Identity

Our sense of self is greatly influenced by the ideas we have about who we are. But we are also concerned with how others view us. When we interact with another person (especially in an interpersonal context), we negotiate what aspects of ourselves we share based on how we want to be perceived. This module explores the concept of self-image and the ways we attempt to manage our image with others.

Self-Image

If you asked your friends to describe you, what would they say? What about your family or co-workers? In what ways would the words others use to describe you be similar or different in different contexts? Our self-image (similar to our self-concept) is complicated. It can even change depending on the person(s) we are communicating with or the situation.

Self-image as Performance

In 1959, sociologist Erving Goffman suggested that we perform different roles in different contexts. The image we present is selective. We don’t share all aspects of ourselves with everyone. Our image is often based on our expectations, the expectations of others and our relationship to them. Let’s look an example:

An actor is someone who portrays a character in a specific context (e.g., a television show, film, theatrical production, etc.). Throughout their career, an actor may portray several distinctly different characters. Each time reading the script, developing their ideas about the character and context, and crafting these elements into their performance. The image an actor presents in a performance depends on the role they are playing and the context.

At the same time, an actor is also a real person. Their personality, interests and communication style may be very different from the characters they have portrayed. This can sometimes create confusion for fans who see their favorite actors in public places.

While we may not be playing different characters on a stage, we are actors, too. The image we present to others depends on a variety of factors. In one situation, we may want to appear intelligent, reliable and focused (e.g., during a job interview or when delivering a presentation). In another situation, we may want to appear funny, carefree and outgoing (e.g., when we spend time with our friends or in a social situation).

What does your social profile look like? What topics, stories, pictures, etc. do you share with others? Does your profile accurately represent you and your life? Maybe it does. But chances are you’ve made choices about how you want to appear to others. Your profile may even look different depending upon the platform or website. For example, your profile on a dating website might look very different from your profile on a professional networking site.

The persona is a mask, or public face we present to the world. Much like being an actor, we perform roles in different context (Jung, 2006). We use different masks to perform those roles. For example, we may use one persona as a parent, another persona as a professional, and yet another persona as a friend. Each persona is cultivated based on the context (i.e., situation, people, roles, etc.), and represents the choices we make about who we are and how we wish others to see us.

The shadow represents the hidden aspects of self. We sometimes choose to repress certain feelings, thoughts and memories (because they are painful or traumatic). These repressions are buried within our unconscious mind. Jung argued that we should examine our shadow (even if it’s difficult) because it has the ability to negatively influence our self-concept and the ways we interact with others.

The concepts of the persona and shadow help us to better understand ourselves and the ways to conscious or unconsciously attempt to manage our public image. We now turn to a discussion on cognitive dissonance to explain how we reconcile inconsistencies in our self-image.

Cognitive dissonance

In 1957, Leon Festinger used the term cognitive dissonance to describe the uncomfortable feeling we experience when our beliefs and behaviors are not aligned. When this occurs, we are motivated to get rid of the inconsistency. This process usually involves one of three approaches: change the behavior, change the belief, or rationalize the behavior (Festinger, 1957).

For example, we may know smoking is bad for our health. We may say we value our health and well-being. At the same time, we smoke with our friends when socializing. Our partner may notice that what we say and what we do are two different things and ask us about it. This situation would create cognitive dissonance (Figure 1).

To reduce the stress associated with cognitive dissonance, we could: (1) stop smoking (because it isn’t healthy), (2) say we don’t value our health (and continue the smoking behavior), or (3) rationalize that we don’t smoke that often so our health isn’t compromised.

Figure 1: Cognitive Dissonance

Perception

As we move through time and space, we are constantly bombarded with sensory information. The process by which we select, organize and interpret this information is called perception. Perception allows us to experience the world around us through our senses: sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. While it is largely a cognitive and psychological activity, perception influences how we perceive other people (and how they perceive us).

Perception also affects our interpersonal communication. We react differently to stimuli we view as favorable as opposed to stimuli we see as unfavorable.

