Embedded Files
A killer whale that can mimic words such as "hello" and "bye bye" is thought to be the first of its kind to copy human speech. The female learned to "speak" a handful of human words by copying a trainer at a marine park in France. The animal's repertoire includes the name "Amy" and "one, two, three".
Humankind has defeated an impressive list of diseases, but we have never been able to escape physical ageing. "As we get older, our cells stop working as well and can break down, leading to conditions like cancer, heart disease, arthritis and Alzheimer’s disease." Some researchers say "we should start treating ageing itself as a disease – one that can be prevented and treated. Their hopes are founded on recent discoveries that suggest biological ageing may be entirely preventable and treatable."
BBC Future interviews one of the leading figures in human longevity research, Aubrey De Grey. He argues that there are seven biological factors "predominantly responsible for cellular damage that accompanies ageing and underlies ageing-related diseases." He and his team at Sens Research Foundation are working on a suite of therapies to address each of these factors. The ultimate goal of the research is "to develop a suite of therapies for middle-aged and older people that will leave them physically and mentally equivalent to someone under the age of 30. "
Analyses of ancient DNA from prehistoric humans paint a picture of dramatic population change in Europe from 45,000 to 7,000 years ago, according to a 2016 study published in Nature.
Archeological studies have shown that modern humans swept into Europe about 45,000 years ago and caused the demise of the Neanderthals. "Beginning 37,000 years ago, all Europeans come from a single founding population that persisted through the Ice Age... This branch seems to have been displaced in most parts of Europe 33,000 years ago, but around 19,000 years ago, a population related to it re-expanded across Europe,"
"The new genetic data reveal two big changes in prehistoric human populations that are closely linked to the end of the last Ice Age around 19,000 years ago. As the ice sheet retreated, Europe was repopulated by prehistoric humans from southwest Europe (e.g., Spain). Then, in a second event about 14,000 years ago, populations from the southeast (e.g., Turkey, Greece) spread into Europe, displacing the first group of humans." (Science Daily. May 2, 2016)
Three ~31,000-year-old skulls from Dolni Vestonice in the Czech Republic. For the next five thousand years, all samples analyzed in this study -- whether from Belgium, the Czech Republic, Austria, or Italy -- are closely related, reflecting a population expansion associated with the Gravettian archaeological culture.
Credit: Martin Frouz and Jirí Svoboda
"For the first four billion years of Earth's history, our planet's continents would have been devoid of all life except microbes.
All of this changed with the origin of land plants from their pond scum relatives, greening the continents and creating habitats that animals would later invade.
The timing of this episode has previously relied on the oldest fossil plants which are about 420 million years old.
New research, published today in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, indicates that these events actually occurred a hundred million years earlier, changing perceptions of the evolution of the Earth's biosphere." (Science Daily, February 18, 2018)
Early life on land resembled cryptogamic ground covers like this lava field in Iceland. Co-author Sylvia Pressel appears in the right of the picture.
Credit: Image courtesy of Paul Kenrick
Spoken language reveals how people develop and mature
Spoken language reveals how people develop and mature
POSTED APRIL 10, 2018
A study at Florida Atlantic University examines everyday language and ego level to better understand the state of moral, social and cognitive development.
A study at Florida Atlantic University examines everyday language and ego level to better understand the state of moral, social and cognitive development.
"Examining 44,000 brief text samples collected over 25 years, a study of ego level and language sheds light on ego development, its relationship with other models of personality and individual differences, and its utility in characterizing people, texts and cultural contexts. If ego development can be scored from everyday language, then text from Twitter feeds to political speeches, and from children's stories to strategic plans, may provide new insights into the state of moral, social and cognitive development." (Science Daily, 4/9/2018)
The authors present their results in a single graphic. (Right)
"This developmental sequence is illustrated in a single diagram, displaying the words showing the strongest association with each developmental stage. Ego level progresses clockwise, beginning with the lowest (Impulsive) level (in white, at the top of the figure) through intermediate levels including Conformist (yellow) and Conscientious (blue-green) to the combined Autonomous/Integrated stages (purple)."
Credit: Florida Atlantic University
Dinosaurs - Out and In With a Bang!
Dinosaurs - Out and In With a Bang!
POSTED APRIL 18, 2018
Dinosaurs disappeared with a bang -- wiped out by a great meteorite impact on the Earth 66 million years ago. But their origins have been less understood. In a new study, scientists show that the key expansion of dinosaurs was also triggered by a crisis -- a mass extinction that happened 232 million years ago. (Science Daily, April 16)
Dinosaurs disappeared with a bang -- wiped out by a great meteorite impact on the Earth 66 million years ago. But their origins have been less understood. In a new study, scientists show that the key expansion of dinosaurs was also triggered by a crisis -- a mass extinction that happened 232 million years ago. (Science Daily, April 16)
"In the new paper, published today [April 16] in Nature Communications, evidence is provided to match the two events -- the mass extinction, called the Carnian Pluvial Episode, and the initial diversification of dinosaurs.
Dinosaurs had originated much earlier, at the beginning of the Triassic Period, some 245 million years ago, but they remained very rare until the shock events in the Carnian 13 million years later.
The new study shows just when dinosaurs took over by using detailed evidence from rock sequences in the Dolomites, in north Italy -- here the dinosaurs are detected from their footprints."
Photo right: Dinosaur fossil (stock image) - Credit: © ramirezom / Fotolia
Clues to the Origins of Life
Clues to the Origins of Life
POSTED 5/17/2018
Scientists have found a new lineage of microbes living in Yellowstone National Park's thermal features that sheds light on the origin of life, the evolution of archaeal life* and the importance of iron in early life.
Scientists have found a new lineage of microbes living in Yellowstone National Park's thermal features that sheds light on the origin of life, the evolution of archaeal life* and the importance of iron in early life.
The scientists called the new archaeal lineage Marsarchaeota after Mars, the red planet, because these organisms thrive in habitats containing iron oxides.
In addition to learning more about life on early Earth and the potential for life on Mars, [Montana State University Professor William] Inskeep said the research can help scientists understand more about high-temperature biology.
"Knowing about this new group of archaea provides additional pieces of the puzzle for understanding high-temperature biology," he said. "That could be important in industry and molecular biology." (Science Daily)
*Archaea is one of the three domains of life, the others being bacteria and eukaryotes. Like bacteria, archaea are single-cell organisms. The eukaryote domain contains more cellularly complex organisms, such as humans, other animals, plants and fungi.
"Dawn of Humanity"
"Dawn of Humanity"
The link (below left) is to the complete program on the NOVA web page about the origins of humankind
The link (below left) is to the complete program on the NOVA web page about the origins of humankind
"NOVA and National Geographic present exclusive access to a unique discovery of ancient remains. Located in an almost inaccessible chamber deep in a South African cave, the site required recruiting a special team of experts slender enough to wriggle down a vertical, pitch-dark, seven-inch-wide passage. Most fossil discoveries of human relatives consist of just a handful of bones. But down in this hidden chamber, the team uncovered an unprecedented trove—so far, over 1,500 bones—with the potential to rewrite the story of our origins. They may help fill in a crucial gap in the fossil record and tell us how Homo, the first member of the human family, emerged from ape-like ancestors like the famous Lucy. But how did hundreds of bones end up in the remote chamber? The experts are considering every mind-boggling possibility. Join NOVA on the treacherous descent into this cave of spectacular and enigmatic finds, and discover their startling implications for the saga of what made us human." (PBS)
"Dawn of Humanity" airs on PBS June 20, 9 PM
"Dawn of Humanity" airs on PBS June 20, 9 PM
Other Links on Nova's "Becoming Human" Webpage
Other Links on Nova's "Becoming Human" Webpage
(Partial Listing)
(Partial Listing)
Battle Over Humanity’s Origins
Battle Over Humanity’s Origins
Becoming Human: Series Overview
Becoming Human: Series Overview
What Makes Us Human?
What Makes Us Human?
Ten Great Advances in Evolution
Ten Great Advances in Evolution
Are We Still Evolving?
