the Cochin kingdom. The king of Cochin sent his minister Paliathu Menon to Trivandrum and applied for assistance to drive away the Zamorin promising to reimburse every expense for that purpose. The Travancore king acceded to this proposal. The King of Cochin came to Trivandram in 937 M.E (1762 AD) and entered into a new treaty with the Travancore King. The king Rama Vurmah, then directed his Prime Minister Iyepen Marthanda Pillay to proceed with an army to the north, under the command of General D’Lanoy. The army on reaching Paravoor, drove away the Zamorin’s garrison stationed there. The army then was divided into two, one under the Dalawah, which proceeded to Trichur by Karoopadanay. The other under General D’Lanoy marched towards Chowghaut and commenced attack on that place. Though the Zamorin’s forces resisted stoutly for a time, still was no match for General D’Lanoy’s disciplined army and it was compelled to retreat. Thus both the divisions reached Trichur routing the Zamorin’s forces. From there both the divisions marched north together driving the Zamorin’s forces from its stronghold at Chalakaray and pursuing it as far as Kakadu. As the Travancore army was preparing to march to Calicut, the Zamorin sued for peace and the Travancore king accepted the offer. The Zamorin came to Trivandrum in 938 M.E (1763 AD) and a treaty of alliance was entered into. The Zamorin agreed to indemnify King Rama Vurmah the expenses of the war by paying a moderate sum of 150,000 rupees and at the same time promising perpetual friendship and fidelity. The Travancore kingdom built a strong garrison at Chalakaray and also despatching troops to Paravoor and other places to defend those place. Thus the borders of Travancore kingdom was extended further north.

TheDalawah and General D’Lanoy on the orders of King Rama Vurmah devised a plan of fortification in the northern frontiers of the kingdom. A strong fort of laterite at Kuriapilly on the southern bank of the Cranganoor bar was built. From that a mud wall 20 feet thick and 12 feet high was constructed, which ran to the east up to the chain of hills to a distance of 30 miles. This wall was interspersed with stone batteries hand bastions at intervals and also small forts at certain locations adjoining the barrier. On the left side of the barrier a ditch was dug, measuring 16 feet widw and 20 feet deep, while on the right a road of similar breadth was made. On the side of the ditch close to the wall, bamboo and other thorny shrubs were planted. This was called Nedumcotta. General D’Lanoy adopted measures to keep the people in subjection to the rules, such as frequent marches through the country by military detachments in full military parade. All the lawless characters were kept in great awe by these measures.

Maphuz Khan Sahib, the governor of the Pandyan Empire, under Carnatic Nabob, stationed at Tinnevely, rebelled against the Nabob and attacked Kalacaud the eastern province of Travancore. King Rama Vurmah sent one of his commandants Thamby Kumaren Chempaka Raman Pillay against the Khan’s forces. The battle was very severe. The Mohamedan forces were obliged to beat a retreat from the Aramboly lines, but the Khan retained not only the possession of Kalacaud, but assumed possession of the district of Shencottah and all other eastern districts belonging to Travancore. The King of Travancore represented the matter to the Nabob, who replaced Maphuz Khan and appointed Yusaff Khan as the new governor. Yusaff Khan found it difficult to subdue the refractory Governor and had to take the help of the Travancore King’s army to defeat Maphuz Khan. The eastern provinces were thus retaken, but this did not last long as Yusaff Khan in turn became disobedient to his master and established himself as an independent chief. He also secured aid from the French. In 937 M.E (1762 AD) a joint force of the Nabob and the English were sent against Yusaff, and the Travancore king was also requested to co-operate. Yusaff was captured and hanged by the order of the Nabob. After complicated negotiations, the Nabob agreed to restore some of the Travancore territories including Shencottah and Cape Comorin. In return the Travancore king had to renounce claims on Kalacaud.

In 938 M.E (1763 AD) soon after his victorious return from the north, Iyeppen Marthanda Pillay died and he was succeeded by Varkalay Subba Iyen, in 939 M.E (1763 AD). In 939 M.E (1764 AD) this able Dalawah persuaded the King of Paravoor to resign formally his sovereign rights in the Paravoor state in favour of Travancore and retire on a pension. A similar proposal to the Anangaud sovereign was also made, who after some hesitation at first, signed the treaty.

In 941 M.E (1766 AD) Hyder Ali of Mysore invaded and took possession of all the northern countries of Malabar. The opposition of several Nair chiefs and the Zamorin of Calicut proved ineffectual. The Zamorin committed suicide by burning himself and some of his relations and the courtiers in his own palace. Hyder took possession of all the petty states and the whole of the Zamorin’s domains and thus became master of the country between Cannanore and Ponnany. The Cochin king fearing the approach of Hyder Ali, offered his allegiance and paid a sum of two lacs rupees and eight elephants, binding himself at the same time as a tributary of the Mysore king.

Hyder Ali then turned his attention to Travancore. The Dutch who were friendly both to Hyder and to Travancore, had established themselves at the very northern frontier of the Travancore kingdom, and thus provided a barrier to Hyder Ali’s progress.

In 943 M.E (1768 AD) Dalawah Subba Iyen died and Gopala Iyen was appointed Dalawah. Meanwhile Hyder Ali was effectively checked by the English. He was defeated by the soldiers of the East India Company in several engagements with them. Hyder Ali sued for peace and a treaty was concluded with the East India Company in Madras in 1769 AD. In it special provisions were secured by the Company for the safety of the kingdom of Travancore.

In 949 M.E (1774 AD) Hyder Ali again entered the province of Malabar and began to commit devastations. The then Zamorin of Calicut fled his country with all his relatives and dependants and sought refuge in the kingdom of Travancore. On hearing of the flight of the Zamorin, Hyder Ali became enraged and commenced to march towards Travancore. As on the previous occasion, the Dutch East India Company stood in the way. Hyder Ali remonstrated with the Dutch and threatened to force an entrance. The Dutch declared that they could not allow passage without special permission from Batavia. At the same time they communicated with the Travancore king and asked if he was ready to join them in the offensive against Hyder Ali. But Rama Vurmah replied that the treaty of Madras prevented him from joining the Dutch from any such operations, but for the protection of his frontiers, and only for that purpose he would join them.

Hyder Ali had therefore seek a route through the Kingdom of Cochin. King Rama Vurmah on hearing this, set to work with his army in conjunction with the Dutch, strongly resisted the progress of Hyder’s forces through the Dutch frontier. General D’Lanoy’s health failed at this juncture and Valia Sarvadhikariakar Kessava Pillay and several other able commandants were the ones principally engaged on this occasion. Intimations of the unwarranted incursions of Hyder Ali was given to the Governor of Madras and a general war against Hyder Ali resulted. During the war General D’Lanoy fell ill at Udayagiri and died in the year 952 M.E (1777 AD). The war continued for several years and in the interval Hyder Ali died in 957 M.E (1782 AD). His son Tippu Sultan succeeded him and for a couple of years matters were in status quo. In the year 959 M.E (1784 AD) a fresh treaty was concluded by Tippu Sultan with the East India Company at Mangalore, when all hostilities ceased. The kingdom of Travancore flourished.

Tippu Sultan who had been watching the proceedings of the Travancore kingdom became jealous of the growing prosperity and he began to concert measures to bring Travancore under his sway. In the year 963 M.E (1788 AD) he renewed his incursions into the Malayalam territory. His depredations being accompanied with additional violence and cruelty. He proclaimed martial law between Ponnany and Cannanore. The worst of Tippo’s tyrannical proceedings was that he ordered the conversion of all the Hindus indiscriminately, whether of high or low caste, to the Mussulman faith, and all who objected to acknowledge the prophet were menaced with death. All the high caste Hindus fled from Malabar to Travancore. The Tippu was still more highly offended and demanded Rama Vurmah to send back the refugees, which the Travancore king declined to do so.

The King of Travancore interacted more with the English and asked for their help to protect his country from Tippu Sultan. They send soldiers and the king placed his army at their disposal. The king’s army were led by English officers. As the Dutch had already sold many of their minor possessions to Travancore, the king negotiated for the purchase of Monambam and all the northern Dutch possessions including the forts of Aycottah and Cranganore. The Dewan found no difficulty in coming to a speedy settlement in 1789 AD. The British did not like this settlement and conveyed their displeasure to the king of Travancore and threatened to withdraw their support to the king in the event of a war with Tippu Sultan. When the Sultan heard of the proceedings of the Madras Government, he thought it was too good an opportunity to be lost.

In 964 M.E (1789 AD) Tippu’s powerful army under his personal command, attacked the northern frontier of Travancore and attempted a breach of the barrier. The attack was ably and gallantly resisted by the Paravoor Battalion on duty there. A part of the Sultan’s army was ordered to breach the wall where it was not guarded. The progress through the breached wall was resisted by the Travancore army. Tippu had to bring reinforcements to make further progress. While the reinforcements were advancing the commanding officer of Tippu’s forces that breached the wall was killed and threw Tippu’s advance force into disorder and flight. The advancing reinforcement was checked by the fleeing forces. The panic became general and the retreating men fell into the ditch and were killed by the fleeing men falling on them. The bodies that filled the ditch enabled the reminder to pass over them. The Sultan himself was thrown down in the struggle and the bearers of the palanquin trampled to death. Though he was rescued from death by some his faithful followers, yet he received injuries. Tippu’s sword, signet ring and other personal ornaments fell into the hands of the Travancore army and several officers and men were taken prisoners. Tippu retreated with great shame and chagrin and Dewan Kesava Pillay returned to Trivandrum triumphant.

Tippu determined on retaliating, concentrated a large force on the northern frontier of the Travancore kingdom. The Madras Government was informed of the above proceedings and the Governor assured of assistance in the event of invasion by Tippu Sultan. No active measures were taken by the Madras Government till it was too late. Tippu’s forces commenced action in 964 M.E 1790 AD). It began as a small skirmish outside the wall. Tippu’s artillery began to work. Finding no perceptible effect on the wall, a few more batteries were erected and the largest guns were mounted, which opened a destructive fire. The wall resisted the fire for nearly a month, before a practicable breach of three quarter of a mile in length was effected. By this time the Travancore army abandoned the defence as useless and retreated. A portion of Tippu’s army under Lally, attacked the Cranganore fort, which was defended by the Travancore army under Captain Flory. Finding the defence of the fort impossible Captain Flory and his men abandoned the fort to the enemy, who demolished the fortifications the next day. Lally now proceeded to Kuriapally, which fort too was abandoned. Now the whole defensive line fell into the hands of Tippu. While this destructive warfare was going on the English regiments remained passive, on the plea that no orders have been received from the Governor of Madras to fight against the Sultan. When the orders were received, the Sultan had broken into the Travancore defensive lines. The English commander considered that the force under his command were no match for the victorious army of the Sultan, and that it would be injudicious to sacrifice his men. Seeing that the English forces did nothing to assist the Travancore army, Tippu was encouraged to march on to the interior committing devastation on his way. Devan Kesava Pillay was at Paravoor at the head of a strong force of the Travancore army with its European officers. But the advance of Tippu’s forces could not be stopped so the Devan thought it prudent to retreat.

The Sultans first object was to destroy the contemptible wall and fill up the ditch. The Sultan himself took a pick axe and set an example which was followed by everyone present and the demolition of the wall was completed by his army without much delay. The lawless force was let loose in the villages. They committed unspeakable atrocities and the country was laid to waste with fire and sword. Many of the inhabitants fled for shelter to the wild hills of Kunnathunaud, while many were taken captives. Hindu temples and Christian churches were equally desecrated. Towers of the temples, the churches, houses of the rich and poor were all burnt to ashes. All these atrocities and devastation were perpetrated with the express sanction of the Sultan, who with his main army marched southward and reached Alwaye.

Fortunately for the country providence intervened, the south west monsoon broke out with unusual severity, and all the rivers and streams flooded and overflowed. It rendered the Tippu army’s march impossible. As the country around is interspersed with numerous rivers and countless streams and intermixed with large paddy fields which all got submerged and the grounds slushy. The currents were so strong it was impossible even for experienced boatmen to make crossings. Tippu and his army were surprised at such a scene which they had never witnessed before and were bewildered. He had no idea what a Malabar monsoon was. His army had no shelter; no dry place; all their ammunitions and accoutrements got drenched. Even the very necessaries of life were washed away by the impetuous currents of the flooded rivers. Tippu was placed in a very awkward predicament. Having reduced to ashes every large temple, church and other edifices which could have afforded him and his army shelter and protection from the elements, Cholera, Small pox and other epidemics broke out. Provisions became scanty, and the scarcity was followed almost by famine. Numbers began to perish by disease and hunger.

Lord Cornwallis who was in Bengal and in charge of the military operations of the English East India Company blamed the Madras Government for neglect of duty and disobedience of orders. Tippu took exception to the military preparations made by the Madras Government and communicated the same to the Madras Governor. The Governor rejected Tippu’s claim and declared that from the moment Tippu attacked their ally, the king of Travancore, he had committed violation of the treaty. While Tippu was in his uncomfortable encampment at Alwaye, he learned that a large English force had reached Trichinopoly. He realised that there was no time to be lost. He divided his army into two divisions and ordered the retreat back to Palghaut, one portion via Chalakudy to Trichur, and the other via Cranganore and Chavakkadu to Palghaut. This hasty retreat was accompanied with the loss of a great portion of the army. This calamity was accelerated by the Travancore army under Dewan Kesava Pillay following in close pursuit.

