Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan was born in 1162, and was the founder of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan's father named him Temüjin. Unfortunately, when Genghis Khan was 8, his father died and his tribe abandoned his family. Most people know that he conquered major parts of Asia and China.
Temüjin, later known as Genghis Khan, returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte at fifteen. Overjoyed at his safe return, Dei Sechen agreed to the marriage, and the newlyweds settled at Temüjin’s camp. Börte's family presented Temüjin’s mother, Hö'elün, with a costly sable cloak. Temüjin chose to gift this cloak to Toghrul, khan of the Kerait tribe, who had been an ally of his father, Yesügei. Toghrul, in search of loyal supporters, gladly accepted the valuable gift and welcomed Temüjin under his protection, fostering a close relationship between them. Temüjin soon began building a network of followers, including Jelme, and Börte later gave birth to their first child, Qojin.
However, Temüjin’s camp was later raided by 300 Merkits seeking revenge for Yesügei’s actions. While Temüjin and his brothers managed to hide, Börte and Sochigel were abducted. Börte was forced into marriage with a Merkit leader, but Temüjin sought assistance from Toghrul and his childhood friend Jamukha. Both leaders provided troops, and after a successful campaign, Börte was rescued while pregnant. She gave birth to Jochi, whom Temüjin raised as his own despite lingering doubts about his paternity.
Temüjin and Jamukha briefly reunited, strengthening their bond and living alongside each other for over a year. However, tensions emerged, leading Temüjin to form his own following. Many people, including Subutai and other tribal leaders, pledged loyalty to him due to his reputation for fairness and generosity. Over time, his supporters declared him khan of the Mongols, a development that pleased Toghrul but angered Jamukha. In 1187, they clashed in battle at Dalan Baljut, where Temüjin was decisively defeated, though later accounts disagree on the battle’s outcome.
Following this defeat, historians suggest that Temüjin may have spent years serving the Jurchen Jin dynasty in North China. While Mongol sources omit this period, Zhao Hong recorded that he had lived as a slave in Jin territory. Despite the potential disgrace, this experience may have benefited Temüjin, as his return demonstrated significant retained influence. Eventually, he would rise again, laying the foundation for his future conquest of the Jin dynasty.
Temüjin's return to the steppe is subject to differing historical accounts. By early summer 1196, he allied with the Jin dynasty in a campaign against the Tatars, who had turned against Jin interests. As recognition for his contributions, he was granted the Jurchen honorific cha-ut kuri, roughly meaning “commander of hundreds.” Around the same time, he supported Toghrul in reclaiming leadership of the Kereit tribe, which had been usurped by a relative backed by the Naiman. This strengthened Temüjin’s standing—though still nominally Toghrul’s vassal, he was now effectively his equal.
Meanwhile, Jamukha, victorious at Dalan Baljut, committed severe atrocities, including reportedly boiling seventy prisoners alive. His brutality caused many disillusioned followers to defect to Temüjin, including Yesügei's former supporters. Temüjin soon moved against the Jurkin tribe, punishing them for past offenses by executing their leaders and exacting symbolic revenge through a staged wrestling match.
In the following years, Temüjin and Toghrul waged campaigns against various steppe factions. In 1201, discontented tribes elected Jamukha as their gurkhan—“khan of the tribes”—seeking to resist the Borjigin-Kereit alliance. Initially successful, Jamukha’s forces were ultimately routed, forcing him to beg for Toghrul’s mercy. In pursuit of dominance, Temüjin eliminated the Tayichiud in 1201 and the Tatars in 1202, executing their leaders and assimilating their warriors, including Jebe, who impressed Temüjin with his martial prowess and honesty.
Three dominant powers remained in the steppe: the Mongols in the east, the Naimans in the west, and the Kereit in between. Seeking consolidation, Temüjin proposed a marriage alliance between his son Jochi and Toghrul’s daughter. However, the Kereit aristocracy, led by Senggum, suspected a ploy for control. Jamukha warned of Temüjin’s disruption of steppe traditions through merit-based leadership rather than aristocratic privilege. Toghrul eventually attempted to ambush Temüjin but was thwarted when his plans were overheard. Nonetheless, Temüjin suffered defeat at Qalaqaljid Sands and retreated.