Are We Still Evolving?
Decoding Neanderthals
Decoding Neanderthals
What Darwin Never Knew
What Darwin Never Knew
Stopping Cancer in its Tracks
Stopping Cancer in its Tracks
Breakthrough discovery by University of Alberta researchers
Breakthrough discovery by University of Alberta researchers
POSTED 6/22/2018
A groundbreaking discovery by University of Alberta researchers has identified previously-unknown therapeutic targets that could be key to preventing the spread of cancer. In a new study published in Nature Communications, the team found that by inhibiting several newly identified gene targets they could block more than 99.5 per cent of cancer metastasis in living cells. (University of Alberta)
A groundbreaking discovery by University of Alberta researchers has identified previously-unknown therapeutic targets that could be key to preventing the spread of cancer. In a new study published in Nature Communications, the team found that by inhibiting several newly identified gene targets they could block more than 99.5 per cent of cancer metastasis in living cells. (University of Alberta)
“The potential significance is incredible,” said John Lewis, the Alberta Cancer Foundation Frank and Carla Sojonky Chair in Prostate Cancer Research at the U of A and a member of the Cancer Research Institute of Northern Alberta (CRINA). “Metastasis kills 90 per cent of all patients with cancer. With this study we have discovered 11 new ways to potentially end metastasis.”
In the study, the team used a unique platform it created—a shell-less avian embryo—to visualize the growth and spread of cancer cells in real time....The approach enabled the team to detect and identify 11 genes that appear to play essential roles in cancer cell metastasis. According to the researchers, these genes are widely involved in the process of metastasis and not unique to any one cancer.
They now plan to test the metastasis-associated genes and gene products as drug targets with an aim of stopping metastasis. “We know that cancer, once it becomes metastatic, will continue to seed other parts of the body and the disease will progress and get worse because of that,” said Lewis. “So I think if we can stop metastasis at any step of progression in cancer patients, we’re going to have a significant effect on survival.”
The Body Clock
The Body Clock
POSTED JULY 25, 2018
"The clock, the mechanism we discovered, governs at least half of gene expression. That, of course, is why everything from endocrinology, behavior, metabolism — everything falls under the broad umbrella of circadian rhythms." - Michael Rosbash, co-winner of 2017 Nobel Prize for Medicine
"The clock, the mechanism we discovered, governs at least half of gene expression. That, of course, is why everything from endocrinology, behavior, metabolism — everything falls under the broad umbrella of circadian rhythms." - Michael Rosbash, co-winner of 2017 Nobel Prize for Medicine
Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael Young won the Nobel Prize for Medicine last year for their work on circadian rhythms. "Their work, done over decades, helps explain how life adapts to the 24-hour cycle of day, and also how diseases such as cancer arise in the cells. Their discoveries form the basis for countless other research initiatives."
Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael Young won the Nobel Prize for Medicine last year for their work on circadian rhythms. "Their work, done over decades, helps explain how life adapts to the 24-hour cycle of day, and also how diseases such as cancer arise in the cells. Their discoveries form the basis for countless other research initiatives."
I had read various articles over the years on circadian rhythm but had underestimated its significance. Sure, I understood that sleep was important and that our bodies behave and react differently at different times of the day. Jet lag is perhaps one of the more noticeable effects of getting this internal clock out of sync with the external environment. But as the Nobel Committee noted, “There are also indications that chronic misalignment between our lifestyle and the rhythm dictated by our inner timekeeper is associated with increased risk for various diseases.”
I had read various articles over the years on circadian rhythm but had underestimated its significance. Sure, I understood that sleep was important and that our bodies behave and react differently at different times of the day. Jet lag is perhaps one of the more noticeable effects of getting this internal clock out of sync with the external environment. But as the Nobel Committee noted, “There are also indications that chronic misalignment between our lifestyle and the rhythm dictated by our inner timekeeper is associated with increased risk for various diseases.”
So, in recognition of my underestimating the importance of circadian rhythms, here is a simple "body clock" from an NBC article on the Nobel winners.
So, in recognition of my underestimating the importance of circadian rhythms, here is a simple "body clock" from an NBC article on the Nobel winners.
Key aspects of human cell aging reversed by new compounds
Key aspects of human cell aging reversed by new compounds
POSTED AUGUST 8, 2018
Researchers at the University of Exeter have developed compounds capable of reversing aging in cells. In the samples used in the study, the number of senescent cells (older cells that have deteriorated and stopped dividing) was reduced by up to 50%. The Exeter team also identified two splicing factors (a component of cells) that play a key role in when and how cells become senescent. The findings raise the possibility of future treatments not only for blood vessels (the specific cells studied) but also for other cells.
Researchers at the University of Exeter have developed compounds capable of reversing aging in cells. In the samples used in the study, the number of senescent cells (older cells that have deteriorated and stopped dividing) was reduced by up to 50%. The Exeter team also identified two splicing factors (a component of cells) that play a key role in when and how cells become senescent. The findings raise the possibility of future treatments not only for blood vessels (the specific cells studied) but also for other cells.
"As human bodies age, they accumulate old (senescent) cells that do not function as well as younger cells," said Professor Lorna Harries, of the University of Exeter Medical School. "This is not just an effect of ageing -- it's a reason why we age. The compounds developed at Exeter have the potential to tweak the mechanisms by which this ageing of cells happens.
"As human bodies age, they accumulate old (senescent) cells that do not function as well as younger cells," said Professor Lorna Harries, of the University of Exeter Medical School. "This is not just an effect of ageing -- it's a reason why we age. The compounds developed at Exeter have the potential to tweak the mechanisms by which this ageing of cells happens.
"We used to think age-related diseases like cancer, dementia and diabetes each had a unique cause, but they actually track back to one or two common mechanisms. "This research focuses on one of these mechanisms, and the findings with our compounds have potentially opened up the way for new therapeutic approaches in the future.
"We used to think age-related diseases like cancer, dementia and diabetes each had a unique cause, but they actually track back to one or two common mechanisms. "This research focuses on one of these mechanisms, and the findings with our compounds have potentially opened up the way for new therapeutic approaches in the future.
"This may well be the basis for a new generation of anti-degenerative drugs." (Science Daily, August 7)
"This may well be the basis for a new generation of anti-degenerative drugs." (Science Daily, August 7)
Wheat genome decoded
Wheat genome decoded
Research results will allow better adaptation to the rapidly changing climate
Research results will allow better adaptation to the rapidly changing climate
POSTED AUGUST 21, 2018
After 13 years of effort, scientists at the Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium have decoded the complex wheat genome. The genomes of rice and corn, two other important staples, had been decoded in 2002 and 2009, respectively.
After 13 years of effort, scientists at the Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium have decoded the complex wheat genome. The genomes of rice and corn, two other important staples, had been decoded in 2002 and 2009, respectively.
"With this genome now solved, [wheat] breeders may now find it easier to tell which genes are valuable in agronomic traits, allowing them to more precisely adapt the crop to our rapidly changing environment and maintain stable yields." (ArsTechnica, August 16)
"With this genome now solved, [wheat] breeders may now find it easier to tell which genes are valuable in agronomic traits, allowing them to more precisely adapt the crop to our rapidly changing environment and maintain stable yields." (ArsTechnica, August 16)
"Wheat is the most widely cultivated crop on the planet, accounting for about a fifth of all calories consumed by humans and more protein than any other food source. Although we have relied on bread wheat so heavily and for so long (14,000 years-ish), an understanding of its genetics has been a challenge. Its genome has been hard to solve because it is ridiculously complex. The genome is huge, about five times larger than ours. It's hexaploid, meaning it has six copies of each of its chromosomes."
"Wheat is the most widely cultivated crop on the planet, accounting for about a fifth of all calories consumed by humans and more protein than any other food source. Although we have relied on bread wheat so heavily and for so long (14,000 years-ish), an understanding of its genetics has been a challenge. Its genome has been hard to solve because it is ridiculously complex. The genome is huge, about five times larger than ours. It's hexaploid, meaning it has six copies of each of its chromosomes."