The five stages of perception

Perception is a process, a sequence of steps that begins with the environment. Joseph Devito (2016) breaks perception into five stages that occur when we encounter another person interpersonally. These stages help to explain the process of interaction (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Five Stages of Perception

Stimulation (or Selection)

Stimulation is the first step. It involves coming into contact with a particular stimulus in a specific environment. We gather sensory data about the stimulus through our senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch). Then we select certain stimuli to focus on because we can’t pay attention to everything at once.

For example, say you were walking in the park with a friend and having a conversation. Then your cell phone started to ring. Would you ignore it and continue talking with your friend? Or, would you look at your phone to see who’s calling and answer it?

In this example, the ringing of the phone is perceived through sensory data (sound and touch). Once your attention is drawn, you have a choice to make (selection) about which stimuli you will pay attention to.

Organization

The next step is to organize the stimuli. This step is important because we cannot effectively use our senses if we cannot identify and recognize the stimulus. Many people organize stimuli by topics or categories. Sometimes it may make more sense to organize things by rules or patterns.

For example, you are walking on campus and recognize someone you’ve seen in class. You might smile when you walk by that person and without thinking say, “Hi, how are you?” Your classmate may respond, “Good, how are you?” as you pass each other. How did you both know how to handle this communication situation?

You know how because you’ve probably been in this situation many times. What you think you should do has already been processed and organized in your mind. This organization has been reinforced through many communication occurrences. As a result, you don’t think much about what to do.

Interpretation-Evaluation

How do we making meaning from the stimuli we’ve selected from the environment and organized in our minds? The third step explains how we process information by interpreting and evaluating it. To do this, we may draw on previous experiences and knowledge, or we may evaluate the information in terms of our beliefs, values, needs, expectations, etc.

For example, when you go to your doctor’s office for a check-up, do you question your doctor’s intelligence (at least as it relates to medicine)? Do you ask your doctor which medical school he or she attended? Or, do you ask your doctor what his or her grades were in school?

Most of us, assume doctors are knowledgeable and successful. When the doctor walks into the exam room, wearing a stethoscope, we make assumptions based on previous interpretations of doctors (in general) and our doctor specifically.

Memory

After stimuli has been organized and interpreted, it gets stored in our memory. The brain records everything and what we choose to actively remember is dictated by how we organized the information as well as the level of salience we have with the stimuli.

Think of your memory as a filing cabinet. Within the filing cabinet, there are many files. If we put files into the cabinet at random, it may be difficult to find a specific file later. If, on the other hand, we organize each drawer of the cabinet based on a topic and then add dividers to organize it further, how much easier might it be to find a specific file? Memory, like a filing cabinet, is about both storage and organization.

Recall

The last step is recall. Once stimuli are organized and stored in our memory, we may need to remember that information. We need to access the memory file and reconstruct the information in a meaningful way. Again, relevance or salience matters. What we can recall is influenced by our unique set of values regarding what is important.

Does/Did your grandmother wear a specific perfume? If some walked by you right now wearing that perfume, would you immediately think of your grandmother? What images or ideas would pop into your head?

The sensory data (smell of a specific perfume) is connected to your grandmother. This idea has been reinforced many times through your experiences with her. So, when you smell that perfume, the idea of your grandmother comes to your mind immediately. This is one example of how recall works.

Perception formation, self-presentation, and management

Perception is created by our orientation to society and our unique self-concept. What we perceive and how we interpret that information is influenced and managed by our upbringing and personal preferences. Our values dictate how we form our self-image and the ways we interact with others. We manage our expectations and the expectations of others through image management. This is manifested through our interpersonal relationships and interactions with others.

Image Management and Face Needs

We develop our public image based on our self-concept and the feedback we receive from others through interpersonal interactions. The way we behave in a particular context is our desired public image. Goffman used the term face to describe this concept.

We have three face needs: fellowship, autonomy and competence. Fellowship face is the relational aspect of our public image. We need others to like and accept us. Autonomy face is the independent aspect of our public image. We want to remain independent of others so they cannot intrude upon us. Competence face is the aptitude aspect of our public image. We need others to acknowledge and respect our intelligence and abilities.