The Travancore forces joined the British army at Palghautcherry, Coimbatore and Dindigul and fought under the command of the British officers. They fought along with the British forces against Tippu to the conclusion of the war and the treaty of Seringapatam. The East India Company demanded a large sum of money for expenses incurred by the Company’s military department in protecting Travancore against Tippu Sultan, even though in the treaty of 1788 AD it was expressly stated that Two regiments will be stationed in Travancore at the expense of Travancore State, for its protection and in the event of attack by an enemy and if additional forces are required they shall be maintained at the company’s expense entirely. King Rama Vurmah was already advanced in years and was in a troubled state of mind. Part of his country was devastated as also his army. He acquiesced to the English demand so as not to antagonise them. The king managed to pay 7 lacs in several instalments, but the British demanded 10 lacs per annum. The Devan raised another 7 lacs and in total paid 14 lacs to the British. In the negotiations, the British allowed the Travancore king the control of all the northern kingdoms under their chiefs. Devan Kesava Pillay was the chief administrator and arbitrator. In return the king of Travancore would collect from every one of these states, according to their ability, should supply Travancore Commissariat department with grain, which was to be given to the British as levy instead of the 10 lacs rupees per annum.

Thus slowly the British became more powerful and dictated terms to the Travancore Kingdom. They began to impose themselves in the policy of the Travancore kingdom. A new treaty with the English was concluded in 970 M.E (1795 AD). In it the powers of the king of Travancore were curtailed. It imposed on the king the obligation to abstain from all agession towards any other state. In the event of any dispute, it will be the English Company who will be the final arbitrator. It prohibited the king from allowing any one who is a citizen of a country at war with Britain or East India Company, in its territory. The king cannot enter into any engagements with any European or Indian States without the previous concurrence of the British Governments in India. When the company requires aid of troops to assist them in in war, it shall be incumbent on the reigning king to furnish such aid. This treaty was ratified in 972 M.E (1797 AD). At about this time the English having conquered the Dutch and annexed Cochin, the Dutch connection with Travancore ceased.

King Rama Vurmah ruled for a long period of 40 years. He lived to an advanced age of seventy three years and died in the year 973 M.E (1798 AD). There was only one male member in the royal family aged 16 years as the heir to the throne.

King Bala Rama Vurmah I (1798 - 1810) & Velu Thamby Dalawah

Bala Rama Vurmah ascended the throne at the age of sixteen years, on the death of his uncle King Rama Vurmah, in the year 973 M.E (1798 AD). He was a very weak and docile king. He was completely in the hands of favourites, among whom Sankaren Namboory, a native Brahmin from Calicut. He was an unscrupulous man. This covetous Namboory aimed for the Dewan’s post. The first steps he took was to set the young king against the old and worthy minister Kesava Dass. In 974 M.E (1799 AD) one Thottappaye Namboory of Cochin, a bosom friend of Sankaren Namboory, took advantage of this state of affairs and begged his friend to prevail upon the king to restore to Cochin the Karapuram territories annexed by Marthanda Vurmah. The document sanctioning the restoration of the Karapuram (Cherthalay district) to the Cochin Rajah, signed by the Travancore king was clandestinely handed over to Thottappaye without the knowledge of the Devan. The Devan on receiving private information of this treacherous transaction, a few hours later, made haste in pursuing the Namboory. He caught up with Thottappaye Namboory near Quilon and recovered the writ from him.

A month or two after the anniversary of the late king’s death, 974 M.E (1799 AD) the Dewan was mortified to see Sankaren Namboory sitting in the State palanquin of the late king. A deep sense of reverence for the late king and a sense of duty impelled the Dewan to make strong and severe remarks on the improper conduct of the Namboory. The Namboory turned the mind of the king against the Dewan, and soon after this event, the Diwan appears to have received a commission of dismissal from the king and he was confined to his house under a guard. A few days after this the Dewan Kesava Dass was found dead in his own bed. The Dewan had no family living with him at the time of his death. It is generally believed that he was poisoned, at the instance of the Namboory, through the Dewan’s cook. In the year 975 M.E (1800 AD) when Colonel Macaulay arrived in Travancore after his appointment as Resident, he instituted an enquiry into the Dewan’s untimely death. Samprathy Kunjuneelam Pillay and others were arrested but in the absence of evidence they were discharged.

The field being clear now Sankaren Namboory prevailed upon the simple minded king to appoint him as Valia Sarvadhikariakar (prime minister) in 974 M.E 1799 AD). He selected for his council Chetty Thackalay Sankaranarayanen as finance minister and Mathoo Tharakan, an influential Syrian of the north, who held the salt, tobacco and other contracts like bringing timber grown in Malayattoor and other forests to Alleppey to sell it there, during the last reign. These two men were as unprincipled as the Namboory himself.

The financial position of the country was grave. The Namboory and his cohorts determined to remedy the financial embarrassments and thus please the young king and benefit himself at the same time. The council decided to raise a general tax. In accordance with a list which had been prepared the ministry began to summon people and demand immediate payment of the sums fixed in the list. Those who could not pay were subjected to the infamy of corporal punishment. This went on for a fortnight and a large sum of money was realised. Several respectable persons were flogged and imprisoned. In the course of these arbitrary and tyrannical proceedings, one Velu Thamy, an ex Tashildar was summoned and asked to pay an amount of 3,000 rupees (20,000 caly fanams). He informed the Namboory that he had not come there with the money and asked for three days’ time to procure the same. Velu Thamby proceeded south, and convened a meeting of all the heads of villagers in Nanjenaud. He convinced them to rise against this injustice and send emissaries as far as Alleppey for apprising the people. Velu Thamby and other leaders of the insurrection found no difficulty in inducing people to flock to their standard. The military secretly joined the assembly. Velu Thamby and his assembled multitude encamped outside the Trivandrum fort. The young king was alarmed and awakened to a sense of his duty. He deputed officials to meet Velu Thamby and the king acceded to all his demands. The Namboory prime minister was immediately dismissed and banished from the kingdom. Sankara Narayanen and Mathoo Tharakan were publicly flogged and their ears cut off and imprisoned. The unlawful taxes were withdrawn.

Sheraingheel Iyappen Chempaka Ramen Pillay was appointed as Valia Sarvadhikariakar (prime minister). Velu Thamby received the post of commercial minister. The new prime minister was an able and experienced man. He lost no time in all the evils introduced by the evil Namboory. He re-established the confidence of the people in the administration. Chempaka Ramen Pillay died 14 months after his appointment and was succeeded by Parachalay Padmanabhen Chempaka Ramen Pillay. He was not very able and was relived from office after eight months. There were two able men for the post of prime minister, Thamby Chempaka Ramen Cumaren and Erayimen, both related to the late Dewan Kesava Dass. But Kunjuneelam Pillay and his colleagues who were friends of Velu Thamby began to plot against them. The timid king consulted with Velu Thamby who had become Sarvadhikariakar by now. They were arrested on charges of treason along with Padmanabha Pillay and Neelam Pillay. Immediately after this, Velu Thamby was appointed Prime Minister (Valia Sarvadhikariakar). He proceeded to Alleppey to hold his office there, like Dewan Kesava Dass. Subsequent to the departure of the Prime Minister the death warrant of the two officers were signed. They were on a certain night dragged by the palace guards to the sea-beach and butchered in cold blood. This event took place in 976 M.E (1801 AD). Padmanabha Pillay and Neelam Pillay who were in confinement were sent to Mavelikara, but on the way Neelam Pillay jumped overboard at Anjengo bar and escaped. Padmanabha Pillay was executed on reaching Mavelikara. It is certain the Kunjuneelam Pillay who filled the office of the palace Samprathy (secretary) was the head of the cabal that effected the atrocious and disgraceful murder of the general (Thamby Chempaka Ramen Cumaren) who was the younger brother of Dewan Kesava Dass and the peishcar (Erayimen) the nephew of Dewan Kesava Dass. Kunjuneelam Pillay had considerable influence over the ignorant king who was immersed in pleasures and devoted his time to seraglio (harem) and the ceremonies of superstition.

Velu Thamby was appointed Dalawah in 977 M.E (1802 AD), and he began a career unprecedented in many respects. He was a man of extraordinary ability and talents. He was bold and daring. Though his career had every appearance of despotism and cruelty, he was honest and fair. The first step he took was to establish order among the people, and ensure honest performance of their duties by the Sircar servants throughout the kingdom. To this effect he adopted punishments far exceeding the severity prescribed by the law of the country. The whole service was at once cleansed and corruption eradicated. Fraudulent appropriation of Sircar money was punished by incarceration in jails for lengthened periods, and even with death in addition to the forfeiture of the whole property belonging to the family of the delinquent without regard to the amount of fraud or embezzlement. Tampering with the Sircar records were punished with amputation of the palms or fingers of the right hand of the criminal. Bribery was punished with the infliction of corporal punishment on the back of the delinquent in public places. Perjury (the act of wilfully telling an untruth when on oath) was punished by cutting off the lips and nose of the criminal. Oppression of peasants or tenant farmers was visited with corporal punishment and forfeiture of property. This latter punishment was resorted to in almost every case where a Sarkar servant was convicted. Robbers and thieves were alike punished with the extreme penalty of the law. Pick-pocketing and lock breaking entailed on the criminals the loss of their palms or fingers. The violation of females and the offence of rape were often punished the offenders being beheaded. Stealing was general punished with flogging and in special cases with amputation, impalement or nailing on the trees in public places. By such extraordinary and fearful acts, a reign of terror was established in the country and crimes became almost unknown.

The Dalawah was always moving from one district to another on circuit, taking along with him a select party of subordinate officials from revenue, judicial and military departments; and dispensing fearful primitive justice. The dalawah was as severe as he was strict and impartial. Like Rama Iyen Dalawah and Kesava Dass Dewan he had also removed himself from his family influences. There lived a Chanar near the Dalawah’s house, who had a coconut garden which he mortgaged to a relative of Velu Thamby. He enjoyed it for a considerable time paying the assessment tax to the Sarkar in the Chanar’s name. The mortgagee succeeded in obtaining the registry of the garden in his own name without the knowledge and consent of the Chanar, through the influence of Velu Thamby’s mother. The Chanar made a complaint to the Dalawah, who as usual, immediately called the Proverthy accountant and questioned him on the subject. To his surprise he learnt that such a registry was done by the accountant at the request of Dalawah Velu Thamby’s mother, who on being asked confirmed the statements of the accountant. The Dalawah observed that he didn’t expect her to cause such an odium to be cast on his name. Saying this he sent for a carpenter and a broad chisel, and in the presence of his mother the accountants fingers were chopped off, and he was dismissed from service.

In 978 M.E (1803 AD) Velu Thamby began to experience strong opposition from the military, ministerial servants and palace officials. While the Dalawah was at Alleppey, Kunjuneelam Pillay, Muthu Pillay, Valia Melathu Pillay and a few others conspired against the Dalawah and prevailed upon the king for the apprehension and execution of Velu Thamby. At the same time Neelakunden Chempaka Ramen was appointed as the Prime Minister (Valia Sarvadhikariakar). Fortunately for Velu Thamby, Major Macaulay had been appointed as Resident of Travancore in 1800 AD. Velu Thamby always took advice from Major Macaulay in all important matters. The Dalawah saw Colonel Macaulay who was then in Cochin and acquainted him with the particulars of the conspiracy against his life, and acting upon the Resident’s advice Velu Thamby went to Trivandrum to meet the king. But through the intrigues of the palace officials an audience was refused to him by the king. Velu Thamby communicated this to the Resident, informing him at the same time that Kunjuneelam Pillay, Valia Melelethu Muthu Pillay, Major Padmanabhen Chempaka Ramen Pillay, Vanchiyoor Papu Pillay, Pooliel Kochu Narayana Pillay Sarvadhikariakar and Vanchiyoor Padmanabhen Thamby were the principal conspirators who instigated the King to sanction the unjust execution of the late General and Peishcar. Colonel Macaulay thereupon came to Trivandrum with a few companies of the subsidiary force, stationed at Quilon and held an immediate enquiry regarding the conspiracy and the cause of the execution of the general and the peishcar. The charges of conspiracy and the innocence of the general and the peishcar were established, and all those involved were confined to the Udagherry fort, while some others were sent to Alleppey and Mavelikaray to be confined there, pending a formal trial by a court. But Velu Thamby found an easy way of disposing them before the trial. With the exception of Major Padmanabhen and Neelakundan Chempaka Ramaan Pillay all the prisoners died before they could be put on trial.

Though mattes were arranged to the satisfaction of Velu Thamby, the king’s advisors were displeased. They managed to embitter the mind of the king against Colonel Macaulay. The king represented the matter to the Governor General in Calcutta, who recalled the colonel to offer an explanation. The Governor General was satisfied with the explanation and end Macaulay back to Trivandrum. During the whole of his administration the Dalawah was very careful in preserving the amity and friendship existing between the East India Company and the Travancore Sarkar.