"Among the most valuable data from the study are the regulatory networks it revealed. With bread wheat, as in all organisms, where and when your genes are active can be as important as which genes you have. This analysis monitored which genes are active only in certain tissues, which are active only during certain times during development, and which are active when the wheat was exposed to different stressors...
"Among the most valuable data from the study are the regulatory networks it revealed. With bread wheat, as in all organisms, where and when your genes are active can be as important as which genes you have. This analysis monitored which genes are active only in certain tissues, which are active only during certain times during development, and which are active when the wheat was exposed to different stressors...
"Breeding for important agricultural traits can be difficult if those traits are controlled by multiple genes, and those genes are each affected by their environment. This reference genome has identified genetic markers, much like diagnostic markers, that can be linked to particular traits. For example, about 26 genes are differentially active in wheat varieties with solid stems and those with hollow stems; this analysis revealed one gene where the number of copies varies reliably with stem thickness. This gene can now be used to select strains with solid stems in future wheat breeding programs. (Stem solidity confers resistance to drought and insect damage.)"
Photo: State Historical Society of North Dakota
The Biodiversity Paradox and the "Great Dying"
The Biodiversity Paradox and the "Great Dying"
POSTED AUGUST 29, 2018
Recently published research results from Portugal and France may answer two long-standing and baffling questions on the diversity and extinction of species.
Recently published research results from Portugal and France may answer two long-standing and baffling questions on the diversity and extinction of species.
How do so many species co-exist in an ecological environment with a limited number of resources?
How do so many species co-exist in an ecological environment with a limited number of resources?
What made the End-Permian Extinction, which wiped out 90% of life on the planet, so devastating?
What made the End-Permian Extinction, which wiped out 90% of life on the planet, so devastating?
Photo Credit: CC0 Public Domain
One of the main puzzles of ecology research has been to explain how hundreds, often thousands, of species coexist in environments with a very limited number of resources. Scientists in Lisbon, Portugal, have a promising answer to this conundrum, which could resolve a longstanding paradox and have important implications for preserving biodiversity, one of the more pressing challenges of our time. The scientists applied game theory models of aggression to the so-called "plankton paradox". Their simulation showed that the number of species increase exponentially with the number of resources, not linearly as in previous theories. The authors believe that resolving this paradox might provide the key not only to understanding biodiversity, but also understanding extinctions and predicting possible future directions of animal evolution. (Phys.org, Aug 29)
One of the main puzzles of ecology research has been to explain how hundreds, often thousands, of species coexist in environments with a very limited number of resources. Scientists in Lisbon, Portugal, have a promising answer to this conundrum, which could resolve a longstanding paradox and have important implications for preserving biodiversity, one of the more pressing challenges of our time. The scientists applied game theory models of aggression to the so-called "plankton paradox". Their simulation showed that the number of species increase exponentially with the number of resources, not linearly as in previous theories. The authors believe that resolving this paradox might provide the key not only to understanding biodiversity, but also understanding extinctions and predicting possible future directions of animal evolution. (Phys.org, Aug 29)
Photo credit: Getty Images/ Eric Chretien
The End-Permian Extinction, aka "the Great Dying", which occurred around 250 million years ago, killed off 90 percent of life on the planet. A new study examines what gave this extinction, which was powered by volcanoes, its unique power. The only extinction event in history which decimated insects as well as larger animals, it caused a loss of biodiversity so great that it took the global ecosystem ten million years to recover. The extinction largely stemmed from a volcanic explosion in Russia known as the Siberian Flood Basalts, which continued for nearly a million years. Previous theories have implicated deadly microbes pumped into the air as well as extreme coal burning. The new study concludes that one of the main contributors to the magnitude of the extinction was the release of toxic halogen gases from below the surface of the earth. The gases - chlorine, bromine, iodine - not only were toxic to living things but also destroyed the ozone layer, creating an environment in which almost nothing could exist. (Popular Mechanics, Aug 28)
The End-Permian Extinction, aka "the Great Dying", which occurred around 250 million years ago, killed off 90 percent of life on the planet. A new study examines what gave this extinction, which was powered by volcanoes, its unique power. The only extinction event in history which decimated insects as well as larger animals, it caused a loss of biodiversity so great that it took the global ecosystem ten million years to recover. The extinction largely stemmed from a volcanic explosion in Russia known as the Siberian Flood Basalts, which continued for nearly a million years. Previous theories have implicated deadly microbes pumped into the air as well as extreme coal burning. The new study concludes that one of the main contributors to the magnitude of the extinction was the release of toxic halogen gases from below the surface of the earth. The gases - chlorine, bromine, iodine - not only were toxic to living things but also destroyed the ozone layer, creating an environment in which almost nothing could exist. (Popular Mechanics, Aug 28)
Does this Canadian cave hold the answer to antibiotic resistance?
Does this Canadian cave hold the answer to antibiotic resistance?
POSTED SEPTEMBER 1, 2018
Antibiotic-resistance costs some 700,000 lives each year -nearly twice the number who die from malaria. If the phenomenon can't be halted, experts predict that the number could grow to 10 million deaths annually by 2050 - more than the number who die from cancer.
Antibiotic-resistance costs some 700,000 lives each year -nearly twice the number who die from malaria. If the phenomenon can't be halted, experts predict that the number could grow to 10 million deaths annually by 2050 - more than the number who die from cancer.
"Around the world, everyday surgical procedures, from treatments for common infections to chemotherapy, rely on antibiotics. In the past decade, however, the drugs we rely on to keep us safe from everything from E. coli to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) are failing to keep up with the rapid evolution of such infections and viruses. As these antibiotics continue to lose their efficacy, we lose our ability to treat even the most basic of illnesses. The situation is so severe that the World Health Organization regards antibiotic resistance as “one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development today”. (Wired, Aug 28, 2018)
"Around the world, everyday surgical procedures, from treatments for common infections to chemotherapy, rely on antibiotics. In the past decade, however, the drugs we rely on to keep us safe from everything from E. coli to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) are failing to keep up with the rapid evolution of such infections and viruses. As these antibiotics continue to lose their efficacy, we lose our ability to treat even the most basic of illnesses. The situation is so severe that the World Health Organization regards antibiotic resistance as “one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development today”. (Wired, Aug 28, 2018)
In 2017, the World Health Organization published its first ever list of the deadliest "superbugs" that threaten human health in 2017. The list encompasses 12 families of dangerous bacteria that have developed resistance to the drugs used to treat common infections, and has three urgency categories: critical, high, and medium. It is a grave acknowledgement by the WHO that current pharmaceutical research efforts to curb antibiotic resistance aren't doing enough to curb the risks posed by these superbugs. The list "is not meant to scare people about new superbugs, but to signal to researchers and pharmaceutical companies what their priorities should be," says WHO's assistant director-general for health systems and innovation, Marie-Paule Kieny.
In 2017, the World Health Organization published its first ever list of the deadliest "superbugs" that threaten human health in 2017. The list encompasses 12 families of dangerous bacteria that have developed resistance to the drugs used to treat common infections, and has three urgency categories: critical, high, and medium. It is a grave acknowledgement by the WHO that current pharmaceutical research efforts to curb antibiotic resistance aren't doing enough to curb the risks posed by these superbugs. The list "is not meant to scare people about new superbugs, but to signal to researchers and pharmaceutical companies what their priorities should be," says WHO's assistant director-general for health systems and innovation, Marie-Paule Kieny.
Naowarat Cheeptham is a leading researcher into how best to battle this growing number of antibiotic-resistant superbugs, and she is looking for answers everywhere - from deep subterranean caves to the local sewage treatment plant in her hometown of Kamloops, British Columbia. She is one of the scientists leading the effort in Canada's "Iron Curtain Cave" – so called because of its bountiful iron deposits. She believes that this cave could hold the key to beating superbugs. The cave system, near Chilliwack in British Columbia, is home to ancient bacteria undisturbed by the outside world.
