Vietnam is situated on the eastern Indochinese Peninsula, between latitudes 8° and 24°N and longitudes 102° and 110°E. The country spans an area of approximately 331,210–331,699 square kilometers (127,881–128,070 sq mi), with a land boundary of 4,639 km (2,883 mi) and a coastline stretching 3,444 km (2,140 mi). At its narrowest point in Quảng Bình province, Vietnam is only about 50 km (31 mi) wide but expands to roughly 600 km (370 mi) in the north. The terrain is largely hilly and forested, with mountains covering around 40% of the land and tropical forests making up approximately 42%.
The Red River Delta in the north is a compact, triangular region of about 15,000 km² (5,792 sq mi) that has undergone centuries of alluvial sedimentation. It is densely populated and highly developed compared to the Mekong Delta in the south, which spans roughly 40,000 km² (15,444 sq mi) and advances 60–80 meters into the sea each year due to sediment deposits. Vietnam’s exclusive economic zone in the South China Sea covers approximately 417,663 km² (161,261 sq mi).
Southern Vietnam features coastal plains, the Annamite mountain range, and vast forests, with the highlands comprising five basalt plateaus that hold about 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its forested regions. Due to extensive cultivation, the soil in southern areas is relatively depleted of nutrients. The northern part is primarily made up of highlands and the Red River Delta. Fansipan, located in Lào Cai province, is Vietnam’s highest peak at 3,143 m (10,312 ft).
Vietnam's climate varies significantly across different regions due to its diverse geography and latitudinal range. The winter or dry season, lasting from November to April, brings monsoon winds from the northeast, which travel along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, gathering moisture. The annual temperature is generally warmer in the plains compared to the mountainous areas, with southern Vietnam experiencing relatively stable temperatures between 21 and 35 °C (70 and 95 °F). In contrast, Hanoi and the Red River Delta see cooler conditions, ranging from 15 to 33 °C (59 and 91 °F).
In the northernmost regions, including mountainous areas and plateaus, seasonal temperature fluctuations are more pronounced, dropping to as low as 3 °C (37 °F) in winter and soaring to 37 °C (99 °F) in summer. Occasionally, snow falls on the highest peaks near the Chinese border during the winter months.
Vietnam receives substantial rainfall, with annual precipitation averaging between 1,500 and 2,000 mm (60 to 80 in), particularly during the monsoon seasons. Heavy rains often lead to flooding, especially in urban areas with inadequate drainage systems. The country is also frequently impacted by tropical storms, depressions, and typhoons. Due to its extensive coastline, approximately 55% of Vietnam’s population lives in low-elevation areas, making it highly vulnerable to climate change.
Vietnam, situated within the Indomalayan realm, is recognized as one of twenty-five countries with exceptionally high biodiversity. The National Environmental Condition Report (2005) ranked it 16th globally for biological diversity, hosting approximately 16% of the world's species. The country has identified 15,986 plant species, with around 10% being endemic. Vietnam's wildlife includes 307 species of nematodes, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. Additionally, it is home to 840 bird species and 310 mammals, with 100 birds and 78 mammals being unique to Vietnam.
Vietnam features two World Natural Heritage Sites: Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, alongside nine biosphere reserves, including Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau, and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park. Its aquatic ecosystem is rich with 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, 794 aquatic invertebrates, and 2,458 types of marine fish. Recent discoveries have added 13 new plant genera, 222 species, and 30 new taxa. The country has also identified six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac, and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey, as well as the endangered Edwards’s pheasant. Vietnam once had a small population of Javan rhinoceroses in Cát Tiên National Park, but the last individual was reportedly killed in 2010.
Vietnam is recognized as one of the twelve original centers of agricultural genetic diversity, with its National Cultivar Gene Bank preserving 12,300 cultivars from 115 species. In 2004, the Vietnamese government allocated $49.07 million to biodiversity conservation and established 126 protected areas, including 30 national parks.
Vietnam faces growing concerns over wildlife poaching. To counteract this, the NGO Education for Nature – Vietnam was founded in 2000, followed by GreenViet, established by young conservationists to enforce wildlife protection. Efforts between NGOs and local authorities have led to the dismantling of poaching networks. Despite this, Vietnam remains a key destination for illegally traded rhinoceros horns from South Africa, which are sought after for medicinal purposes and as luxury items.
One of Vietnam’s most persistent environmental issues is the legacy of Agent Orange, a chemical herbicide used during the Vietnam War. Nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese were exposed to the toxin, leading to long-term health conditions and birth defects. In 2012, the U.S. launched a $43 million cleanup project in former storage areas, beginning in Đà Nẵng and later expanding to Biên Hòa. The Vietnamese government invests over VNĐ10 trillion ($431.1 million) annually in allowances and rehabilitation for victims. Additionally, Japanese engineering firm Shimizu Corporation partnered with Vietnamese military forces to construct a soil treatment facility for Agent Orange pollution.
To rehabilitate ecosystems, Vietnam has prioritized reforestation, particularly in the Mekong Delta and Cần Giờ. In 2019, the country scored 5.35/10 on the Forest Landscape Integrity Index, ranking 104th out of 172 countries.
Other environmental concerns include arsenic contamination in groundwater in the Red River and Mekong Deltas, as well as unexploded ordnance (UXO) from past conflicts, which continue to pose risks. Multiple international agencies—including those from the UK, Denmark, South Korea, and the U.S.—support Vietnam in UXO removal efforts. The government spends VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and rehabilitation programs for victims.
Vietnam continues to address these challenges while balancing conservation and development efforts. Let me know if you’d like further details!