The British East India Company decided to capitalise on the situation and proposed new treaty in 1805 AD. Bala Rama Vurmah was apprehensive and reluctant to sign this treaty, as in it on the pretext of protecting the Travancore kingdom; additional English troops were to be deployed in Travancore at the expense of the Travancore kingdom and the levy payable to the English East India Company was doubled and much of the king’s powers were curtailed. Should additional forces be deployed to protect the kingdom; the expenses of that force need to be compensated by the Travancore king. In the event of the failure of payments of funds, the resident shall have the full power and right to introduce such regulations and ordinances that he deems expedient for the management and collection of revenues. The King will not enter into any agreement with any State that is detrimental to the interests of the English company. The King will not admit any European foreigners into his service without the concurrence of the English Company.

The delay in signing the treaty forced the English to coerce the king by having a British force from Tinnevelly march to Travancore. The Dewan strongly pressed upon the Resident that payment of the increased levy would heavily tax the revenues of the kingdom. Much pressure was brought upon the king to sign this treaty. The news of signing of the treaty spread throughout the country, and the disaffection increased and the indignation of the people were rekindled. The Dewan held a meeting of all the officers, and explained to them the necessity and advisability of the new treaty though he perfectly concurred with them in the injurious consequences of the augmentation of the subsidy. But nevertheless there were fresh outbursts of indignation. Velu Thamby strove hard to persuade the king and the officers through Sthanapathy Suba Iyen to reconcile themselves to the new treaty as the Dalawah had secured the sanction for the remission of half of the increased subsidy for two years, he was sanguine that he would be able to obtain a permanent remission of half of the newly increased sum. The Dalawah pressed the Resident Macaulay for the permanent remission of half of the increased subsidy, but the Resident would not agree. The Dewan despairing of success dropped the subject altogether without bringing his failure to the notice of the king.

In the interval the Resident pressed the Dewan for the payment of arrears of subsidy, and the Sarkar, embarrassed by pecuniary difficulties delayed payment. Believing that the Dewan did not intend to pay the arrears, especially as he had been applying for the entire remission of a part of the enhanced subsidy, a misunderstanding arose between them. From the beginning of 1807 till the end of April that year not even a part of the arrears of subsidy having reached the Resident’s treasury, notwithstanding all the Resident’s remonstrance’s and his disagreeable correspondences with the Dewan, the Resident was enraged. The highly objectionable language employed against a person like the Dewan filled the Dewan with indignation, and he resolved not to hold office as long as Colonel Macaulay was the Resident, and he gave the Resident to understand that he would rather give up his appointment than be exposed to such vile and humiliating treatment. Taking advantage of the Dewan’s threat, the Resident wrote to the Madras Government that the Dewan himself had informed him that he was unable to conduct the duties of his office and requested to be relieved.

At this critical time, Colonel Macaulay espoused the cause of Mathoo Tharakan, the notorious Syrian Christian contractor, one of the intriguers alluded to in the commencement of Bala Rama Vurmah’s reign, who was a merchant prince in Travancore, possessing large estates in almost all the northern districts of the country. He had been restored to his former stage of influence. His lands were confiscated to recover old standing revenue arrears. Tharakan possessing influence of the Resident obtained a remission. Despite the remission Velu Thamby was insistent on collecting the revenue arrears. But the Resident interfered and blocked the orders of the Dewan. The Dewan found it impossible to rely on the Resident’s support and thought it politic to concert measures to side entirely with the Popular Party. He also conceived a mortal enmity and hatred against Colonel Macaulay.

Matters now began to approach a crisis. Colonel Macaulay was determined to oust the Dewan from office. The Dewan was prepared to retire, but knowing that the Resident was trying to remove him. He persisted in holding the reigns of the Government. The Dewan convinced the king that the Resident’s motive in removing him was to confirm the increased subsidy and trouble the king for the immediate payment of arrears. The king and his councillors also thought it would be injudicious to dispense with the services of such a man as Velu Thamby. The Resident interfered with even the most trivial details of internal administration. The Resident wanted Velu Thamby to retire from public life and take residence in Cherakel on a pension of 500 rupees per mensem (month). The king was offended by the conduct of the Resident and didn’t want to dispense with the services of Velu Thamby. The king’s attempts to reconcile the two bitter men failed. The king complained to the Madras Government against the Resident, but being a person of weak disposition, he did not follow up the matter and left the Dewan and the Resident to settle matters between them.

The Dewan was now resolved to wreak vengeance on the Resident. Sthanapathy Suba Iyen took great interest in promoting the good understanding between the King and the Resident. One day Suba Iyen visited the Diwan at Alleppey with a message from the king. On a certain night while engaged in a private conversation with the Dewan, the Sthanapathy retired to the garden at about midnight, but he never returned. He appears to have been seized and strangled by the Dewan’s people and a report was given that Suba Iyen died of a snake bite.

The King of Cochin of that time was an extremely quiet and easy going person. He was completely overridden by his Prime Minister Paliathu Menon (Paliathu Atchen) who assumed the supreme rule and reduced the king to a mere cypher. The King was compelled to live in a small village called Vellarapilly, north-east of Alwaye. Paliathu Menon was a bitter enemy of the ex-minister and Commander-in-chief of the previous King. Palliathu Menon on assuming power seized both these officers and drowned them in the river near Chanamangalam. He also tried to eliminate Nadavarampathu Kunju Krishna Menon, a young and upcoming, but the king gave him sanctuary in his own palace. The King requested an immediate audience with Colonel Macaulay and requested him to protect the young man. Colonel Macaulay took the young Menon along with him to Cochin and protected him in his own residence. Palliathu Menon was exasperated and swore to destroy both Colonel Macaulay and Kunju Krishna Menon.

Palliathu Menon sent a private messenger to Velu Thamby and the leaders of the disaffected military, proposing to them the massacre of the British Resident and his small garrison in the fort at Cochin, and offering his covert co-operation in the affair. Velu Thamby, from his own vanity, thoughtlessness and desire for revenge agreed to the proposal. He issued secret orders for recruiting an army. The Resident little knew of what was going on. The Dewan pretended that he was on the point of retiring and wrote to Colonel Macaulay that he would start for Calicut and take up his residence there on a pension, and asked him for an escort of British troops. It was a ploy to draw the best part of the Resident’s force from Cochin to Alleppey. The secret forces of Velu Thamby moved to Cochin in covered boats. They reached Cochin at about midnight and surrounded Colonel Macaulay’s house and opened fire. The sudden sound of musketry surprised the Colonel. He with the help of a confidential Portuguese clerk managed to conceal himself and escaped in the morning in a Pattimar and subsequently got on board the British ship ‘Piedmontese’ which had just reached Cochin. Velu Thamby’s forces captured the Cochin fort, ransacked and pillaged it. But were chagrined not to find the Resident and Kunju Krishana Menon. Velu Thamby foresaw the results and quitted Alleppey and proceeded to Quilon. There had been a simultaneous attack on the British forces stationed in Quilon. The Dewan arrived at Quilon and encouraged the Travancore forces there and then proceeded to Kundray. Where he issued a proclamation.

Note: - The proclamation is actually a brief history of the rise and growth of the British Empire and their treachery. Below, I give a gist of the Proclamation.

Never has this State been troubled during the several thousand years from the time of Parasu Rama up to the close of Cheraman Perumal’s reign, nor during the sovereignty of the succeeding Thripada Swaroopam Dynasty. The King Marthanda Vurmah who died in 933 M.E. foreseeing the evil days to come, and seeing that his successor will not be able to keep the land, entrusted to their care safe from harm, made a gift of it in due form to Sree Padmanabha Swamy and the succeeding kings were to rule as representatives of Padmanabha Swamy. When Mahomed Ali established his power at Trichinopoly, it was stipulated that Travancore should sent him an annual levy of 6000 rupees and an elephant to preserve friendly relations with him. While the land was thus in peace, two great powers appeared. Tippu Sultan and the East India Company. It was believed that of the two, the English East India Company was more to be relied on, and they would not betray their trust. In order to secure their friendship and assistance a very long time ago, they were allowed to build a fort at Anjengo. This led to hostilities breaking out with the Tippu Sultan. But we have known to our cost how our trust was betrayed and our friendliness taken advantage of. Now see what they have done. They gradually curtailed the power of the Nabob who gave them shelter and helped so much towards attaining their present importance, till they had destroyed his dynasty entirely and taken away his territories. Next they laid hold of the neighbouring countries which were enjoying peace and prosperity, and following up their treacherous inclination the English came over to Travancore. First by craft and then forcibly they have taken steps to exterminate us from our land. When Tippu made war on us, we sought their aid against him. They treacherously got out of us, taking advantage of our exigency, ten lacs rupees in return for the promised help. After this, partly by craft and partly by threats, they stipulated that we pay them an annual subsidy of six lacs of rupees, promising at the same time not to ask for a chuckram more over and above the said sun, as long as the two nations existed. They also promised not to interfere with any acts of the Travancore Government, however unimportant. These terms were solemnly ratified in writing by the treaty of 968 M.E. In violation of this treaty the English sent a Resident to reside here, and stationed three of their regiments in Quilon. This Travancore Government had to build at its own cost barracks and houses for the men of the Regiments. In 980 M.E, the English Government demanded two lacs of rupees should be paid annually, beyond the sum stipulated before. They threatened in failure of this extra requisition being paid, to make war on us, and actually brought down several pieces of cannon into different parts of the country. Seeing no other means of tiding over the difficult position, the King yielded to the impending calamitous fate and paid the extra two lacs also. The English were not satisfied even with all these concessions. They next require the abolition of all religious and charitable intuitions and the disbanding of the armies of the country and payment to themselves of the money that would be saved thereby. It further required the Resident Macaulay be consulted in all matters connected with the Government of Travancore. We have declined to these stipulations. The East India Company, in reply have asked us to resign our posts and to quit Travancore with our families. In case we delayed to agree, war would be declared on the country. The Resident, thereupon without having the slightest respect for the Sovereign of Travancore, brought by sea and landed and landed a number of European soldiers to Quilon, and shipped all the European women and children and unjustly commenced war with Travancore.

By the Dalawah’s strongly worded and powerful proclamation the whole populace of Travancore was incensed and disaffected. A revolt against the British forces stationed at Quilon took place at once. The cantonment was attacked by large bodies of militia, assisted by the Travancore regular troops stationed at Quilon. They were repulsed as often as they attacked by the able Commandant Colonel Chalmers. With the British reinforcements arriving at Quilon, the Dewan’s forces were completely defeated in a battle lasting six hours.

The British forces arrived at the southern frontier of Travancore in February 1809 and commenced attack on the Aramboly lines. Velu Thamby who was at the Aramboly garrison found it impossible to resist the British soldiers and therefore escaped to Trivandrum hastily. Being a patriotic and faithful subject of Travancore, he resolved to take the blame upon himself and to save the sovereign and the country. He instructed the king that all the blame may be squarely imputed to Velu Thamby when the British Government would question the king. Thus Velu Thamby took final leave of the king, he stole away through the jungles to the north. The British army marched into Trivandrum and camped at Pappenecode. The king send a deputation headed by Ummany Thamby alias Marthanden Eravy, who convened the kings extreme regret at the occurrence of the insurrection created by Velu Thamby and adoption of measures for the Dewan’s apprehension. A party of Travancore and British officers was despatched in pursuit of the Dalawah and an offer of 50,000 rupees was offered for the apprehension.

Ummany Thamby was appointed Dewan in March 1809 with the full concurrence of the British Government, and he at once sent persons in pursuit of Velu Thamby. The runaway Dalawah wandered in the jungles about Vallicote and Kunnathoor district. He was hotly pursued by the officers even here. From this place he came to Munnady, in the same district, and took refuge in a vacant house belonging to a potty. The servant of Velu Thamby who wandered in the streets thereto sell his masters silver and gold utensils, was seen and apprehended. He revealed the hiding place of Velu Thamby. He then fled to the Bhagavathi temple at Munnady with his brother Padmanabhen Thamby. As capture was imminent he asked his brother to take his life. The brother refused and Velu Thamby plunged his own dagger to his heart. The self-inflicted wound was not fatal, so on Velu Thamby’s plea, his brother drew his sword and severed Velu Thamby’s neck in one stroke. When the pursuers reached the temple they found the lifeless body of Velu Thamby and his brother standing close with a drawn sword. The brother was seized and the body taken to Trivandrum, where it was exposed on a gibbet for public execration. The deceased Dalawah’s brother Padmanabhen Thamby was hanged on the supposition that he took part in the assassination of the British office Surgeon Hume. Ummany Thamby was dreaded by the relatives of the late minister and his house was raze to the ground. Most of his relatives were transported to the Maldives. Some appeared to have committed suicide, some died in prison, while the rest were flogged and banished. Several of the leaders of the insurrection were publicly hanged.

During a career of above two years as Dewan, Ummany Thamby was not able to keep his subordinates in check, in consequence of which abuse of authority and irregularities in every branch of the administration became the order of the day. The subsidy to the East India Company again fell in arrears. The salaries of various establishments became due and the administration was in a disorganised state. The weak king was powerless and became a nonentity. Dewan Ummany Thamby took to himself the sole authority and power of the Government. The king was afraid of the minister and thought the Dewan would usurp his kingdom should he happen to displease the Dewan. Colonel Macaulay retired from the office of the Resident in 985 M.E. (1810 AD) and Colonel Munro was appointed to the vacant post in the same year. While things were maturing for a direct interference of the Resident, King Bala Rama Vurmah died on the night of 7^th November 1810 AD. (986 M.E) when he was 29 years old.

