Kazakhstan is one of only two landlocked nations with territory spanning both Europe and Asia, as it extends across the Ural River—the natural boundary between the continents. The other country with this distinction is Azerbaijan.
Covering 2.7 million square kilometers (1 million sq mi), Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country globally and the biggest landlocked nation. It is comparable in size to Western Europe. During its time under the Russian Empire, Kazakhstan ceded some of its land to China's Xinjiang province, and later, during the Soviet era, to Uzbekistan's Karakalpakstan autonomous republic.
A significant portion of Kazakhstan falls within the Eurasian Steppe Belt, with the Kazakh Steppe occupying nearly one-third of the country. The nation shares borders with Russia (6,846 km), Uzbekistan (2,203 km), China (1,533 km), Kyrgyzstan (1,051 km), and Turkmenistan (379 km). Its major cities include Almaty, Astana, Shymkent, Aktöbe, and Karagandy. Geographically, Kazakhstan lies primarily in Asia but has a small section west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe.
The country's landscape stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to the Altay Mountains in the east, and from the plains of Western Siberia in the north to the deserts and oases of Central Asia in the south. Kazakhstan features the world's largest dry steppe region, covering around 804,500 square kilometers (310,600 sq mi). Grasslands and sandy terrain dominate these vast steppes. Among its many waterways are Lake Balkhash, Lake Zaysan, the Charyn River and gorge, the Ili, Irtysh, Ishim, Ural, and Syr Darya rivers. The Aral Sea, once a prominent body of water, has mostly dried up due to environmental mismanagement.
Notable natural formations include the Charyn Canyon, which spans 80 kilometers (50 mi) through a red sandstone plateau, creating dramatic cliffs, columns, and arches up to 300 meters (980 ft) high. This canyon provided refuge for the rare ash tree species, Fraxinus sogdiana, which survived the Ice Age. Additionally, the Bigach crater, an 8-km (5-mi) asteroid impact site, is estimated to be 5 million years old.
Kazakhstan boasts vast reserves of minerals and fossil fuels, making it a significant player in global resource extraction. Since 1993, petroleum, natural gas, and mining industries have attracted over $40 billion in foreign investment, accounting for around 57% of the nation's industrial output and about 13% of its GDP.
The country ranks among the top globally for several mineral reserves: second in uranium, chromium, lead, and zinc; third in manganese; fifth in copper; and within the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. In 2015, Kazakhstan produced 64 metric tonnes of gold and is also an exporter of diamonds. Additionally, it holds the world's 11th largest proven reserves of petroleum and natural gas, including the Tokarevskoye gas condensate field.
Kazakhstan's oil wealth is substantial, with 160 deposits containing over 2.7 billion tonnes of petroleum. Exploration near the Caspian Sea suggests that the current findings represent only a fraction of a much larger reserve, estimated at 3.5 billion tonnes of oil and 2.5 billion cubic meters of gas in that region alone. The total estimated oil reserves amount to 6.1 billion tonnes. However, with only three domestic refineries located in Atyrau, Pavlodar, and Şymkent, much of Kazakhstan’s crude output is exported to Russia. In 2009, Kazakhstan was producing roughly 1.54 million barrels of oil per day, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Beyond petroleum, Kazakhstan holds significant phosphorite deposits. The Karatau basin contains around 650 million tonnes of P2O5, while the Chilisai deposit in northwestern Kazakhstan holds 500–800 million tonnes of 9% ore.
In 2013, Kazakhstan was recognized as "EITI Compliant" by the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, meaning it has established a functioning system for regular disclosure of natural resource revenues.
Kazakhstan experiences an extreme continental climate, characterized by scorching summers and harshly cold winters. Situated deep within the Eurasian steppe, it is home to the vast Kazakh Steppe. Astana ranks as the second coldest capital city globally, following Ulaanbaatar. The country's precipitation levels vary from arid to semi-arid, with notably dry winters.
Kazakhstan is home to ten nature reserves and ten national parks, offering protection to numerous rare and endangered species. In total, the country maintains 25 conservation areas. Among its common plants are Astragalus, Gagea, Allium, Carex, and Oxytropis, while endangered flora include the native wild apple (Malus sieversii), wild grape (Vitis vinifera), several wild tulip species like Tulipa greigii, and rare onion species Allium karataviense. Additionally, Iris willmottiana and Tulipa kaufmanniana are also considered rare.
Kazakhstan holds an impressive environmental ranking, scoring 8.23/10 on the 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, placing 26th globally out of 172 countries.
Its diverse wildlife includes wolves, red foxes, corsac foxes, moose, argali—the largest sheep species—Eurasian lynxes, Pallas's cats, and the elusive snow leopard, among several other protected species. Kazakhstan’s Red Book of Protected Species records 125 vertebrates, including a variety of birds and mammals, alongside 404 plant species, covering fungi, algae, and lichens.