Naowarat Cheeptham is a leading researcher into how best to battle this growing number of antibiotic-resistant superbugs, and she is looking for answers everywhere - from deep subterranean caves to the local sewage treatment plant in her hometown of Kamloops, British Columbia. She is one of the scientists leading the effort in Canada's "Iron Curtain Cave" – so called because of its bountiful iron deposits. She believes that this cave could hold the key to beating superbugs. The cave system, near Chilliwack in British Columbia, is home to ancient bacteria undisturbed by the outside world.
Naowarat Cheeptham in the network of caves discovered in 1933 in Chilliwack, British Columbia Credit: Klaus Thymann
The soil and dirt in those subterranean nooks are fuelling Cheeptham's search for treatments to kill superbugs. "We find microbes in that soil," she says. "Pristine organisms that haven't contacted surface life in any way. When we put them in contact with drug resistance bacteria, we get fascinating results."
The soil and dirt in those subterranean nooks are fuelling Cheeptham's search for treatments to kill superbugs. "We find microbes in that soil," she says. "Pristine organisms that haven't contacted surface life in any way. When we put them in contact with drug resistance bacteria, we get fascinating results."
Related Stories:
Related Stories:
Bacteriophages, viruses that kill bacteria, might help solve the antibiotic resistance problem (Science Daily, Apr 18, 2017)
Bacteriophages, viruses that kill bacteria, might help solve the antibiotic resistance problem (Science Daily, Apr 18, 2017)
If the ‘antibiotic apocalypse’ happens, it’ll be because our politicians let it (The Guardian, Oct 9, 2017)
If the ‘antibiotic apocalypse’ happens, it’ll be because our politicians let it (The Guardian, Oct 9, 2017)
Right: Location of Iron Curtain Cave (from UK Mail article)
Right: Location of Iron Curtain Cave (from UK Mail article)
Medical Progress: Three Encouraging Stories
Medical Progress: Three Encouraging Stories
POSTED OCTOBER 17, 2018
Recently published research provides encouraging news for treating cancer, curing genetic blindness, and understanding antibiotic resistance.
Recently published research provides encouraging news for treating cancer, curing genetic blindness, and understanding antibiotic resistance.
"Researchers at The University of Texas at Austin have developed a new approach to treating cancer using enzyme therapy. The enzyme, PEG-KYNase, does not directly kill cancer cells but instead empowers the immune system to eradicate unwanted cells on its own. PEG-KYNase is designed to degrade kynurenine, a metabolite produced by numerous tumors that suppresses the immune system. The UT team's findings were published in a recent issue of Nature Biotechnology." (phys.org, August 28)
A new gene therapy trial "has restored full or partial vision to blind patients who were robbed of their sight because of a genetic condition. The study, which was launched at the University of Oxford back in 2011, recruited 14 patients to receive an eye injection of the virus containing the missing gene that caused the blindness. By the end of the study, there was a significant gain in vision across the group of patients as a whole." (Good News Network, Oct 9)
"An international collaboration led by DESY ( Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron) and consisting of over 120 researchers has announced the results of the first scientific experiments at Europe's new X-ray laser, European XFEL. The pioneering work not only demonstrates that the new research facility can speed up experiments by more than an order of magnitude, it also reveals a previously unknown structure of an enzyme responsible for antibiotics resistance." (phys.org, Oct 2)
Scientists discover ancient Mayan city hidden under Guatemalan jungle
Scientists discover ancient Mayan city hidden under Guatemalan jungle
POSTED OCTOBER 23, 2018
UK Guardian: "Researchers using a high-tech aerial mapping technique have found tens of thousands of previously undetected Mayan houses, buildings, defence works and pyramids in the dense jungle of Guatemala’s Peten region, suggesting that millions more people lived there than previously thought.
UK Guardian: "Researchers using a high-tech aerial mapping technique have found tens of thousands of previously undetected Mayan houses, buildings, defence works and pyramids in the dense jungle of Guatemala’s Peten region, suggesting that millions more people lived there than previously thought.
"The discoveries, which included industrial-sized agricultural fields and irrigation canals, were announced earlier this year by an alliance of US, European and Guatemalan archaeologists working with Guatemala’s Mayan Heritage and Nature Foundation.
"The discoveries, which included industrial-sized agricultural fields and irrigation canals, were announced earlier this year by an alliance of US, European and Guatemalan archaeologists working with Guatemala’s Mayan Heritage and Nature Foundation.
"The study estimates that roughly 10 million people may have lived within the Maya Lowlands, meaning that kind of massive food production might have been needed.,,,
"The study estimates that roughly 10 million people may have lived within the Maya Lowlands, meaning that kind of massive food production might have been needed.,,,
"The 810 square miles (2,100 square kilometers) of mapping done vastly expands the area that was intensively occupied by the Maya, whose culture flourished between roughly 1,000 BC and 900 AD. Their descendants still live in the region.The mapping detected about 60,000 individual structures, including four major Mayan ceremonial centres with plazas and pyramids."
"The 810 square miles (2,100 square kilometers) of mapping done vastly expands the area that was intensively occupied by the Maya, whose culture flourished between roughly 1,000 BC and 900 AD. Their descendants still live in the region.The mapping detected about 60,000 individual structures, including four major Mayan ceremonial centres with plazas and pyramids."
Above: A high-tech aerial mapping technique uncovered previously undetected Mayan buildings in the jungle of Guatemala. Photograph: Canuto and Auld-Thomas/AP
Top right: Chichen Itza in the Yucatan is considered one of the "New 7 Wonders" of the world. Photo is from Wikipedia and may be subject to copyright.
The Mystery of the Mayan Collapse
The Mystery of the Mayan Collapse
Starting around 2600 B.C., the Mayan civilization expanded across large parts of the Yucatan Peninsula and Central America. Their civilization flourished from about 250 BC to 900 AD, with their greatest achievements occurring during the civilizations 'golden age' from 300 to 900 AD. Starting in the eighth century and accelerating in the ninth, Maya cities suddenly declined; their people either died or retreated from these great metropolises. Cultures that had developed highly advanced irrigation, agriculture, astronomy, and building techniques, as well as intricate social structures, rapidly fell apart.
The collapse of the Mayan civilization is one of the greatest mysteries of the ancient world. But scientists have recently focused on one particular cause - a century-long drought.
"The sediment under a lake in Mexico contains some of the long-sought answers to the mystery of the Mayan demise. Ancient Mayans, primarily concentrated in what is now the Yucatan Peninsula, were among the most advanced civilizations of their time. Mayans were some of the first to build cities. They used astronomy to advance agricultural production, and they created calendars and used advanced mathematics. But despite all of their progress, the Mayan empire, built over thousands of years, may have crumbled in just a few hundred. Scientists have several theories about why the collapse happened, including deforestation, overpopulation and extreme drought. New research, published in Science [in August], focuses on the drought and suggests, for the first time, how extreme it was. While analyzing sediment under Lake Chichancanab on the Yucatan Peninsula, scientists found a 50 percent decrease in annual precipitation over more than 100 years, from 800 to 1,000 A.D. At times, the study shows, the decrease was as much as 70 percent. " (Washington Post)
Bee colony collapse update
Bee colony collapse update
POSTED NOV 9, 2018
The bee colony collapse was first noticed in the US in the winter of 2006-7. That winter, bee keepers began to report unusually high losses of 30-90 percent of their hives. Bees are pollinators and the collapse of their colonies endangers the fruits, vegetables. and flowers dependent on them. Research pointed to several causes, and scientists now agree that Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) was likely caused by a combination of environmental and biological factors -including the invasive varroa mite and a class of pesticides - the neonicotinoids. While CCD is no longer causing large-scale colony death in North America, beekeepers are still reporting troubling colony losses – in some cases as high as 45 percent annually.
The bee colony collapse was first noticed in the US in the winter of 2006-7. That winter, bee keepers began to report unusually high losses of 30-90 percent of their hives. Bees are pollinators and the collapse of their colonies endangers the fruits, vegetables. and flowers dependent on them. Research pointed to several causes, and scientists now agree that Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) was likely caused by a combination of environmental and biological factors -including the invasive varroa mite and a class of pesticides - the neonicotinoids. While CCD is no longer causing large-scale colony death in North America, beekeepers are still reporting troubling colony losses – in some cases as high as 45 percent annually.