Vietnam’s economy has historically been centered on agriculture, particularly wet rice cultivation. The country also mines bauxite, a key resource for aluminum production, in its central regions. Following reunification, economic planning was primarily directed by the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV), which implemented Five-Year Plans through national congresses and central committee sessions. Early economic policies focused on collectivizing farms, factories, and resources, with millions employed in state-run enterprises. However, inefficiencies, corruption, and low productivity plagued these state-controlled industries.
By the late 1980s, economic difficulties worsened as Soviet assistance declined due to the collapse of the Eastern bloc and the Soviet Union itself. Additionally, a U.S.-imposed trade embargo further constrained Vietnam’s economy. In response, the government devalued its currency to boost exports and shifted toward economic development policies.
In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV launched the Đổi Mới reform program, introducing a socialist-oriented market economy. Private ownership became more accepted in industry, commerce, and agriculture, while state enterprises were restructured to operate under market conditions. As a result, Vietnam experienced rapid GDP growth, averaging about 8% annually from 1990 to 1997. The U.S. lifted its economic embargo in 1994, facilitating Vietnam's global trade expansion. Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis slowed growth to around 4–5% per year, the economy rebounded in 1999 and maintained a 7% annual growth rate from 2000 to 2005—making it one of the world’s fastest-growing economies. Vietnam joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007, further integrating into the global market. Despite the late-2000s financial crisis, Vietnam sustained 6.8% growth in 2010, though inflation surged to 11.8%, leading to three currency devaluations.
Extreme poverty—defined as living on less than $1 per day—declined significantly in Vietnam, bringing its relative poverty rate lower than that of China, India, and the Philippines. This reduction was largely attributed to economic policies emphasizing equitable land distribution, investments in underdeveloped areas, and subsidies for education and healthcare. In the early 2000s, Vietnam adopted a phased approach to trade liberalization, opening selective sectors to international markets. Today, manufacturing, information technology, and high-tech industries contribute significantly to its economy.
Although Vietnam only entered the oil industry recently, it has become Southeast Asia’s third-largest oil producer, reaching a daily output of 318,000 barrels in 2011. By 2010, it was ranked eighth in crude petroleum production across Asia-Pacific. The U.S. remains Vietnam’s largest export market, while Chinese goods dominate its imports.
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2022, Vietnam had an unemployment rate of 2.3%, a nominal GDP of $406.45 billion, and a per capita GDP of $4,086. Tourism has also emerged as a vital economic sector, with 7.94 million foreign visitors recorded in 2015. Vietnam’s ongoing development highlights its rapid transformation into a key player in global trade and industry.
Thanks to economic liberalization, Vietnam has emerged as a leading exporter of agricultural goods. It holds the top global position in cashew nut production, accounting for one-third of the world’s supply. Similarly, Vietnam is the largest producer of black pepper, making up a third of the global market. Since the 1990s, the country has been the second-largest rice exporter, trailing only Thailand. Additionally, Vietnam ranks as the world’s second-largest coffee exporter.
Vietnam also has one of the highest percentages of land dedicated to permanent crops among countries in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Other significant agricultural exports include tea, rubber, and fishery products. However, agriculture’s contribution to GDP has declined over the years, dropping from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006, as other sectors have expanded.
Vietnam’s modern transportation system has its origins in the French colonial period, when infrastructure was developed to move raw materials to key ports. After the country's partition, the network underwent significant expansion and modernization. The road system is structured into different levels of administration: national roads overseen by the central government, provincial roads managed by regional authorities, district roads controlled at the district level, urban roads handled by cities, and commune roads supervised by local administrations. As of 2010, the total road length in Vietnam was approximately 188,744 kilometers (117,280 mi), with 93,535 kilometers (58,120 mi) paved. National roads span around 15,370 kilometers (9,550 mi), with most of them surfaced, while provincial and district roads account for tens of thousands of additional kilometers of paved routes.
Despite the rise in private car ownership, bicycles, motorcycles, and scooters remain dominant forms of transport, continuing the influence of French-era commuting habits. Public buses operated by private firms serve as the primary means of long-distance travel for much of the population. However, traffic accidents remain a serious issue, with an average of 30 daily fatalities, and congestion is increasingly problematic in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.
Vietnam’s main railway service, the Reunification Express, connects Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi across nearly 1,726 kilometers (1,072 mi), with additional lines extending from Hanoi to regions like Hạ Long Bay, Thái Nguyên, and Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan agreed to develop a high-speed rail system using Japanese technology. The planned route, spanning 1,545 kilometers (960 mi), was designed to include 23 stations and allow trains to reach speeds of 350 kilometers per hour (220 mi/h). However, the project was postponed as the government prioritized metro system development in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City and road expansions.
Vietnam has 20 major civil airports, including its busiest international gateways: Noi Bai (Hanoi), Da Nang International Airport (Đà Nẵng), and Tan Son Nhat (Ho Chi Minh City). A government plan aims to establish seven additional international airports by 2025, including facilities in Vinh, Phu Bai, Cam Ranh, Phu Quoc, Cat Bi, Can Tho, and Long Thanh. Once operational, Long Thanh International Airport is expected to accommodate 100 million passengers annually. Vietnam Airlines, the national carrier, operates a fleet of 86 aircraft, alongside private airlines such as Bamboo Airways, VietJet Air, and Jetstar Pacific.
Vietnam’s extensive coastal access has led to numerous major ports, including Cam Ranh, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, and Đà Nẵng. Inland, rivers play a crucial role in transportation, with over 47,130 kilometers (29,290 mi) of navigable waterways utilized by ferries, barges, and water taxis