LEKSHME BHYE (1810–1815 )

The direct and legitimate heir to the vacant throne was the young Ranee Lekshmi Bhye. She was 20 years old. Her right to the throne was disputed by a collateral uncle, which on impartial investigation by the Resident Colonel Munro were set aside as invalid. The young princess was immediately crowned Queen. The Resident observing symptoms of disaffections from the pretended claimant, sent the Rajah as a State-prisoner first to Tellicherry and afterwards to Chingleput, where he remained till the latter part of his days.

Though the queen was young and inexperienced, she possessed an inquisitive and intelligent mind and was gifted with sound judgement. She had the sagacity to discern what was good for her country and adopt such measures as were needed for its implementation. She was married to Rajah Rajah Vurmah Koil Thampuran of Changanacherry, who was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar and well versed in all the Puranas. The Thampuran was only a year older than the Queen and was her best councillor in all matters, both domestic as well as public. The Queen had firmness of mind and was capable of resisting all idle counsellors and keeping herself free from flatterers and sycophants. Seeing all the mismanagement and chaos in the state of the Government, she resolve to entrust the Government of her kingdom into the hands of Colonel Munro, the Resident of Travancore. The first step she took after she ascended the throne was to dispense with the services of the Dewan Ummany Thamby. After dismissing the Dewan, she requested Colonel Munro to assume charge of the administration and conduct the duties of the Dewan, along with those of the Resident. He accepted the offer without any hesitation.

The first object of Colonel Munro was to cleanse the administration and establish order. Like Velu Thamby Dalawah, he weeded out corruption from the services. He reintroduced corporal punishment in every instance of corruption and other immoral conduct on the part of Sarkar servants. The cat-o’ nine tails (a whip with nine knots in it) was employed for the infliction of such punishments. Like Velu Thamby he moved on circuit from Thovalay to Paravoor regularly, and established order, regularity, discipline and strict obedience in the course of a year. None of the chastised servants were dismissed from service, but soon after the administration of the punishment, the incumbents were ordered to continue in their respective posts and discharge their duties satisfactorily. Many of Colonel Munro’s scholars had indeed their backs scored, but rose subsequently to very conspicuous and prominent positions in the service.

The ex-Dewam Ummany Thamby incurred lasting disgrace for plotting against the life of Colonel Munro. The treachery having been discovered, Ummany Thamby was banished from the country and incarcerated in Chingleput as a State prisoner.

Reforms were introduced in the general administration. These rules were promulgated under the sanction of Her Majesty, in 987 M.E (1821 AD). Regular courts of Appeals and Zillah were constituted and established. The jurisdiction and power of the judges were determined. A Huzzoor Court for the trial and punishment of Sarkar servants was also established. The names of the District officials were changed from Kariakar to Thasildar. Velu Thamby had contemplated the annexation of the estates of the various Devaswoms, but before this plan could be implemented misfortunes fell on the Dalawah. Colonel Munro on being informed of this idea, thought it worthy of being adopted. He framed rules in furtherance of this measure so that the management of the Devaswom affairs was to a great extend vested in the Sarkar. This measure was also a means of causing a permanent additional revenue to the State.

A couple of Maratha Brahmins accompanied Colonel Munro when he first came to Trivandrum. One of them, Reddy Rao alias Vencatta Rao was a talented scholar. Reddy Rao being a clever accountant was ordered by Colonel Munro to organise an accounts department in Trivandrum. All work entrusted to him were satisfactorily discharged and he received further promotion, and he eagerly hoped to be advanced still higher in the service. Colonel Munro selected mostly natives, Namboodiri Brahmins, Sudras and Syrian Christians, who were educated in their own language and also in Sanskrit and who possessed a thorough knowledge in the institutes of Manu, for the office of judge and administration. He used to consult with them in all important matters.

After the disturbances of 985 M.E (1810 AD), the Travancore army had become almost extinct. Colonel Munro organised two Nair battalions and one company of cavalry as body guard and escort to royalty. European officers were appointed to the command of them. While Travancore was thus flourishing, the Queen gave birth to a prince in 988 M.E (1813 AD). In the same year Mr Blacker, brother-in-law of Colonel Munro arrived having been appointed Assistant Resident. He was nominated by Colonel Munro to look after the financial affairs of the Cochin State. In accordance with the Hindu law, the little prince was proclaimed the king of Travancore, the Queen mother continued to hold the sceptre as regent on behalf of the infant king.

Colonel Munro appointed a successor to himself as Dewan a person named Daven Padmanabhen, the then judge of Huzzoor Court, in 989 M.E (1814 AD). He was honest in the discharge of his duties, but unfortunately died of small pox five months after appointment. The Queen gave birth to another prince in the year 990 M.E (1815 AD). Two months after the event an illness resulted in the premature death of the Queen. Much had been accomplished in the four short years of her reign. In almost each of the four years during her reign the Queen had passed enactments for the welfare of the country and its people. Various items of objectionable income introduced and maintained during the former reigns, had been abolished and the revenue to the exchequer willingly sacrificed. Of the numerous enactments passed, the abolition of slavery was one of the most important. Though the practice had been restricted during the reign of the previous sovereigns, this objectionable trade had never been entirely prohibited by any royal edict till the reign of Queen Lakshmi Bhye.

The Queen Lakshmi Bhye suddenly fell ill in 990 M.E (1815 AD). He case was considered hopeless and she called her husband and committed to his care her only juvenile sister Parwathi Ranee and her three children, a little princess and two infant princes’. Two days afterwards the Queen expired.

PARWATHI BHYE (1815–1829 )

Gouree Parwathi Bhye the sister of Her Highness Lakshmi Bhye was only thirteen years old when she ascended the throne in 990 M.E (1815 AD). The daughter of Queen Lakshmi Bhye, Princess Rugmini Bhye was seven years old and the princes, Rama Vurmah and Marthanda Vurmah were respectively eighteen months and three months old. Gouri Parwathi Bhye was to act as the regent during the minority of Prince Rama Vurmah. The young princess though only thirteen was imbued with a deep sense of her duty and had received a good education in Sanskrit and Malayalam. She was of a mild, kind and affable disposition and being placed under her able brother-in-law, the Valia Koil Thampuran, who also advised her. She also followed implicitly the judicious counsels of Colonel Munro, the Resident.

Since the premature death of the Dewan Padmanabhen no successor was appointed. Dewan Peishcar Bhappu Rao (one of the Raos’ who originally came with Colonel Munro) conducted the affairs of the administration. Suba Iyen Sankaranarayana Iyen a native Bhramin of south Travancore whose experience in Government affairs had been considered valuable was now selected and appointed as Dewan in 990 M.E (1815 AD). The administrative capacities of this dewan did not prove equal to the exigencies of the time he was replaced after ten months on the advice of Colonel Munro. In early 991 M.E (1816 AD) Ramen Menon a pleader in the Travancore court, who was a native of Cochin was considered for the post. This Dewan was very capable and discharged his duties to the general satisfaction of the people. Colonel Munro appointed Captain Gordon an English officer as Superintendent of Ports to the rising port of Alleppey. He showed excellent capabilities for the new office and reorganised the commercial department as well as commencing some speculation in merchandise. But in doing so, he displayed a spirit of independence, which the Dewan considered objectionable. Raman Menon saw that some measures adopted by Captain Gordon were contrary to the established rules and took severe action against the agent. On being reviewed by Colonel Munro, even though he found it to be somewhat irregular, deprecated the Dewan’s excessive severity towards a European officer. Misunderstandings arose between the Dewan and the Resident.

Scarcely a year passed when Colonel suggest to the Regent that the office of the defunct Dalawah need to be revived. Dewan Raman Menon was appointed to this new post with a curtailment of pay and power. This office of the Dalawah was once considered the highest in the state, for in those days it entailed the combined office of the commander in chief and the prime minister. But now the duty of the Dalawah was simply to sign the death warrants of criminals and mundane things.

In the same year 993 M.E (1817 AD) Dewan Peishcar Reddy Rao (Vencatta Rao) was appointed Dewan. Reddy Rao having obtained the coveted prize began to distinguish himself in the office of the Dewan and Colonel Munro rendered him every help with great pleasure. During Reddy Rao’s administration venality among the Sarkar servants which had been put down with an iron hand by Colonel Munro, began to crop up and became generally observable throughout the service. The Regent who had by this time gained some experience began to look minutely into the proceedings of the minister.

The new Resident, Colonel Mc Dowell reached Trivandrum in early 1819 AD. He was accompanied by a Maratha Brahmin named Vencatta Rao who was far superior in talent, intelligence and knowledge to his name sake Dewan Vencatta Rao. Colonel Mc Dowell made him his interpreter and agent, which office gave him opportunities of frequenting the palace and cultivating an acquaintance with the court. His ability gained him the post of Dewan Peishcar and he was employed as an immediate assistant to the Dewan. In 995 M.E (1819 AD) princess Rugmini Bhye attained the age of ten, which is considered the proper age for performing the marriage ceremony in the Royal family. The marriage was performed with all the pomp and ceremony. Colonel Mc Dowell died in 995 M.E (1820 AD) and Colonel Newell was appointed Resident the same year. Dewan Reedy Rao not only re-established confidence in the palace, but also stood high in the estimation of the Regent. After satisfactorily conducting the marriage affairs, the Dewan taking advantage, claimed special consideration from Her Highness in recognition of his labours. He received jaggeer consisting of two villages in Shencottah district.

The Dewan Peishcar Vencatta Rao, waiting for an opportunity to over throw the minister, availed himself of the above incident to carry out his plans. Raman Menon Dalawah was ready to assist the Peishcar to revenge himself on Reddy Rao for all the mortification he had endured. The Dewan’s improper acceptance of a grant was brought to the notice of the new Resident and after a thorough investigation, the Dewan was made to return the document and ultimately the transaction resulted in the resignation of the Dewan.

Towards the end of 997 M.E (1822 AD) Dewan Peishcar Vencatta Rao was appointed Dewan. He imitated the mode of administration adopted by Colonel Munro. His first step was, with the sanction of the Queen, to grant a general remission of arrears of tax accumulated since the administration of Colonel Munro. This measure had the desired effect, for the people of Travancore began to look upon the Dewan as a great benefactor. Valia Koil Thampuran realised the necessity of placing the English education of the two Princes under a competent tutor, and Subba Rao of Tanjore was appointed tutor.

The observations of Colonel Welsh on the two princes towards in May 1825, gives a glimpse of their education.

On a tour of inspection, I had the opportunity of witnessing the studies of the young rajahs in private. I went with Colonel Newell to the fort. We were conducted to a room in the palace and found the princes with their father, their sister, her husband and the tutor. The elder boy, now thirteen though rather diminutive in person seemed clever. He read a chapter in English, a passage in Sanskrit, another in Malayalam and seemed equally good in each. He then took a book of Mathematics, selecting the 47^th proposition of Euclid, sketched the figure on a country slate. But what astonished me was his telling us in English, that Geometry was derived from Sanskrit, which was “jaw meteor” to measure the earth and that many our mathematical terms were also derived from the same source such as hexagon, heptagon, octagon etc. His remarks were generally apposite, but their language inelegant and ungrammatical. This is much lamentable, with so many studies on hand he can never read enough of English to correct his idiom, and the tutor a very clever Tanjore Brahmin, could not speak it much better himself. His Persian was pure and elegant, but of the other languages I am too ignorant to offer an opinion. The younger brother gave us various specimen of his acquirements, somewhat inferior of course to those of the elder one, but still very fair. The Princess, at whose wedding I was present in 1819, was grown both fat and coarse. Their father a very handsome man about middle age is their joint guardian with Ranee and the Resident, but has no other power or authority whatever. The Princess’ husband looks very much like her younger brother. Seen apart, I should not know one from the other. The present Dewan, an uncommonly handsome, fair and elegant Carnatic Brahmin named Vencatta Rao, is one of the most intelligent and well educated men I have met in India. Such a man to educate the young Princes would have been worth his weight in gold.

Dewan Vencatta Rao established his headquarters in Quilon, the centre of Travancore, where the appeal and other courts were located. The Dewan grew popular day by day, as he made it a point to give free access to him, to all classes of people, every day at an appointed time. Under his administration the country was soon flourishing again. He completed Colonel Munro’s plan to construct two canals, one from Trivandrum to Kadinamcolum and the other to connect Quilon and Paravor backwaters together, and thus extend water communication from Trivandrum to the north. This work was started in 999 M.E (1824 AD) and in the course of three years the work was completed at a comparatively small expenditure.