We've come a step closer to understanding why use of neonicotinoids can cause colonies to collapse. A new study led by Harvard's James Crall found that "under exposure to imidacloprid, a type of neonicotinoid, worker bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) stop nursing the colony’s larvae, become less social, and stop constructing hive insulation – behaviours that can lead to colony collapse....Using a robotic platform to continuously monitor bees, Crall and his colleagues found that workers in colonies that had been exposed to imidacloprid “spent significantly less time active”. The exposed colonies were also less adept at regulating hive temperature and showed reduced foraging and social interactions. (Cosmos, Nov 9)
We've come a step closer to understanding why use of neonicotinoids can cause colonies to collapse. A new study led by Harvard's James Crall found that "under exposure to imidacloprid, a type of neonicotinoid, worker bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) stop nursing the colony’s larvae, become less social, and stop constructing hive insulation – behaviours that can lead to colony collapse....Using a robotic platform to continuously monitor bees, Crall and his colleagues found that workers in colonies that had been exposed to imidacloprid “spent significantly less time active”. The exposed colonies were also less adept at regulating hive temperature and showed reduced foraging and social interactions. (Cosmos, Nov 9)
"One easy step is to grow forage plants, especially varieties that bloom at different times during the year. For suggestions, see our Häagen-Dazs Honey Bee Haven Plant List.
"One easy step is to grow forage plants, especially varieties that bloom at different times during the year. For suggestions, see our Häagen-Dazs Honey Bee Haven Plant List.
"Second, reduce your pesticide use for gardening and landscaping, and follow guidelines to reduce bee exposure.
"Second, reduce your pesticide use for gardening and landscaping, and follow guidelines to reduce bee exposure.
"Ultimately, however, making our society more pollinator-friendly will likely require some drastic and long-term changes in our environmental and agricultural practices."
"Ultimately, however, making our society more pollinator-friendly will likely require some drastic and long-term changes in our environmental and agricultural practices."
The Sixth Extinction
The Sixth Extinction
POSTED DECEMBER 14, 2018
Over the past 450 million years there have been at least five mass extinction events in which a majority of Earth's living species have gone extinct. Many scientists believe we are now living through the sixth - one that has been labeled the anthropocene mass extinction because of the role humankind has played in bringing it about.
Over the past 450 million years there have been at least five mass extinction events in which a majority of Earth's living species have gone extinct. Many scientists believe we are now living through the sixth - one that has been labeled the anthropocene mass extinction because of the role humankind has played in bringing it about.
Extinction rates for birds, mammals and amphibians are similar to the five global mass-extinction events of the past 500 million years that probably resulted from meteorite impacts, massive volcanism and other cataclysmic forces.
Extinction rates for birds, mammals and amphibians are similar to the five global mass-extinction events of the past 500 million years that probably resulted from meteorite impacts, massive volcanism and other cataclysmic forces.
In one of a series of papers in the journal Nature, a team of international scientists wrote: "The ever-increasing and unprecedented extent and impact of human activities on land and in the oceans over the past few centuries has dramatically reduced global biodiversity.
In one of a series of papers in the journal Nature, a team of international scientists wrote: "The ever-increasing and unprecedented extent and impact of human activities on land and in the oceans over the past few centuries has dramatically reduced global biodiversity.
"There is overwhelming evidence that habitat loss and fragmentation, over-exploitation of biological resources, pollution, species invasions and climate change have increased rates of global species extinctions to levels that are much higher than those observed in the fossil record." [The Independent (UK), May 2017]
"There is overwhelming evidence that habitat loss and fragmentation, over-exploitation of biological resources, pollution, species invasions and climate change have increased rates of global species extinctions to levels that are much higher than those observed in the fossil record." [The Independent (UK), May 2017]
Another paper - in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (US) - called the loss of biodiversity a "biological annihilation" and warned that this "will have serious ecological, economic and social consequences. Humanity will eventually pay a very high price for the decimation of the only assemblage of life that we know of in the universe.” [The Guardian (UK), July 2017]
Another paper - in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (US) - called the loss of biodiversity a "biological annihilation" and warned that this "will have serious ecological, economic and social consequences. Humanity will eventually pay a very high price for the decimation of the only assemblage of life that we know of in the universe.” [The Guardian (UK), July 2017]
Journalist Elizabeth Kolbert's book, The Sixth Extinction, won the 2015 Pulitzer for non-fiction. Below is a link to her interview with National Geographic.
Journalist Elizabeth Kolbert's book, The Sixth Extinction, won the 2015 Pulitzer for non-fiction. Below is a link to her interview with National Geographic.
Timeline of Earth's Previous Mass Extinctions
Timeline of Earth's Previous Mass Extinctions
Late Ordovician
Late Ordovician
450 million years ago
Extent: Half of all species became extinct. Nearly all life existed in the seas.
Causes: A severe ice age led to a hundred meer drop in sea levels as water became locked up as glacial ice on land.
Late Devonian
Late Devonian
360 million years ago
Extent: three quarters of all species became extinct, including many reef-building corals.
Causes: Fluctuating sea levels, land plants causing a period of global cooling as land plants removed CO2 from the atmosphere and ocean water became locked in glaciers.
Permian ("The Great Dying")
Permian ("The Great Dying")
250 Million Years Ago
Extent: 96% of all sea species and 80% of all land species died out.
Causes: Severe volcanism in Siberia causing massive global warming. Other possible contributors - a nearby supernova, environmental changes wrought by the formation of a super-continent, the devastating impact of a large asteroid.
Triassic Jurassic
Triassic Jurassic
200 Million Years Ago
Extent: Roughly half of all animal species became extinct but plants fared better.
Causes: Climate change, massive volcanic eruption in the Central Atlantic covering large sections of land and the ocean floor with basalt lava, an asteroid impact
Cretaceous-Tertiary, K/T
Cretaceous-Tertiary, K/T
65 Million Years Ago
Extent: More than 3/4 of the world's plant and animal species went extinct; most famous extinction event as it represented the end of “the age of reptiles” - dinosaurs and many other species
Causes: The Chixculub crater asteroid, following volcanic eruptions over thousands of years in India. Other possible contributor: climate change caused by the breakup of a super continent
The Huffington Post has some suggestions on what we can do as individuals to help stop the Sixth Extinction.
The Huffington Post has some suggestions on what we can do as individuals to help stop the Sixth Extinction.
Their list of ten steps we can take includes reducing our carbon footprint, eating less meat, buying from companies committed to using sustainably produced palm oil in their products, and enjoying nature. On the latter: "Spend your weekend or vacation exploring a national or state park or similarly biodiversity-rich place. That will remind you why preventing the Sixth Mass Extinction is so important. The reasons people have for wanting to keep species alive are diverse, ranging from “ecosystem services” — like pollinating crops, keeping soils fertile, or fueling local economies — to moral imperatives. But one of the most compelling reasons is that places with lots of species simply make people happy when they visit them."
Their list of ten steps we can take includes reducing our carbon footprint, eating less meat, buying from companies committed to using sustainably produced palm oil in their products, and enjoying nature. On the latter: "Spend your weekend or vacation exploring a national or state park or similarly biodiversity-rich place. That will remind you why preventing the Sixth Mass Extinction is so important. The reasons people have for wanting to keep species alive are diverse, ranging from “ecosystem services” — like pollinating crops, keeping soils fertile, or fueling local economies — to moral imperatives. But one of the most compelling reasons is that places with lots of species simply make people happy when they visit them."
Related article from The Atlantic:
Related article from The Atlantic:
First Nations communities are leading the effort to rescue the last remaining caribou herds from extinction.
How did first humans migrate to Australia?
How did first humans migrate to Australia?
JANUARY 24, 2019
Although the first humans arrived in Australia 65,000 years ago, "evidence for human settlement through the lands the indigenous ancestors must have travelled is all rather more recent."