Threats to Face

Our face needs depend on the desired public image we want to project. Because we each have a different public image, our face needs are also different. One person may have a high level in one area and not care about the other two. Another person may have a moderate level in more than one area. Our needs really depend on our desired public image.

We may not even be aware of our face needs. We generally become aware of our face needs when we feel threatened. Face threats often lead us to behave in ways that restore our desired public image.

For example, if we value our competence face and found ourselves in a situation where our competence was threated (i.e., we applied to a university and got rejected), we might have trouble figuring out how to reconcile our desire to seem smart with the rejection letters. In this situation, we may try to save face by telling our family and friends that a particular college or university was not our first choice.

Conclusion

Skilled communicators manage their public image by recognizing and adapting to varied situations and contexts. If we want to be skilled communicators, it is important to have a strong sense of self and think in careful ways about what and how we communicate who we are to others.

Analysis of Online Self-Image

This activity focuses on the ways we cultivate self-image in online forums. Ask the students to select a social media platform they use regularly and review their profile, messages, images, etc., they have posted in the past six months. As they examine their online self-image, ask the students to write down in their notes what they see.

After 15-20 minutes, ask the students to analyze their notes (categories of posts, types of images, elements of self that they shared on profile, feedback they received from others, etc.). Then ask them to think about the concept of self-image and compare the self-image they see to the self-image they would like to present. Are they the same? Are they different? If so, in what ways?

After the students have finished their comparisons, ask them to discuss as a class:

• What is self-image? How does it relate to our presence on social media platforms?

• Did you notice any inconsistencies between what you want your self-image to be and what it actually is?

• If you are more intentional in developing your self-image, what would happen?

• If someone (like a future employer, partner, friend, etc.) saw your self-image, would they view it positively or negatively?

• Do you think you need to change/develop your self-image? If so, what changes would you make?

Then ask groups to report to the class their answers to the questions.

Five Stages of Perception

Ask the students to work in small groups (3-5 students). They should begin by reviewing the five stages of perception. After a few minutes, ask the students to work in their groups to analyze how the perception process relates to learning (in general terms). Then have them develop a new learning method (something they could use for studying and preparing for exams) that focuses on the five stages of perception.

After 15-20 minutes, ask each group to share their learning method with the class. After each group is done presenting their ideas, discuss with the students the relationship between perception and learning.

Face Needs

Ask students to form groups (3-5 students) and discuss the three face needs: fellowship, autonomy and competence. After a few minutes, ask them to think about and discuss in their groups:

• Which face(s) is most important to them? Why?

• Does context and audience influence your face needs? (Think about different examples such as at home, socially, at work, etc.).

• Based on the face(s) that are most important to you, what are the potential face threats you may experience?

• What ways might you reduce the discomfort of those face threats?

When groups are done discussing, ask for volunteers to share what they talked about with the class. Use the examples offered to reinforce their learning about face needs and threats.

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DeVito, J.A. (2016). The interpersonal communication book (14^th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

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Hopkins, A.E. (2015). Face management theory: Modern conceptualizations and future directions. Inquiries Journal. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1021/face-management-theory-modern-conceptualizations-and-futuredirections

Jung, C.G. (1966). The collected works of C.G. Jung: Two essays on analytical psychology (2^nd ed). Princeton University Press.

Jung, C.G. (2006). The undiscovered self: The dilemma of the individual in modern society. Signet Book.

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McLeod, S. (2018). Carl Jung. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-jung.html

Autonomy face: The independent aspect of our public image.

Cognitive dissonance: The uncomfortable feeling we experience when our beliefs and behaviors are not aligned.

Competence face: The aptitude aspect of our public image.

Face: A person’s desired public image.

Fellowship face: The relational aspect of our public image.

Perception: The process by which we select, organize and interpret information.

Persona: A mask, or public face we present to the world.

Self-image: The way we want others to see us.

Shadow: Represents the hidden aspects of the self.

"Cognitive Dissonance: Dissonance Reduction" by Tesseract2 is licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0

"Dow Centennial Centre Shell Theatre Stage" by JoshGennings is licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0