It was this Regent who sanctioned the English missionary labours in Travancore, though perfect toleration of Christianity had been guaranteed by the Travancore sovereigns from the earliest times. Subsequent to this event other grants of lands for the erection of Christian churches were made and continued to this present day. The immense number of places of Christian worship now seen on the Travancore territory between Thovalay and Paravoor furnish evidence of the impartial countenance the Travancore sovereigns have always given to the Christian religion, which indeed the Hindus do not generally view in a friendly light. In the year 991 M.E (1816 AD) the Regent under the advice of Colonel Munro sanctioned the erection of a large Protestant church at Alleppey and gave the teak timber required for the building free of all charges. In the same year the Church Mission Society was also permitted to commence its operations at Kottayam, for the improvements Syrians, the oldest Christian subjects of the Queen’s territories. To these people, the Resident Colonel Munro, devoted great attention and the Church Mission Society commenced working conjointly with the Syrian Metran. In order to facilitate the education of the Christians, a College was opened, and towards its maintenance this most generous Queen granted a donation of 20,000 rupees. With this money they purchased gardens and paddy fields, the income derived from which paid for the maintenance of the college. Subsequent events however, disorganised and shattered this most useful institution and the lands were sold, minus that portion of the gift that fell on the Church Mission Society (CMS). This is called Munro’s Island and is in the Kalama Poverty near Qulin, which yields an annual rent of about 2500 rupees to the Church Mission Society (in 1872 AD). In order to prevent the Syrians dissipating the gift of the Princess when the college lands were sold, the proceedings were deposited in the Resident Treasury till the year 1872. When the old College being re-established by the Syrians, the money now nearly doubled was given on mortgages and the interest supports 30 of these candidates learning for priesthood, besides providing for teachers. The CMS provided two European teachers and ten native assistants at their own expenses and have built another College and provided boarding for 75 lads and an equal number of day scholars who are educated by the Munro Island rent. The Queen had also appointed a considerable number of Syrian Christians to public offices.

The Nair brigade was formally organised during this reign, though it was partly in existence during the reign of the previous Queen Lakshmi Bhye, when 700 men and a few mounted troopers out of the remains of the Travancore military force were re-admitted and retained as an attendant force on the royalty. But now, by special request of the Queen Parvathy Bhye, the Madras Government sanctioned the proposal to have a Brigade consisting of 2,100 men under the command of English officers and also to increase the number of mounted troops to fifty men forming a cavalry squadron. This was early in the year 994 M.E (1819 AD).

Of the numerous enactments promulgated during the reign of Queen Parvathy Bhye, the most memorable are, first, the prohibition of ooliyam service, from Christian peasants and tenants, when such was connected with any of the Hindu religious ceremonies. Second, the employment of Christians for any public works on Sundays. Third, the introduction of stamped documents. Fourth, the removal of restrictions as regards the wearing of gold and silver ornaments by Sudras and others. Fifth, the introduction of coffee cultivation. Sixth, the prohibition of judicial officers holding private conferences and parties with parties concerned in cases, either at court or at their private residences.

Towards the close of this reign, the tutor Suba Rao became very influential in the court. With the increase of Suba Rao’s influence, Dewan Vencatta Rao’s power began to decline. Vencatta Rao was afraid of being supplanted by Suba Rao, but the Regent would not sanction the measure, and left it to be decided after the installation of the elder Prince.

In the year 1004 M.E (1829 AD) Prince Ravi Vurmah completed 16 years of age and thus attained majority. The Regent Parvathy Bhye made over the kingdom to her sister’s son.

RAMA RAJAH (Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma II 1813–1846)

Rama Rajah ascended the throne in 1004 M.E (21^st April 1829 AD). The young king had the advantage of the advice and council of his worthy father, the able tutor and the meritorious Dewan. The Resident, Colonel Morrison, was a very able officer and also a warm supporter of the King. The king had completed his education and become a perfect master in Sanskrit, English, Persian, Hindustani, Marathi, Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Malayalam. Soon after he became king Rama Rajah’s attention was directed to remodelling his cabinet. The king wanted to appoint Suba Rao, the tutor as the Dewan, but the idea of dispensing the services of the able and popular Dewan Vencatta Rao was not approved by the king’s father, by Her Highness the Ranee and by the Resident, Colonel Morrison. The controversy on this subject lasted six months. In the meantime Resident, Colonel Morrison was removed and Dewan Vencatta Rao tendered his resignation. Two months afterwards in 1005 M.E (1830 AD) Suba Rao was appointed Dewan and Kochu Sankara Pillay, a native of Travancore, who was a judge in the Huzzur Court, was made Dewan Peishcar. These were followed by several other changes among the ministers.

The Huzzoor Cutcherry and other public offices which had been held at Quilon for a long time were removed to Trivandrum. Suba Rao spared no pains to distinguish himself in his new sphere and fully justified the trust placed in him by the king. Suba Rao established a reputation far superior to that of his predecessor. Reformation the maintenance of a rigid moral discipline were the chief aim of the young king. So the petty abuses which were overlooked during the late administration were totally checked by special enactments. Bribery and corruption were severely punished. Three years after the accession to the throne, Musiff’s courts were established for the first time in every district throughout Travancore. The Huzzoor Court was abolished and a Zilla Court establish in Trivandrum in lieu of it.

The then Resident Mr Cassmaijor recommended a Tashildar of one of the taluks under the Malabar collectorate, Itterarichen Cundappen (Cunden Menon) to the king. This person was appointed Dewan Peishcar in the Huzzoor Cutcherry in 1010 M.E (1835 AD). Cunden Menon proved to be an excellent acquisition to the Travancore Service. Ina short time he merited the applause of the people, who began to talk of him as second only to ex-Dewan Vencatta Rao. Cunden Menon and his team commenced drafting and arranging the regulations, which they finished in the course of a few months. It was brought into force from the year 1011 M.E (1836 AD). This was the first code of regulations ever adopted and promulgated in Travancore. The first five chapters contain the civil code of the Munsiffs, Zillah and Appeal Courts. The sixth chapter, with the regulation vested in the Tashildar and Police authority. The seventh and eighth chapters deal authority of appeal court judges to perform the functions of the session courts.

To carry out the provisions laid out by the new code, the services of a Bagavuntha Rao (one of the Munsiffs in the Malabar Zilla) was recommended by Cunden Menon. The king issued the invite through the Resident. Bagavuntha Rao was appointed the judge of the Appeal Court. Cunden Menon Peishcar became virtually the Head magistrate and he took in hand the organisation of the police and magistracy. Dewan Suba Rao whose powers had been virtually usurped by the intelligent and painstaking Dewan Peishcar, had nothing to do beyond affixing his signature on all the communications prepared under the directions of Cunden Menon. The Dewan now grew jealous, and began to thwart the Peishcar in many praiseworthy undertakings. But Suba Rao’s ill-devised endeavours against Cunden Menon were not successful, as the Peishcar had the firm support of the King and the Resident, in all the really important matters. But the successful career of Cunden Menon was arrested by his sudden and serious illness. After a distinguished service of two years, he died at Trivandrum. In the year 1009 M.E (1834 AD) the king in consultation with the Dewan sanctioned the opening of an English School in Trivandrum. The establishment of the free school was followed by the opening of a few branch schools in the districts. Thus English education was introduced in Travancore by this illustrious King Rama Rajah. The Trivandrum Observatory owed its origins in 1836 AD to the enlightened views of the King Rama Rajah, and to the encouragement given by General Stuart Frazer, then representing the British Government.

The virtues of European medicines and the benefit derived from European medical treatment having been thoroughly appreciated from experience, ever since the appointment of Doctor as medical attendant upon the royal family, the King wished his subjects to also share in its advantages. He therefore sanctioned the establishment of a charity hospital at Trivandrum, under the supervision of the palace physician.

The construction of the Sree Padam palace, during the former reign, on a plan drawn by a European Engineer, had impressed the King, even though he was quite young. The recent construction of the Observatory simply confirmed this impression of European Engineering skill. In consultation with the Resident Colonel Frazer, sanctioned the organisation of an experimental engineering department at Trivandrum. The Maharajah commissioned to procure a small printing press. Mr.Caldecott, employed to do so, first introduced lithography and subsequently in consultation with the Resident, printing presses were ordered from England and a printing department established.

The King had reasons to be dissatisfied with Dewan Suba Rao and his assistant Cochu Sankara Pillay Peishcar. Serious charges were preferred against these high officials by a number of petitioners. In 1012 M.E (1837 AD) the King issued orders for the suspension of the Dewan and Peishcar. The first judge of the appeal court, Narayanan Kesaven, was dismissed in 1010 M.E (1835 AD). A commission was now appointed to inquire into the charges against the accused. After a prolonged inquiry of two months impeachment was found to be unsustainable and the commission closed their sitting. But the King being dissatisfied thought it not proper to reinstate the Judge, the Dewan and the Peishcar. Mr. Runga Rao, the then Dewan Peishcar was authored to assume the functions of the Dewan. He was a very active and honest officer and conducted the administration very satisfactorily.

The King remembering the good qualities and ability of the ex-Dewan Vencatta Rao entertained the idea of re-appointing him to the office of the Dewan, and in consultation with his brother the Elia Rajah then wrote to Vencatta Rao, who expressed his willingness to accept the offer. In the year 1013 M.E (1838 AD) Vencatta Rao arrive in Trivandrum and was immediately appointed Dewan. As the Dewan was progressing in his brilliant career, he had the misfortune to fall out with Captain Douglas, the acting Resident. Finding that they could not agree, Vencatta Rao tendered his resignation. Thus much against the King’s wishes Vencatta Rao ended his new career of twelve months in 1014 M.E (1839 AD). Dewan Pishcar Ranga Rao, having resigned his office when his brother was appointed Dewan, was then called upon to take the post of Dewan. Subsequently the King in consultation with the Resident Captain Douglas recalled the other ex-Dewan Suba Rao to resume charge of the administration. Suba Rao resumed charge of the office in good spirits as if he had been attending the Cutcherry all the time, his absence of two years from the office and even the enquiry did not seem to weigh upon him.

In 1016 M.E (1840 AD) Colonel Cullen was appointed Resident. A young Brahmin Krishna Iyen, afterwards known as Krishna Rao followed the Resident to Travancore. This Brahmin was under Cullen when he was in the Commissariat at Madras. The king thought it wise to do something for Krishna Rao with a view of pleasing the Resident. A post was created for him in the Cutcherry. Krishna Rao aspiring for higher position began to work slowly with a view to overthrowing Dewan Suba Rao. General Cullen being a little hard of hearing had to be talked to in a loud voice and the king rather delicate in constitution and the strain on his lungs seemed to injure his health. His interactions with the Resident therefore were not so frequent. The Deputy Peishcar Krishna Rao was the principal person who used to interact between the two. Krishna Rao took this opportunity prejudicing Colonel Cullen against Dewan Suba Rao; intimating that the excuses the king made and his unwillingness to receive the Resident stemmed from a personal disregard to the Resident and the Dewan had advised the King not to make himself too friendly with the Resident. Thus first seeds of misunderstanding were sown in the Resident’s mind. The Resident started interfering in the internal administration of the Travancore Government. Slowly the Dewan’s hands were tied up. This extra ordinary interference of the Resident irritated the king and the misunderstanding between the King and the Resident became stronger and stronger. Meanwhile the Resident continued representing matters to the Madras Government so as to place the King’s administration in an unfavourable light. Even though the King also represented the state of matters to the Madras Government, it was too late and the Madras Government did not give the king’s representation the attention it deserved. Deputy Peishkar Krishna Rao became the head of a strong faction, and there arose two factions in Travancore. Suba Rao’s influence gradually waned and he became simply the nominal Dewan. The Dewan submitted his resignation and he was allowed to retire on a monthly pension of 500 rupees. Krishna Rao was promoted to the post of Head Dewan in 1017 M.E (1842 AD). The King felt disheartened ever since he felt his authority interfered with by the Resident.

The King informed the Madras Government that he had no confidence in the Head Dewan Peishcar and would not confirm him in the Dewan’s office. The King summoned the old ex-Dewan Vencatta Rao (Reddy Rao) who had come to Travancore with Colonel Munro and was appointed Dewan in the year 1018 M.E (1843 AD). The Head Dewan Peishcar Krishna Rao and the Dewan Reddy Rao were always at logger heads. The Dewan had the support of the King, while Krishna Rao was backed by the Resident General Cullen. The King was determined to remove Krishna Rao from office. The Madras government at last agreed to the King’s wishes and in the year 1019 M.E (1843 AD), six months after the appointment of Dean Reddy Rao, the Head Peishcar Krishna Rao was dismissed from service and the King prohibited him from staying in Trivandrum. The fallen statesman was obliged to take up residence in Quilon.

General Cullen considered these proceedings of the King as a slight to the Resident, and began to work for the expulsion of the King’s tutor, the ex-Dewan Suba Rao from Trivandrum. The King had to yield to the decision of the Madras Government. After some time the King succeeded in recalling Suba Rao from Tanjore, where he had proceeded to in obedience to the orders of the Madras Government.