Although the first humans arrived in Australia 65,000 years ago, "evidence for human settlement through the lands the indigenous ancestors must have travelled is all rather more recent."
In a study* using a "least-cost pathway model", Australian researchers found that "the most frequently cited speculative route – across Indonesia and the island of Timor into what is now Australia’s Northern Territory – was less likely than thought...Instead, they suggest a route that involves traversing islands to the north and west of the landmass known as Sahul – comprising a then-continuous Australia and Papua New Guinea." - Cosmos Magazine, Oct 31, 2018
In a study* using a "least-cost pathway model", Australian researchers found that "the most frequently cited speculative route – across Indonesia and the island of Timor into what is now Australia’s Northern Territory – was less likely than thought...Instead, they suggest a route that involves traversing islands to the north and west of the landmass known as Sahul – comprising a then-continuous Australia and Papua New Guinea." - Cosmos Magazine, Oct 31, 2018
* The study was published in the Journal of Human Evolution
Beyond bee colony collapse: an insect "apocalypse" ?
Beyond bee colony collapse: an insect "apocalypse" ?
POSTED FEBRUARY 17, 2019
Many scientists believe we are now living through a sixth mass extinction - one that has been labeled the anthropocene mass extinction because of the role humankind has played in bringing it about. While anthropogenic global warming is an important factor in the extinction of larger species, agricultural practices - particularly certain pesticides - have been implicated in the decline of insect species, such as the bee colony collapse.
Many scientists believe we are now living through a sixth mass extinction - one that has been labeled the anthropocene mass extinction because of the role humankind has played in bringing it about. While anthropogenic global warming is an important factor in the extinction of larger species, agricultural practices - particularly certain pesticides - have been implicated in the decline of insect species, such as the bee colony collapse.
A new study published in the journal "Biological Conservation" warns that "dramatic rates of decline may lead to the extinction of 40% of the world's insect species over the next few decades." Insects are important for the earth's ecosystems providing food for larger creatures and pollinating the plants and flowers so important to the well-being of us humans.
A new study published in the journal "Biological Conservation" warns that "dramatic rates of decline may lead to the extinction of 40% of the world's insect species over the next few decades." Insects are important for the earth's ecosystems providing food for larger creatures and pollinating the plants and flowers so important to the well-being of us humans.
The researchers identify the main drivers of the species declines as "habitat loss and conversion to intensive agriculture and urbanisation; pollution, mainly that by synthetic pesticides and fertilisers;, biological factors, including pathogens and introduced species; and climate change. The latter factor is particularly important in tropical regions."
The researchers identify the main drivers of the species declines as "habitat loss and conversion to intensive agriculture and urbanisation; pollution, mainly that by synthetic pesticides and fertilisers;, biological factors, including pathogens and introduced species; and climate change. The latter factor is particularly important in tropical regions."
They conclude that a "rethinking of current agricultural practices, in particular a serious reduction in pesticide usage and its substitution with more sustainable, ecologically-based practices, is urgently needed to slow or reverse current trends, allow the recovery of declining insect populations and safeguard the vital ecosystem services they provide. In addition, effective remediation technologies should be applied to clean polluted waters in both agricultural and urban environments."
They conclude that a "rethinking of current agricultural practices, in particular a serious reduction in pesticide usage and its substitution with more sustainable, ecologically-based practices, is urgently needed to slow or reverse current trends, allow the recovery of declining insect populations and safeguard the vital ecosystem services they provide. In addition, effective remediation technologies should be applied to clean polluted waters in both agricultural and urban environments."
What if that asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs had missed?
What if that asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs had missed?
POSTED MARCH 14, 2019
The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction of 66 million years ago was the last of the five great extinctions before the ascendance of Man. The asteroid caused the extinction of 75% of all species - most famously wiping out the dinosaurs. One of the debates concerning the dinosaurs is whether they were already in decline when the Chicxulub imp[actor wiped them out. Would they have died out anyway, with the ending of their reign leading eventually, if belatedly, to mammals, primates and humans? A recent study published in Nature Communications concludes that dinosaurs were thriving at the time of the impact. If the asteroid had not hit, all indications are that they would have continued to thrive and continued to dominate the planet.
The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction of 66 million years ago was the last of the five great extinctions before the ascendance of Man. The asteroid caused the extinction of 75% of all species - most famously wiping out the dinosaurs. One of the debates concerning the dinosaurs is whether they were already in decline when the Chicxulub imp[actor wiped them out. Would they have died out anyway, with the ending of their reign leading eventually, if belatedly, to mammals, primates and humans? A recent study published in Nature Communications concludes that dinosaurs were thriving at the time of the impact. If the asteroid had not hit, all indications are that they would have continued to thrive and continued to dominate the planet.
Where would that leave us humans? Would we or some form of self-aware intelligent life ever have evolved in a world where dinosaurs reigned? Or would the dinosaurs themselves become sentient as they do in sci-fi writer Robert J Sawyer's Quintaglio Ascension Trilogy?
Where would that leave us humans? Would we or some form of self-aware intelligent life ever have evolved in a world where dinosaurs reigned? Or would the dinosaurs themselves become sentient as they do in sci-fi writer Robert J Sawyer's Quintaglio Ascension Trilogy?
Gizmodo asks a group of biologists, paleontologists and geologists to speculate in the link below.
Gizmodo asks a group of biologists, paleontologists and geologists to speculate in the link below.
Two from the journal "Nature" - cats' names and the death of a pioneer
Two from the journal "Nature" - cats' names and the death of a pioneer
POSTED APRIL 8, 2019
"More than 3,000 years ago in Egypt, a tabby called Nedjem is thought to have roamed the royal household of Thutmose III. History doesn’t record whether Nedjem — whose name means ‘sweet’ or ‘pleasant’ — learnt to respond when called. But a study published on 4 April in Scientific Reports1 suggests that at least some modern housecats can distinguish their names from similar-sounding words, although they register recognition with the merest twitch of the head or ear." [link to article below left]
"More than 3,000 years ago in Egypt, a tabby called Nedjem is thought to have roamed the royal household of Thutmose III. History doesn’t record whether Nedjem — whose name means ‘sweet’ or ‘pleasant’ — learnt to respond when called. But a study published on 4 April in Scientific Reports1 suggests that at least some modern housecats can distinguish their names from similar-sounding words, although they register recognition with the merest twitch of the head or ear." [link to article below left]
Pioneering molecular biologist Sydney Brenner has died, aged 92. Among Brenner’s most notable achievements was turning the Caenorhabditis elegans nematode worm into a model system for human-disease research in the 1960s and 1970s, which sparked a new field of research. C. elegans worms are the model animal of choice for many neuroscientists, because their neural circuits are so simple that they can be mapped in full. [link to article below right]
Pioneering molecular biologist Sydney Brenner has died, aged 92. Among Brenner’s most notable achievements was turning the Caenorhabditis elegans nematode worm into a model system for human-disease research in the 1960s and 1970s, which sparked a new field of research. C. elegans worms are the model animal of choice for many neuroscientists, because their neural circuits are so simple that they can be mapped in full. [link to article below right]
Monsters in the mists of time
Monsters in the mists of time
POSTED APR 27, 2019
"Memories of extinct megafauna persist in the stories and art of indigenous people, say researchers Patrick Nunn from Australia and Luiza Corral Martins de Oliveira Ponciano from Brazil.
"Memories of extinct megafauna persist in the stories and art of indigenous people, say researchers Patrick Nunn from Australia and Luiza Corral Martins de Oliveira Ponciano from Brazil.
"On many continents during the last ice age, typically from about 50,000 to 12,000 years ago, species of megafauna that had lived there for hundreds of thousands of years became extinct. Comparatively abruptly, it appears, in most instances.
"On many continents during the last ice age, typically from about 50,000 to 12,000 years ago, species of megafauna that had lived there for hundreds of thousands of years became extinct. Comparatively abruptly, it appears, in most instances.