At Baljuna, Temüjin regathered his forces, issuing a famous oath of loyalty known as the Baljuna Covenant, binding together followers of diverse backgrounds. This proto-government exemplified the future Mongol Empire’s inclusive nature. With renewed strength, Temüjin launched a counteroffensive, ambushing the Kereit at Jej'er Heights. Toghrul fled and was ultimately killed by a Naiman. Temüjin absorbed the Kereit elite into his own ranks, further strengthening his power base.
By 1204, Jamukha and other defeated leaders allied with the Naimans. Temüjin received intelligence from Alaqush of the Ongud tribe and struck at Chakirmaut, decisively crushing the Naimans. Tayang Khan was killed, while his son Kuchlug fled west. Later that year, Temüjin eradicated the remaining Merkits. Jamukha, who had abandoned the Naimans, was betrayed by his own men and executed.
With his rivals vanquished, Temüjin was poised to unify Mongolia, setting the stage for his early reign and expansion into China.
The exact year of Temüjin's birth remains uncertain, with scholars debating between 1155, 1162, and 1167. Some traditions associate his birth with the Year of the Pig, aligning with either 1155 or 1167. While Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din support the earlier date, other significant sources such as the History of Yuan and Shengwu favor 1162. Sinologist Paul Pelliot, however, endorses 1167 based on the writings of Yuan artist Yang Weizhen. The 1162 date is widely accepted, though historian Paul Ratchnevsky suggested Temüjin himself may not have known the truth. His birthplace is also debated—while the Secret History identifies it as Delüün Boldog on the Onon River, scholars place it in either Dadal (Khentii Province, Mongolia) or southern Agin-Buryat Okrug (Russia).
Temüjin was born into the Borjigin clan, the son of Yesügei, a chieftain claiming descent from the legendary Bodonchar Munkhag, and Hö'elün, originally of the Olkhonud clan, whom Yesügei had taken from a Merkit husband. His name's origin is contested—some accounts say it was inspired by a captured Tatar named Temüchin-uge, while others suggest it derived from temür (meaning "iron") and linked to the concept of a blacksmith.
Various legends surrounded Temüjin’s birth. One tale describes him being born clutching a blood clot, symbolizing a future warrior. Another claimed that Hö'elün was impregnated by a divine ray of light, echoing Mongol ancestral mythology. Temüjin had three younger brothers—Qasar, Hachiun, and Temüge—as well as a sister, Temülün. Additionally, he had two half-brothers, Behter and Belgutei, born to Yesügei's secondary wife, Sochigel. The siblings grew up at their father’s camp along the Onon River, learning skills essential for life on the steppe.
At age eight, Temüjin’s father arranged his betrothal to Börte, daughter of Onggirat chief Dei Sechen. To finalize the union, Temüjin remained with Börte’s family to work off his bride price. On his journey home, Yesügei encountered Tatars, who, recognizing him as an old enemy, poisoned his food. Though he returned home, his health declined rapidly. Near death, he sent a loyal retainer to retrieve Temüjin, but passed away shortly after.
Yesügei's death disrupted his family's status—his people abandoned Hö'elün and her children, leading them into a life of hardship. Temüjin and his siblings turned to hunting and foraging to survive. As he grew older, tensions arose between him and his older half-brother Behter over leadership and resources. Ultimately, Temüjin and his brother Qasar killed Behter, a violation of Mongol customs, which the Secret History records with disapproval. Despite this, Behter’s full-brother Belgutei remained loyal and became a trusted companion.
During his youth, Temüjin formed a close bond with Jamukha, a noble-born friend with whom he exchanged gifts and swore the anda (blood brotherhood) pact. However, lacking strong alliances, he was captured multiple times. Once, imprisoned by the Tayichiud, he escaped with the help of a man named Sorkan-Shira, who sheltered him at great personal risk. Another time, a young man named Bo'orchu assisted him in recovering stolen horses and later became Temüjin’s first nökor (personal companion).
These formative experiences contributed to Temüjin’s rise, demonstrating his ability to inspire loyalty and navigate adversity.