The King believed that his authority and power in his own country had been set at nought. From this time onwards the King became indifferent regarding the administration of the country and was dejected. His health began to fail. His uneasiness of mind began to prey upon his delicate constitution. About this time the Dewan Reddy Rao was too much given up to his dependants and relatives. It was through them that the affairs were managed in an unsatisfactory manner. The King made the premier understand that the disagreeable necessity of a public enquiry into his conduct might be avoided by his immediate resignation. Reddy Rao wisely accepted the proposal and send in his resignation the next day. Soon afterwards Sreenevasa Rao, the then first judge of the appeal court, was appointed Head Dewan Peishcar. He was a very honest and quiet man. Being called upon to assume charge of the administration at a time when the ablest Dewan would have found it difficult to manage affairs satisfactorily; he experienced great difficulty in coping with the emergency. Reedy Rao had brought the administration to such a state which Sreenevasa Rao’s hand was too weak to rectify. The gradually growing illness of the King and his indifference to the affairs of the state; the increasing misunderstanding between the court and the Resident; The general inactivity of the district officials; and above all the financial embarrassments of the Government, were evils that Sreenevasa Rao found too hard for him to surmount. The Resident interfered at every point connected with the administration. The large sum of money amounting to upwards of 34 lacs of rupees which was the surplus in the treasury during the prosperous administration of Dewan Suba Rao which had been transferred to the palace treasury was all spend in religious ceremonies and temples. The financial difficulty became greater than all the other difficulties. By adopting a sensible line of conduct Sreenevasa Rao was enabled to show improvement in the financial department and in the general administration. Towards the close of 1021 M.E (1845 AD) a great misfortune befell Travancore. An unusually heavy storm burst over the country destroying both life and property to a considerable extent. The improvement of the financial condition of the country was considerably retarded.

The King’s father died in this year (1021 M.E). From that day the king’s ailments began to increase. He loved seclusion and solitude, and as his malady increased, his habit became more sedentary. No person, save his personal attendants had access to him. His Highness’ brother the Elia Rajah, who had a good knowledge of the medical science was his only medical attendant. After consulting the Elia Rajah, the King decided to re-appoint Krishna Rao and give him a fresh trial. This was the last commission of appointment signed by the King and it took place in 1022 M.E (1846 AD).

The King Maha Rajah died in his sleep in the night. Before daybreak the palace was thronged and filled with people. The Elia Rajah, the chief mourner, performed all the ceremonies. Thus ended the worthy career of this Maha Rajah in the thirty fourth year of his age and in the 18^th year of his reign.

BHAGHEODAYA RAMA RAJAH (Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma II 1846–1860)

This Sovereign was 32 years old when he ascended the throne in 1022 M.E (1847 AD). Marthanda Vurmah Maha Rajah was a good scholar in English, Sanskrit, Hindustani, Maratha, and Malayalam and Tamil languages like the demised sovereign. The only difference between the two of them was in poetical talents and musical accomplishments, in which the new king was inferior to his lamented brother. But in politics he excelled. The King’s defective English pronunciation was a great drawback and the prince resolved upon improving himself in this respect. Being very friendly with the Resident and with the Residency surgeon Dr. Brown, the Prince prevailed upon the latter to aid him in acquiring a correct accent. Dr. Brown was very obliging and acceded to the Prince’s wishes. A few months later the Prince felt an inclination to study the doctor’s own profession. The Doctor most willingly undertook to teach the science of medicine to this Prince. Dr. Brown had to leave India before the Prince completed his medical studies. But the Prince persevered in a course of self-study by procuring and reading the works of eminent authors.

At first the prince procured a small supply of medicines from the Durbar Physician with which he commenced treating ordinary cases within the circle of his own attendants and their families. Subsequently supplies of almost all descriptions of medicines were procured and in the course of a few years a large room had been converted into a private dispensary. Every new medicine discovered and advertised in the newspapers was procured. Later on a separate building was constructed and persons from the Prince’s own attendants were selected and trained as nurses. The Prince used to spend the greatest part of his leisure hours there, in treating cases himself, and latterly this private dispensary became a regular hospital. The Hindu portion of the patients preferred this institution to the Sarkar hospital. The Prince also performed minor surgical operations with considerable dexterity. Most of the palace attendants were vaccinated by the Prince himself.

The Prince took a fancy to European styles and fashions from an early age and gradually all his mode of living became almost Europeanised. His dress, occupations, furniture and amusements were all after the European style. This king possessed none of the advantages which his deceased brother had at the time of his ascension to the throne. On the contrary he was destined to face difficulties from the outset of his regime. Besides he was without the assistance of good and experienced councillors like his late father and other old and able men of the court. The treasuries of both the palace and the State were almost empty, and the financial position of the country was in utter confusion. Sreenivasa Rao, the Head Dewan Pesihcar in charge of the administration was too mild a temperament and with an inability to cope with extraordinary contingencies. He was in addition to this in disfavour with General Cullen, the Resident. The salaries of most of the public establishments were in arrears. The revenue of the state was falling off from various causes. The only favourable circumstance was that the king was on friendly terms with General Cullen from the time he arrived in Travancore as the Resident. The clever King resolved to begin his reign by giving effect to the principle adopted by his mother and his aunt, which was to be guided by the advice and counsel of the Resident.

The King suggested to General Cullen the desirableness of making a change in the administration, and proposed to relegate Sreenivasa Rao to his former post of first judge of appeal court and to appoint Krishna Rao to act as Dewan and was carried into effect. Krishna Rao in a short time acquired the full confidence of the King. Soon after his appointment as Dewan, Krishna Rao made a full and detailed report on the financial condition of the State. There was only 80,000 rupees in the treasury, and all the dues amounted to 6 lacs of rupees. The collection of revenue had fallen in arrears to the extent of a like sum or more. The King was not demoralised and devoted himself to setting right the disorganisation in the Government services. The Dewan assured the King, that he would use all his exertions in collecting the arrears of revenue and paying the State dues.

The King took great interest in the English Education of his nephews. The ex-Dewan Suba Rao, as a privileged instructor of the Royal family commenced teaching the princes’ English, and his sons afterwards undertook this duty. But, subsequently a Sankara Menon, a scholar of Kottayam College was appointed tutor. When the King was contemplating better education for his nephews by getting some Europeans from Madras, Vasudeva Rao (the son of ex-Acting Dewan, Ranga Rao) wrote to the king, requesting the king to take under his patronage his brother Madava Rao. The King after consulting the Resident appointed the young man as tutor to the Prince.

As the affairs of the Kings Government were progressing satisfactorily several misfortunes bell the country. In 1028 M.E (1852 AD) the excessive rainfall caused inundation and destroyed all the crops that were being harvested in the northern districts of Travancore. While the cultivation for the next year 1029 M.E 1853 AD) were ruined throughout the kingdom. The land revenue, the source of prosperity of the people and of commerce suffered greatly. There was famine and for the first time paddy from Bengal had to be imported. Simultaneously with this dire calamity, the East India Company abolished their tobacco monopoly, which circumstances paved the way for smuggling of tobacco into Travancore from British territories. It proved highly detrimental to the source of revenue in Travancore. While the Dewan was working hard to meet these difficulties, the ex-Regent, Queen Parvathi Bhye fell ill and died. The funeral ceremonies and other observances on the demise of a sovereign were to be performed without any omission. This event caused an additional expenditure, which admitted no delay. It was no ordinary trial to be Dewan at this critical time. However the Diwan surmounted all difficulties and managed affairs to the satisfaction of the King.

The Head Dewan Kesava Pillay had died in the previous year and the king had not filled that vacancy. Deputy Peishcars Raman Menon and Veeraswamy Naidoo were promoted as Peishcars and two vacancies fell open. Madava Rao was selected to fill one of these vacancies.

The Madras Government about this time moved the question of abolition of Slavery in Travancore, but the subject had already engaged the King’s attention for the past two years. He had great difficulty in convincing the jenmies and landlords to whom the slaves belonged, and who urged that the abolition of slavery would tend to the ruin of agriculture. His Highness left the matter in abeyance. In 1029 M.E (1853 AD) the King by a proclamation declared that all future children of Government slaves are free from bondage. He made provisions for the improved condition of the other slaves and in a couple of years subsequently abolished slavery altogether from his dominions by a royal proclamation in the year 1855 AD.

In the census taken in 1836 AD, the population of Travancore was 1,280,668 people. The next census was taken in the year 1854 AD. The population was 1,262,647 people, a decrease of more than 18,000 people, which was considered incorrect.

The sudden death of Dewan Peishcar Veeraswamy Naidoo from apoplexy left his place vacant and Madava Rao was promoted to that post in 1030 M.E (1855 AD). Madava Rao proposed the establishment of separate divisions in the kingdom each under a Dewan Peishcar. In 1031M.E (1856AD) the king sanctioned the establishment of two divisions, one in the south comprising the districts of Thovalay, Auguteeswarom, Kalculam, Eraneel, and Velavancode; and one in the north comprising the districts of Cherthalay, Vycom, Ettumanoor, Kottayam, Changanacherry, Meenachil, Thodupuzha, Muvattupuzha, Kunnathunaud, Alangaud and Paravoor. Madava Rao was appointed Dewam Peishcar of the southern division and Ramon Menon of the northern division. The management of the intermediate districts resting with the Dewan as before.

The sepoy mutiny of 1033 M.E (1857 AD) caused the king great consternation and regret. Dewan Krishna Rao received immediate instructions from the king to attend to every requisition of General Cullen and to render all possible assistance to the British Government. In that year Dewan Krishna Rao fell ill and in the course of a week he died. The king consulted with his nephew, the heir apparent and came to the conclusion that Madava Rao should succeed as the Dewan. He was appointed Dewan in 1033 M.E (1858 AD). Ramen Menon being senior to Madava Rao was disappointed in not being made Dewan and resigned from the Government Service. Madava Rao commenced a career almost unprecedented in Travancore in modern times and the King soon began to forget the loss of Krishna Rao as an efficient premier.

The Christian Missions and their mission work were strongly protected by the English Government. The low caste women were not allowed to cover their bosoms by the law of the land. The Sarkar had been necessitated in 1814 AD, to interfere and legislate for the future guidance of the low caste people who converted into Christianity. But not withstanding this during a period of 15 years there were quarrels on various occasions between the low caste converts and the other Hindus. In 1829 AD another legislation had been enacted. In this it was clearly laid out that the female low caste converts were at liberty to cover their bosoms with a jacket, and a strict prohibition was laid down against their adopting high caste Hindu costumes. The Mission work of conversion in the south Travancore was mostly, if not exclusively, confined to the low caste people, who formed a minor portion of the population of the southern districts. The Church Mission Society work in the northern parts were done quietly and without endeavouring to introduce reforms violently, the London Mission in the south seemed to pursue a different policy for nearly half a century. The mission works progressed very rapidly, and in the course of the next 30 years conversions to Christianity increased. On the part of the low caste converts there was open defiance of the laws of the land, which on account of the support and encouragement of the Missionaries were difficult to curb. Owing to the Travancore Sarkar’s regard for the paramount power of the Madras Government, desisted from taking action. As trouble between these two groups got increasingly frequent, Dewan Madava Rao issued a proclamation in 1868 AD, as a precautionary measure with a view of preventing further disturbances. The proclamation was that the legislation laid down in 1829 AD, should be respected and that whoever infringed the law would be severely punished. The Missionaries then petitioned the Madras Government, praying for the cancellation of the Dewan’s proclamation. The Madras Governor Sir Charles Trevelyan, wrote to the Resident General Cullen to impress upon the king and point out to him that such prohibition are unsuited to the present age and should immediately be rescinded. The King after due and long deliberation and consultation with the Dewan, issued a new proclamation in the same year (1859 AD), making further concessions to the low caste females. The Missionaries were not quite satisfied but it sufficed to check further disturbances on the score of dress.

In the commencement of the year 1035 M.E (1859 AD) the King contemplated the establishment of two more divisions, one at Quilon and the other at Trivandrum, and the placing of the whole administration under four divisions. Accordingly the measure was adopted and the affairs of the country began to be more satisfactorily managed than before. General Cullen, the Resident after a long tenure of twenty years retired in January, 1860 AD. The old General decided to settle in Travancore and died there in the year 1862 AD. Mr Maltby succeeded General Cullen as the Resident, and in him the King found a friend no less valuable than General Cullen.

In May, 1860, the king was unfortunately taken ill by a slight fever, which he got over soon. After a few days, he had a slight relapse followed by an attack of bowel complaint. This distemper continued to prey on the King’s constitution and in a short time he was reduced to a deplorable state. Towards the middle of July the King’s condition worsened. On the night of August 17^th the king was restless and could not sleep a wink. The next morning, the king was convinced he was nearing his end. The next day was the King’s birthday. The King called his eldest and favourite nephew, who had always been his constant companion and advisor, and spoke to him calmly in a low tone that the Prince and the rest of the Royal family need not entertain any hope of his recovery. The King then asked the Prince to call in the Dewan and the other State officers waiting outside. The King spoke to the Dewan very kindly, and to all the others had also a word or two from their amiable sovereign. The King died in his sleep.

In generosity, the King’s equal would be equal to find. The King was very particular in recognising merit during his reign. In Travancore the manner in which merit is recognised and rewarded by royalty is by bestowing of bangles or bracelets. There are several descriptions of such. The first class is called Veerachangala, the presentation of a pair of which is considered to be the greatest mark of distinction. Besides bangles various other rewards were also given by the King to his servants as well as to strangers.

[Condensed from HISTORY OF TRAVANCORE (390 pages) by P. SHUNGOONY MENON]

The last ruler of the Travancore kingdom was Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma who ruled from1931AD -1949AD. He relieved lot of restrictions like allowing all caste to enter Hindu temples. He was praised throughout the country. The first public transport system and telecommunication system were launched during his reign.

Travancore after 1947

A resolution was passes to form Aikya Keralam for the unification of Malayalam speaking regions. A number of popular ministries ruled and fell. In 1954, the Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress launched a campaign for the merger of the Tamil speaking regions with the state of Madras (presently Chennai). Under the State Reorganisation Act of 1956, Thovalai, Agasteeswarem, Kalkulam and Vilavancode and a part of the Checotah Taluk was merged with Madras state. The State of Kerala came into existence on November 1, 1956.