Either climate change and/or humans caused these megafaunal extinctions. This means, of course, that people likely knew about megafauna: how they looked, how they behaved, how they might be most effectively hunted and so on. Is there a possibility that any fragments of this knowledge have reached us today? Incredibly, the suggestion seems plausible." - Cosmos, Apr 27 [link left]
Either climate change and/or humans caused these megafaunal extinctions. This means, of course, that people likely knew about megafauna: how they looked, how they behaved, how they might be most effectively hunted and so on. Is there a possibility that any fragments of this knowledge have reached us today? Incredibly, the suggestion seems plausible." - Cosmos, Apr 27 [link left]
The Human Microbiome Project
The Human Microbiome Project
POSTED JUNE 5, 2019
The average human body is host to nearly 40 trillion bacteria. That's 30% more than its number of cells. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. The role of bacteria in disease has been studied since the days of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), but the general effect of microbes on human health has only recently become a subject of intense study. Microbiome projects worldwide have been launched with the goal of understanding the roles that microbes play and their impacts on human health. In the 18 years since the publication of the first human genome, studies of the microbiome have grown from culture-based surveys of the oral cavity and gut to molecular profiles of microbial biochemistry in all ecological niches of the human body.
The average human body is host to nearly 40 trillion bacteria. That's 30% more than its number of cells. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. The role of bacteria in disease has been studied since the days of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), but the general effect of microbes on human health has only recently become a subject of intense study. Microbiome projects worldwide have been launched with the goal of understanding the roles that microbes play and their impacts on human health. In the 18 years since the publication of the first human genome, studies of the microbiome have grown from culture-based surveys of the oral cavity and gut to molecular profiles of microbial biochemistry in all ecological niches of the human body.
Over the past decade, more than US$1.7 billion has been spent on human microbiome research. Major projects are under way in the United States, the European Union, China, Canada, Ireland, South Korea and Japan. This investment has confirmed the importance of the microbiome to human health and development. It is now known, for instance, that newborns receive essential microorganisms from their mothers. Moreover, the sugars in breast milk that infants cannot digest nourish babies’ developing microbiomes, which in turn shape their immune systems...A review of what that decade of investment in human microbiome research has achieved was published in February (see ‘Big wins’ below left)
In 2007 the US National Institutes of Health launched its Human Microbiome research project. The first phase of the Human Microbiome Project focused on identifying and characterizing human microbes. The second phase, known as the Integrative Human Microbiome Project launched in 2014 with the aim of generating resources to characterize the microbiome and illuminating the roles of microbes in health and disease states.
In 2007 the US National Institutes of Health launched its Human Microbiome research project. The first phase of the Human Microbiome Project focused on identifying and characterizing human microbes. The second phase, known as the Integrative Human Microbiome Project launched in 2014 with the aim of generating resources to characterize the microbiome and illuminating the roles of microbes in health and disease states.
The journal Nature reports: "The recently completed second phase, the Integrative Human Microbiome Project, comprised studies of dynamic changes in the microbiome and host under three conditions: pregnancy and preterm birth; inflammatory bowel diseases; and stressors that affect individuals with prediabetes. The associated research begins to elucidate mechanisms of host–microbiome interactions under these conditions, provides unique data resources, and represents a paradigm for future multi-omic studies of the human microbiome."
The journal Nature reports: "The recently completed second phase, the Integrative Human Microbiome Project, comprised studies of dynamic changes in the microbiome and host under three conditions: pregnancy and preterm birth; inflammatory bowel diseases; and stressors that affect individuals with prediabetes. The associated research begins to elucidate mechanisms of host–microbiome interactions under these conditions, provides unique data resources, and represents a paradigm for future multi-omic studies of the human microbiome."
The importance of these latest studies is clear. The incidence of preterm birth exceeds 10% worldwide. There are significant disparities in the frequency of preterm birth among populations within countries, and women of African ancestry disproportionately bear the burden of risk in the United States. Inflammatory bowel diseases, which include Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, affect several million individuals worldwide. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a growing health problem, but little is known about its early disease stages, its effects on biological processes or the transition to clinical T2D. With better understanding of the relationship between the microbiome and the health conditions, treatments that modify the microbiome can lead to prevention and/or cures.
The importance of these latest studies is clear. The incidence of preterm birth exceeds 10% worldwide. There are significant disparities in the frequency of preterm birth among populations within countries, and women of African ancestry disproportionately bear the burden of risk in the United States. Inflammatory bowel diseases, which include Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, affect several million individuals worldwide. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a growing health problem, but little is known about its early disease stages, its effects on biological processes or the transition to clinical T2D. With better understanding of the relationship between the microbiome and the health conditions, treatments that modify the microbiome can lead to prevention and/or cures.
As for what's next, an editorial in Nature argues for a multi-disciplinary approach and a central agency or institute to foster this.
As for what's next, an editorial in Nature argues for a multi-disciplinary approach and a central agency or institute to foster this.
So, what lies ahead now that the second phase of this major project has come to an end? Many questions about the basic biology of the microbiota remain, including what drives its variation over time and between populations and geographic regions. Ultimately, the goal is to translate such findings into clinical interventions — a monumental challenge. This will require close multidisciplinary collaboration. For example, the microbiology community on its own is unlikely to identify the animal models that are most appropriate for investigating a particular medical condition, or to establish the minimum criteria for substantiating claims of causality.
Multidisciplinary efforts require time and sustained funding to foster innovative ideas and drive translational research. A field this big and mature would benefit from a central agency or a dedicated institute to foster the necessary multidisciplinary collaborations and to focus on standardization, including data sharing and best practices, as well as on the ethical, regulatory and societal implications of such studies.
Big wins
Big wins
The finding that thousands of bacterial species (as well as viruses and fungi) live in people, and are an integral part of human biology, has challenged medicine’s view of microorganisms solely as agents of infectious disease.
The discovery that dietary fibre stimulates the particular groups of bacteria that produce key host-signalling molecules (such as short-chain fatty acids) is leading to the development of nutrition-based approaches to treating and restoring people’s microbiomes.
The transplantation of gut microbiota from one person to another has been found to be more than 90% effective in the treatment of recurring Clostridium difficile infections. The current care standard is repeated doses of antibiotics.
Some cancer treatments activate the immune system. A new approach to these has emerged with the discovery that efficacy is related to specific members of the patient’s gut microbiome.
Source: "Priorities for the next 10 years of Human Microbiome Research", Lisa Proctor, Nature. May 29
Scientists tackle well-being: nature, the sea and work in the age of automation
Scientists tackle well-being: nature, the sea and work in the age of automation
POSTED JUNE 19, 2019
The physical and psychological health benefits of being in nature or by the sea have been noted and praised by writers and poets for ages. Studies in England and Hong Kong have now tried to confirm these musings by quantifying the time needed to achieve those benefits.
The physical and psychological health benefits of being in nature or by the sea have been noted and praised by writers and poets for ages. Studies in England and Hong Kong have now tried to confirm these musings by quantifying the time needed to achieve those benefits.
Spending at least two hours a week in nature may be a crucial threshold for promoting health and well-being, according to a new large-scale study, led by the University of Exeter. People who did so were significantly more likely to report good health and higher psychological well-being than those who don't visit nature at all during an average week. However, no such benefits were found for people who visited natural settings such as town parks, woodlands, country parks and beaches for less than 120 minutes a week. (Science Daily, June 13 - link below left)
Spending at least two hours a week in nature may be a crucial threshold for promoting health and well-being, according to a new large-scale study, led by the University of Exeter. People who did so were significantly more likely to report good health and higher psychological well-being than those who don't visit nature at all during an average week. However, no such benefits were found for people who visited natural settings such as town parks, woodlands, country parks and beaches for less than 120 minutes a week. (Science Daily, June 13 - link below left)
A ground-breaking study has revealed how spending time in and around Hong Kong's 'blue spaces' (harbors, coastlines and beaches) is linked to better health and well-being, especially for older adults. The research is the result of a collaboration between the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and the University of Exeter in the UK. The researchers found that people were more likely to visit Hong Kong's blue spaces if they lived within a 10-15 minute walk and felt there were good facilities and wildlife to see. Visiting for at least an hour or more, and engaging in higher-intensity activities while there, were also linked to higher wellbeing. (Science Daily, December 11, 2018 - link below center)
A ground-breaking study has revealed how spending time in and around Hong Kong's 'blue spaces' (harbors, coastlines and beaches) is linked to better health and well-being, especially for older adults. The research is the result of a collaboration between the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and the University of Exeter in the UK. The researchers found that people were more likely to visit Hong Kong's blue spaces if they lived within a 10-15 minute walk and felt there were good facilities and wildlife to see. Visiting for at least an hour or more, and engaging in higher-intensity activities while there, were also linked to higher wellbeing. (Science Daily, December 11, 2018 - link below center)
A more recent well-being concern is what will happen when automation becomes widespread, and fewer paid jobs are available. As automation advances, predictions of a jobless future have some fearing unrest from mass unemployment, while others imagine a more contented work-free society.