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Thekkumkur

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Kingdom of Thekkumkur (Malayalam: തെക്കുംകൂർ രാജ്യം) (also transliterated as Thekkumkoor or Thekkumcore) was an independent kingdom in the southern part of Kerala in India from 1103 CE until 1750 CE. It was ruled by the Thekkumkur Royal Family (Edathil Family). Thekkumkur lies between the Meenachil River and the Pamba River, from the Western Ghats to the Vembanad Kayal. Thekkumkur emerges as a result of administrative changes in the princely states at the end of the Chera Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram. The literal meaning of the title is the southern regent and the attribute southern distinguished them from another kingdom known as Vadakkumkur (northern regent) which bordered it in the northern side. The royal household, Thekkumkur Kovilakam, were at Vennimala and Manikandapuram near Puthuppally, later it shifted to Neerazhi Palace at Puzhavathu of Changanassery and Thalilkotta at Thaliyanthanapuram (Kottayam).

History

End of Kulasekhara Empire

Thekkumkur emerges as a result of administrative changes in the princely states at the end of the Kulasekhara Empire at the end of the 11th century. The feudal forms emerged as a result of the Brahmin's authority to acquire the physical rights of the land through the expansion of tiles and the influence of the slums which were the agricultural land. Smaller feudal lords subordinated themselves to the dynasties like Vempolinad. Due to the increase in the geographical area, Vempolinad was partitioned into two princely states called Thekkumkur and Vadakkumkur. The northern parts of Vembalanad were transformed into Vadakkumkur, and the southern parts of Vembalanad were merged with Munjunad and Nantuzhainad and formed Thekkumkur. There is no disagreement among historians as to what might have happened in the first decade of the twelfth century. However, there are some indications that the ritual had begun before that and the century before. Only that it was not transformed into an absolute monarchy of Thekkumkur kingdom.

Origin

Royal seal of Thekkumkur Dynasty engraved in stone (Punchaman Illom, Vennimala)

Ilaya Raja (Prince) of Vempolinad who lived in Vemballi palace (Malayalam: വെമ്പള്ളി കൊട്ടാരം) founded Thekkumkur kingdom at the beginning of the 12th century. After their separation, Thekkumkur became an independent kingdom, while Vadakkumkur became a vassal of Cochin. The northern parts of Vempolinad were transformed into Vadakkumkur, and the southern parts of Vempolinad were merged with Nantuzhunad and Munjunad and formed Thekkumkur in AD 1103. Vennimala was chosen as the headquarters of the Thekkumkur monarchy because the Thekkumkur king was the koyil authority of the Venimala Sree Rama Lakshmana Perumal Temple which was supposed to have been founded by Bhaskara Ravi Varma-II (1019–1021).

Initial Capital - Vennimala and Manikandapuram

Vennimala was established as the headquarters of Thekkumkur kingdom. Vennimala was the most secure place for the enemy. The forests were cut down and developed into habitable areas and the administration is strengthened by the capital city of Manikandapuram. The Manikandapuram Krishna temple is believed to have been built by King Iravi Manikandan in 1152 AD. Manikandapuram and adjoining areas flourished with the administrative and populace necessary for capital. During the rule of the Thekkumkur kings, Manikandapuram was a very flourishing town. There is evidence that the fort and the tunnels were at Manikandapuram, as were the later headquarters of the Thekkumkur monarchy at Changanassery and Thaliyanthanapuram (Kottayam).

Changanassery and Thaliyanthanapuram

As part of the growth of the market hubs in idanadu (medieval places), it was an intellectual move to have good interventions in the kingdom, the capital shifted to Puzhavathu in Changanassery at the beginning of 15th century. Apart from trade, Thekkumkur has promoted Changanassery as the best town for transportation in the southern neighboring princely states of Kerala. The administrative center remained in the Neerazhi Palace of Changanassery for the next three and a half centuries. The relocation of the headquarters to Neerazhikettu Kottaram at Changanassery made it easier for them to ease the commodities that frequent the Vembanadu lagoon and to combat the encroachments of the backwaters of Chempakassery.

Thali Temple, Thalikotta (Thaliyanthanapuram)

By the end of the 15th century, the Thekkumur kings had built a palace and fort near the Thaliyil temple and established another capital on the banks of the river Meenachil at Thalianthanapuram (Kottayam). Thali Temple was one of the eighteen and a half Thali shrines (Malayalam: പതിനെട്ടര തളികൾ) of Kerala. An additional capital city establishment was by the trade developments in the Thazhathangadi river (Meenachil River) and the collapse of the ancient thali (Malayalam: തളി) as a center of Brahmanism. The fort, which was about a kilometer in circumference and was about 12 feet high, was made of heavy red sandstone and had six bastions (the tower of view) and five-meters (seven Kol) wide trenches.

Geography

Map of Thekkumkur (1498) By Dutch Rev.Samuel Mateer

An earthen fort along the border of Vadakkumkoor and Thekkumkoor, it beginning from Athirampuzha, it extended to Kondur (east of Palai). Initially, the Thekkumkur boundary was the Western Ghats (Sahyadri Mountains) to the Vembanadu Lake (Vembanadu Kayal) and the Kanakkary to Kaipattoor (Kadavu) in Achankovil River. In the late 18th century, however, the area of the kingdom declined. As a Dutch map of AD1743 indicates, the boundaries are;

· West: Vembanadu Lake; Place includes: Kumarakom, Eara, Neelamperoor, Kidangara, Muttar, Neerettupuram, Niranam

· South: Place includes: Budhanur, Puliyur, Parumala, Chengannur, Aranmula, Kozhanchery, Ayirur, Ranni

· East: Place includes: Mukkoottuthara, Erumeli, Kannimala, Chotty, Thidanad, Meenachil

· North: Place includes: Palai, Lalam, Koodallur, Kanakkary, Athiranpuzha

Historian K.N Gopala Pillai, Kuruppum Veettil is written of the country's borders in his historical novel "Thekkumkur Rani". He said that Purakkad belonged to Thekkumur and was an important trading center of the country.

Separation of Poonjar Provinance

It is believed that a branch of the Pandyan dynasty who had to flee in the 12th century after a dispute over Madurai; later sold their possessions and established a kingdom. Pandya king, Manavikrama Kulasekhara Perumal who came from Madurai and later settled in Ettumanur. Udaya Kulasekara of the Pandya dynasty was revealed the locals the intent of the robbers who came to loot Ettumanur Siva temple in the early 15th century. In the congregation that followed Udaya Kulasekara Perumal of Pandya king made the covenant with Kotha Varman Manikandan of Thekkumkur in AD 1419 at Thaliyanthanapuram. Thekkumkur king summoned the local governing councils and locals at Thaliyil Temple to understand their minds about the covenant. According to the covenant with Kotha Varman and Manavikraman of Pandya dynasty; the Poonjar kingdom was acquired by giving a certain amount of gold and undefined emeralds to the Thekkumkur This is a treaty document on the rise of the Poonjar kingdom. KP Padmanabha Menon writes in the Malabar histories about the authentic account of the country exchange treaties held at the Mukha mandapam of Thaliyil Siva temple.

The Poonjar Covenant

പൂഞ്ഞാർ ഉടമ്പടി

Tekkuṅkūr svarūpattiṅkaninnuṁ pūññāṟṟil perumāḷkk maññamala periyār uḷppeṭa malampiṟaṁ eḻuti keāṭuttatāvit. keāllaṁ 594 (AD1419) makaraṁ ñāyaṟil pūññār udayakulaśēkharapperumāḷ paṇṭārattilēykk veṇpala nāṭṭuṭaya kēātavarm'man kēāviladhikārikaḷ maññamala periyār malampiṟattinatir.

kiḻakk kaṇṇam'mēṭṭinuṁ talakkuḷatt mēṭṭinuṁ nētākara mēṭṭinuṁ vaḻukkappāṟa mēṭṭinuṁ talamala kiḻakkēāṭṭ cāññatinuṁ mēkkuttekk vaḻukkappāṟaykkuṁ mullaykkuṁ pēraṭa pāṟattēāṭṭinuṁ tēvarakkuḷatt mēṭṭinuṁ cēāṟṟippāṟaykkuṁ kūṭṭikkalkkuṁ mēkkuvaṭakk mannammuṭṭikkuṁ kunnēāmmuṟikkuṁ kuṭamuruṭṭimalaykkuṁ mār malaykkuṁ periyal malaykkuṁ pēāḻākkallinuṁ oru tarattilāṇ cāññanēāṭaykkuṁ murikkal taṟamēṭṭinuṁ tekkuḷḷa nālatirttikkakatt maññamala cāttāvineyuṁ malayaṭimāreyuṁ kūṭe aṭṭippēr eḻuti tannirikkunnu. kuṟimānaṁ keāllavarṣaṁ 614 (AD 1439)

തെക്കുംകൂർ സ്വരൂപത്തിങ്കനിന്നും പൂഞ്ഞാറ്റിൽ പെരുമാൾക്ക് മഞ്ഞമല പെരിയാർ ഉൾപ്പെട മലമ്പിറം എഴുതി കൊടുത്തതാവിത്. കൊല്ലം 594 (എ.ഡി.1419) മകരം ഞായറിൽ പൂഞ്ഞാർ ഉദയകുലശേഖരപ്പെരുമാൾ പണ്ടാരത്തിലേയ്ക്ക് വെൺപല നാട്ടുടയ കോതവർമ്മൻ കോവിലധികാരികൾ മഞ്ഞമല പെരിയാർ മലമ്പിറത്തിനതിര്.

കിഴക്ക് കണ്ണമ്മേട്ടിനും തലക്കുളത്ത് മേട്ടിനും നേതാകര മേട്ടിനും വഴുക്കപ്പാറ മേട്ടിനും തലമല കിഴക്കോട്ട് ചാഞ്ഞതിനും മേക്കുത്തെക്ക് വഴുക്കപ്പാറയ്ക്കും മുല്ലയ്ക്കും പേരട പാറത്തോട്ടിനും തേവരക്കുളത്ത് മേട്ടിനും ചോറ്റിപ്പാറയ്ക്കും കൂട്ടിക്കൽക്കും മേക്കുവടക്ക് മന്നംമുട്ടിക്കും കുന്നോംമുറിക്കും കുടമുരുട്ടിമലയ്ക്കും മാർ മലയ്ക്കും പെരിയൽ മലയ്ക്കും പോഴാക്കല്ലിനും കിടങ്ങൽമുറിക്കും കിഴക്കുവടക്ക് നല്ല തണ്ണീരാറ്റിനും ചെങ്കരത്തോടിനും ചാഞ്ഞനോടയ്ക്കും മുരിക്കൽ തറമേട്ടിനും തെക്കുള്ള നാലതിർത്തിക്കകത്ത് മഞ്ഞമല ചാത്താവിനെയും മലയടിമാരെയും കൂടെ അട്ടിപ്പേർ എഴുതി തന്നിരിക്കുന്നു. കുറിമാനം കൊല്ലവർഷം 614 (എ.ഡി.1439)

Rulers of Thekkumkur

· Ilayaraja Vimbileeswaran of Vempally Palace: 1103 - 1150 C.E.; Founder of Thekkumkur Dynasty.

· Eravi Manikandan Varman: 1150 - 1180 C.E.; Mentioned in Aithihyamala of Kottarathil Sankunni; Rajarshi; Built Manikandapuram temple at Vakathanam.

· Kumaran Iyakan Manikandan: 1300 C.E.; Mentioned in Tiruvalla copper plates (Thiruvalla Grandhavari).

· Rama Varman Manikandan: 1350 - 1378 C.E.; Mentioned in the oldest literary in Malayalam language Unnuneeli Sandesam (sandesa kavyam).

· Kotha Varman Manikandan: 1408 - 1440 C.E.; Made a covenant to sold the possessions to Udaya Kulasekara Perumal of Pandya king to establish the Poonjar dynasty.

· Adithya Varman Manikandan: 1520 - 1555 C.E.; Built Thazhathangady Pally on the bank of Meenachil River.

· Eravi Varman Manikandan: 1555 - 1579 C.E.; Younger brother of Adithya Varman.

· Goda Varman Manikandan: 1579 - 1606 C.E.; Built Kottayam Cheriya Pally.

· Kerala Aditya Varman Manikandan: 1626 - 1629 C.E.; Mentioned in Vanchipuzha Madam Script.

· Kerararu Goda Varman Manikandan: 1650 - 1674 C.E.; Started a Deutsche school; A Mizhavu dedicated to Thaliyil temple in 1661.

· Unni Kerala Varman Manikandan: 1674 - 1691 C.E.; Built Keralapuram Palace in Kottayam.

· Udaya Marthanda Varman Manikandan: 1691 - 1717 C.E.; Built Chitrakulam Mahadevar Temple and Chitrakulam pond at Puzhavathu.

· Adithya Varman Manikandan: 1717 - 1750 C.E.; Last King of Thekkumkur Dynasty; Fought in Battle of Changanassery with Marthanda Varma of Travancore.

Royal Palaces

The Neerazhi Palace (Changanassery) at Puzhavathu and Talikota Kovilakam (Thaliyanthanapuram) in Kottayam are the main residences of the Thekkumkur kings. Initially, the Maharaja lived in Venimala and Manikandapuram, which continued until the royal residence was moved to Neerazhi Palace. The Thekkumkur royal family had several palaces including Aranmula Palace, Keralapuram Palace, Edathil Palace Pallom etc.

The Battle of Changanassery

Marthanda Varma of Travancore who defeated Thekkumkur in the Battle of Changanassery

The last king of Thekkumkur was Aditya Varma Manikandan and he resided in the Neerazhi Palace at Changanassery. It was a time when an alliance between Adityavarma and his younger brother Goda Varman broke out. The king was willing to the alliance with Kochi, however, the crown prince was sympathetic to Travancore and Marthanda Varma. Goda Varman (crown prince of Thekkumkur) and Marthanda Varma of Travancore were classmates at Madurai when they were studying of Rajyadharma. After hearing of the military advance of the Travancore under the leadership of Ramayyan Dalawa and Caption De Lannoy; the crown prince of Thekkumkur (Goda Varman) then advised king Aditya Varma Manikandan to make a friendship with Travancore kingdom by understanding the downfall of princely state Ampalapuzha (Chempakassery) and the fall of princely state Kayamkulam. Meanwhile, when Marthanda Varma seized Kayamkulam and Chempakassery, Aditya Varma realized that they were the next victims and sent his brother to Thiruvananthapuram for an unconditional peace mission and met Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma of Travancore and requested help.

Unfortunately, Marthanda Varma asked Goda Varman, to promise that he would be in power if he helped to oust king Adithya Varman. Marthanda Varma had already heard the rift between the brothers. The younger king was well-received in the southern part of Thekkumkur kingdom. The self-righteous crown prince decided to return to Thekkumkur soon after the disagreement. The evil intelligence of Marthanda Varma and Ramayyan Dalawa aroused together. He sent a messenger to the younger king and told him the fake news, saying, "Departure to Kottayam immediately; the mother's health is bad". The crown prince Goda Varman decided to leave, boarded the boat and headed north; Marthanda Varma gave him some gifts for Thekkumkur king Aditya Varma Manikandan On the way, he descended on Anchuthengu Fort and received eleven ritual fire by the British authorities. From there he reached via Paravur Lake, Ashtamudi Lake, Kayamkulam Lake and Vembanadu Lake. The next day the boat of the crown prince reached Illyakkadavu at Thazhathangadi. Ramayyan's servants were followed by another boat and they slaughtered the crown prince Goda Varman and his servants. The next day was the declaration of war of Travancore. Crown prince's "classmate" challenges to Aditya Varman Manikandan for cheating and killing of his younger brother

Ramayyan Dalawa spread the news that the Thekkumkur king Adithya Varman killed crown prince Goda Varman. But historian P. Shankuni Menon is justifying Travancore in his book Travancore History of Shankuni Menon. The Thekkumkur fort and the Neerazhi Palace at Changanassery were attacked in September 1749. The Vazhappally Pathillathil Potimar (administrator of Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple) assisted the king Aditya Varman in the Neerazhi Palace and transferred him to Nattassery at Kottayam. The Kannamperoor wooden bridge at Vazhappally was destroyed to prevent the Travancore troops from following them in the event of adverse weather. The Thekkumkur king Aditya Verman fled to Calicut and gave refuge to the Zamorin (Zamuthiri). Proceedings of September 11, 1749; On the 28th of the year Malayalam era 925 Chingam (September 11, 1749 AD), the capital of the Thekkumkur conquered by Ramayyan Dalawa and merged to Travancore kingdom.

At present

The Thekkumkur Royal family members are now staying at Nattassery; now this Palace is visible with several ancient Nalukett & new houses constructed by current family members in close compounds of Edathil Bhagavathy Temple. Descendents of Thekkumkur Royal families stay in Nedikunnathu "Vazhuvelil" family and one branch moved to Kayamkulam and joined with their relative family which is also related to Odanadu (Kayamkulam) royal family and finally settled near Nurunadu and family are known as "Muthanttedam" or elder branch of Edathil (Thekkumkoor) Swarupam. Nediyanikkal Panayil Devi temple deity is worshipped by them as Edathil Bhagavathy. They lost their glorious past and live like any other Nair family and part of the Nalukett is renovated and some family members are living there .

After the subjugation of the Dutch by Travancore in 1742, military operations of Marthanda Varma progressed against the northern neighboring kingdoms including Thekkumkoor. Though Thekkumkoor allied with Chempakassery and Vadakkumkoor to protect the kingdom, all of them were finally annexed to Travancore.

The ruler of Thekkumkur had sided first with the Kingdom of Kayamkulam and then with the principality of Ambalapuzha against Travancore under Marthanda Varma. After the fall of Ambalapuzha, and as the ruler of Thekkumkoorr refused to come to terms with Travancore, his capital city was taken on 11 September 1750 by Ramayyan Dalawa, the general and prime minister of Marthanda Varma and the state was annexed to Travancore in 1753. The details of the battle are described in the 'History of Travancore From The Earliest Times' by P. Shankunni Menon, erstwhile Diwan Peshkar (a rank equivalent to Deputy Prime Minister) of the Travancore State and father of another noted historian K. P. Padmanabha Menon. Towards the end, the Thekkumkure Royal Family only controlled the small area of Kovilakam of Kolathu Kara Kozhanchery.

Paradevatha

Edathil Bhagavathy is the paradevatha of the Thekkumcore Royal Family. The main pūjā is performed on Medam 18 (which usually it falls on 1 May) every year. The pūjās are performed by the thandri from surya Kaladi Mana. There will be a thrikala pūjā (meaning pūjās in the morning, noon & evening) on this day. It is a day for family get-togethers as well.

Daily pūjās are performed by the Vadakkummal family. Vadakkummal Vikraman Namboodiri is the current main priest. The last day ceremony of the Kumaranallor Temple Ulsavam, the ārāttu (the day after the Thrikkarthika) is performed at the Meenachil River which is close to the Edathil Temple (2 km away from Kumaranalloor Devi Temple). The ārāttu is performed near the Edathil Bhagavathi Temple once every year since Kumaranalloor Bhagavathi comes to see her sister the Edathil Bhagavathi. During the month of January Bhagavata Purana Sapthaham with Bhagavathom Moolam is conducted every year.

A detailed and different version of the Battle of Changanassery.

The Battle of Changanacherry was a battle between the old princely states of Thekkumkur and Travancore in September 1749. Defeat in this decisive battle led to Thekkumkur losing its dominance and expanding the Tranvancore empire to the southern border of the river Meenachilar.

The kingdom of Travancore conquered the princely states of Kayamkulam and Ambalapuzha under the leadership of Ramayyan Dalawa (the Dewan of Travancore). Thekkumkur army provided assistance to counter Travancore's invasion of princely state Ambalapuzha. Realizing this, King Marthanda Varma decided to invade Thekkumkoor following the fall of Champakassery (Ampalapuzha).

The cause of the war[edit]

In the 13th century, Thekkumkur Rajdhani was shifted to Puzhavathu in Changanassery after Thrikkodithanam, Vennimala, Manikandapuram and others. The last king of Thekkumkur was Aditya Varma Manikandan and he resided in the Neerazhi Palace at Changanassery. After hearing of the military advance of the Travancore under the leadership of Ramayyan Dalawa; the crown prince of Thekkumkur then advised Aditya Varma Manikandan to make a friendship with Travancore kingdom by understanding the downfall of princely state Ampalapuzha (Chempakassery) and the fall of princely state Kayamkulam.

Then crown prince (Ilaya rajah) went to Thiruvananthapuram and met Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma and requested help. Aditya Varma Manikandan, angry at the crown prince's action, a messenger was sent to Thiruvananthapuram carrying a letter purportedly written by his sick mother. The crown prince had told king Marthanda Varma that this was a strategy to annihilate him, but king persuaded him to go to Changanassery to meet his sick mother and gave him some gifts for Thekkumkur king Aditya Varma Manikandan.

When the young prince reached Thekkumkur, he was assassinated by the royal guards at the behest of his elder brother. The king spread the news that the prince Kotha Varma had died of a snake bite. Recognizing the news from Thekkumkur about the wrong decision of the Thekkumkur king, Marthanda Varma of Travancore ordered Ramayyan Dalawa to march to Thekkumkur and capture the king Aditya Varma Manikandan

The War

When the Travancore troops reached Aranmula in the south of Thekkumkur kingdom, the Telugu Brahmins stopped the Travancore army. They were opposed by the army led by De Lannoy. After defeating the Telugu Brahmins at Aranmula, Ramayan Dalawa took over Thiruvalla gramam, where the Vilakkilli Madom Pottimar gave no resistance. Ramayyan's next target was the Neerazhi Palace of Thekkumkur at Changanassery. The Thekkumkur had a larger and stronger army than the other princely states (Kayamkulam, Ampalapuzha) conquered by the Ramayan. The Thekkumkur fort and the Neerazhi palace at Changanasseri were attacked in September 1749.

The Vazhappally Pathillathil Potimar (administrator of Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple) assisted the Thekkumkur king in the Neerazhi Palace and transferred him to Nattassery at Kottayam. The Kannamperoor wooden bridge at Vazhappally was destroyed to prevent the Travancore troops from following them in the event of adverse weather. The Thekkumkur king Aditya Verma fled to Calicut and was given refuge by the Zamorin (Zamuthiri). By this time, Ramayyan had influenced Vazhappadathu Paniker, the commander of Thekkumkur, and had learned the movement secret of the Pathillathil Pottimar. Proceedings of 11 September 1749; On the 28th of the year Malayalam era 925 Chingam (11_September_1749 AD), the capital of the Thekkumkur conquered by Ramayyan Dalawa and merged to Travancore kingdom.

The Vazhappally Pathillathil Pottimar

The Pathillathil pottimar (10 Brahmin families as the administrator of Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple) were charged with treason because they helped the Thekkumkur' Rajah Aditya Varma Manikandan to escape the Changanassery and resist the march of Marthanda Varma's army by demolishing the Kannanperoor bridge at Vazhappally. The Vazhappally Pottimar initially deterred the Travancore army by the fate of the Thekkumkur Rajah and they did not expect Marthanda Varma to kill brahmins who is the administrator of Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple.

Most of the male members of the brahmins family were either killed or exiled after sufficient evidence of conspiracy and murder was procured. Their houses were dug up (Kulamthondal - Malayalam: കുളംതോണ്ടൽ - a common punishment of the time) and all their assets and armies seized by the victorious Marthanda Varma. At the beginning of the 20th century, only one family was left in the Vazhappally Gramam from Pathillathil Pottimar.

History of Kallooppara

The land of Kallooppara was previously known by the name of Perumbranadu, due to its massive storage of rocks and hence being known by the name of 'Perum Parra Nadu', in the previous days and gradually being known as Perumbranad, in the latter days as legend has it.

Kallooppara was once the part of Thiruvalla taluk and with the formation of the Pathanamthitta district in 1983, a new taluk was created, Mallapally taluk and Kallooppara became a part of it. It was once governed by the Royalties of the Thekkumkoor Dynasty and Edappally Thampurans (rulers).

According to local tradition of Saint Thomas Christians , the four prominent Namboothiri families who accepted the new faith from St. Thomas, Disciple (Apostle) of Christ between AD 52 and AD 72 among them were Kali, Kalikavu, Pakalomattom & Sankarapuri.^[1][2] Because of their new faith, these families and their children were subjected to much hardship by others at that time and consequently they had to move towards South of Kerala by the end of the 2nd century. Though the Christians devotees of Kallooppara claim their roots to the first century, history dates their arrival and settlement at Kallooppara only from the 9th century onwards. Most of them migrated from Christian centers like Kuravilangad, Vaikom, Kadambanad etc., and have apical ancestors based on the lineage and known under family names such as Valiyaveedu, Melepeedika, Kallarakkal, Aalummud, Adangapurathu, Kurunthayil, Thazhepeedika, Pallikkal, Chamathil, Pandakasalayil, Peralummootil, Vattasseril, Kochumannil, Karimbil, Moothedathu, Mundupalathingal and Maret.

The Kalari and the fort

The old Vemolinad was separated into 'Vadakumkoor' and 'Thekkumkoor' in A.D.1100. Kottayam, Chenganacherry, Thiruvalla, Kanjirapally and some places of high range were included in Thekkumkoor kingdom. Kallooppara was under the control of the Thekkumkoor dynasty. It had Kalari (training center for martial arts) at Kallooppara. The famous Kalari was known as Thekkumkoor fort which existed until recently. The Thekkumkoor army camped here and it was risky for the enemy to attack them. It is said that the King had many close friends in Kallooppara and its surroundings. The Old Nair lord Family at Koipuram in Eraviperoor was in close touch with the Kings. It was this Nair Lord family who had great influence on the king and inspired him to donate Kallooppara sub-division to Edappally dynasty. As the withdrawal of Thekkumkoor kings, Kallooppara came under the Edappally dynasty, which is also known as Elangalloor Swaroopam. The Edappally dynasty has the history of elevation of a temple priest to the royal position of a King. The founder of the Edappally dynasty was a priest of Thrikkakara temple according to the historical evidence and proverbs.

Tracing roots to Edappally