A more recent well-being concern is what will happen when automation becomes widespread, and fewer paid jobs are available. As automation advances, predictions of a jobless future have some fearing unrest from mass unemployment, while others imagine a more contented work-free society.
Aside from economic factors, paid employment brings other benefits -- often psychological -- such as self-esteem and social inclusion. Now, researchers at the universities of Cambridge and Salford have set out to define a recommended "dosage" of work for optimal well-being. The study, published in the journal Social Science and Medicine, shows that when people moved from unemployment or stay-at-home parenting into paid work of eight hours or less a week, their risk of mental health problems reduced by an average of 30%. Yet researchers found no evidence that working any more than eight hours provided further boosts to wellbeing. The full-time standard of 37 to 40 hours was not significantly different to any other working time category when it came to mental health. "If there is not enough for everybody who wants to work full-time, we will have to rethink current norms. This should include the redistribution of working hours, so everyone can get the mental health benefits of a job, even if that means we all work much shorter weeks." (Science Daily, June 18 - link below right)
Aside from economic factors, paid employment brings other benefits -- often psychological -- such as self-esteem and social inclusion. Now, researchers at the universities of Cambridge and Salford have set out to define a recommended "dosage" of work for optimal well-being. The study, published in the journal Social Science and Medicine, shows that when people moved from unemployment or stay-at-home parenting into paid work of eight hours or less a week, their risk of mental health problems reduced by an average of 30%. Yet researchers found no evidence that working any more than eight hours provided further boosts to wellbeing. The full-time standard of 37 to 40 hours was not significantly different to any other working time category when it came to mental health. "If there is not enough for everybody who wants to work full-time, we will have to rethink current norms. This should include the redistribution of working hours, so everyone can get the mental health benefits of a job, even if that means we all work much shorter weeks." (Science Daily, June 18 - link below right)
Image of St. Stephen's Beach Hong Kong is from Conde Nast Traveler article.
Some paid work for the entire adult population is important, but the rise of automation may require shorter hours for all so work can be redistributed.
Cosmic expansion (11 bya), complex life (3 bya), Ebola drugs (2019)
Cosmic expansion (11 bya), complex life (3 bya), Ebola drugs (2019)
POSTED AUG 15, 2019
A trio of articles in the journal Nature provides us with encouraging news about both the quest to understand the nature of the universe and the attempt to halt a deadly disease. The resource-intensive multinational galaxy mapping, the 12 year effort by a group of dedicated biologists to isolate an "oddball" microbe, and a successful clinical trial in the midst of the second deadliest Ebola outbreak in history remind us of what humanity at its best can accomplish.
A trio of articles in the journal Nature provides us with encouraging news about both the quest to understand the nature of the universe and the attempt to halt a deadly disease. The resource-intensive multinational galaxy mapping, the 12 year effort by a group of dedicated biologists to isolate an "oddball" microbe, and a successful clinical trial in the midst of the second deadliest Ebola outbreak in history remind us of what humanity at its best can accomplish.
Dark energy and cosmic expansion
Dark energy and cosmic expansion
In the 1990's, astrophysicists observed something surprising. The universe is expanding at an accelerating rate with time. The expanding universe, first proposed by Edwin Hubble in 1929 based on his observations of the red shift of distant galaxies, was an established theory in astrophysics. But until the observations of the '90's, this expansion was thought to be slowing down because of the effect of gravity- even to the point that some scientists thought this expansion might reverse itself and the universe end in a Big Crunch.
In the 1990's, astrophysicists observed something surprising. The universe is expanding at an accelerating rate with time. The expanding universe, first proposed by Edwin Hubble in 1929 based on his observations of the red shift of distant galaxies, was an established theory in astrophysics. But until the observations of the '90's, this expansion was thought to be slowing down because of the effect of gravity- even to the point that some scientists thought this expansion might reverse itself and the universe end in a Big Crunch.
In September, astronomers will begin a five year project to capture light spectra from 35 million galaxies and reconstruct the Universe’s history of expansion. Their main aim: to elucidate the nature of dark energy, the enigmatic force that is pushing the Universe to accelerate at an ever-faster pace. The DESI ( Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument) survey will reconstruct 11 billion years of cosmic history. It could answer the first and most basic question about dark energy: is it a uniform force across space and time, or has its strength evolved over eons? [below left: link to Nature article on DESI]
In September, astronomers will begin a five year project to capture light spectra from 35 million galaxies and reconstruct the Universe’s history of expansion. Their main aim: to elucidate the nature of dark energy, the enigmatic force that is pushing the Universe to accelerate at an ever-faster pace. The DESI ( Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument) survey will reconstruct 11 billion years of cosmic history. It could answer the first and most basic question about dark energy: is it a uniform force across space and time, or has its strength evolved over eons? [below left: link to Nature article on DESI]
Image of cosmological red shift is from Socratic.org.
Light spectra and red shift
Astronomers use light spectra to determine the composition of stars. From the dark absorption lines and bands, they can determine the elemental composition of the star. The red shift - the absorption lines moving towards the red end of the spectrum -indicate an object is moving away from us because it has a longer wavelength.
The origin of complex life
The origin of complex life
For its first billion years, Earth was lifeless. Then about 3.5 billion years ago*, the fossil record tells us, the first life** appeared. The first lifeforms were prokaryotes, simple single-cell organisms without a nucleus. Bacteria and arachea are the two branches of prokaryotes.
For its first billion years, Earth was lifeless. Then about 3.5 billion years ago*, the fossil record tells us, the first life** appeared. The first lifeforms were prokaryotes, simple single-cell organisms without a nucleus. Bacteria and arachea are the two branches of prokaryotes.
Prokaryotic organisms can live in every type of environment on Earth, from very hot, to very cold, to super haline, to very acidic. In fact, one of the leading contenders for where life started is near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean. In view of this extreme adaptability, one of the mysteries is why prokaryotic organisms would ever evolve into something more complex. And yet here we are.
Prokaryotic organisms can live in every type of environment on Earth, from very hot, to very cold, to super haline, to very acidic. In fact, one of the leading contenders for where life started is near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean. In view of this extreme adaptability, one of the mysteries is why prokaryotic organisms would ever evolve into something more complex. And yet here we are.
For more complex forms of life to develop and evolve, a cell needs to have a nucleus to enclose its DNA. The first lifeforms to possess this nucleus were the eukaryotes. What was the link between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? In the muck of the sea floor off the coast of Greenland, scientists came upon a strange microbe. It was clearly a member of the archaea - a prokaryote. But dotted throughout this genome were eukaryotic-like genes, suggesting to Ettema that this oddball could help to bridge the evolutionary gap between simpler microbes and eukaryotes. The researchers called it Lokiarchaea, after Loki, the trickster of Norse mythology.
For more complex forms of life to develop and evolve, a cell needs to have a nucleus to enclose its DNA. The first lifeforms to possess this nucleus were the eukaryotes. What was the link between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? In the muck of the sea floor off the coast of Greenland, scientists came upon a strange microbe. It was clearly a member of the archaea - a prokaryote. But dotted throughout this genome were eukaryotic-like genes, suggesting to Ettema that this oddball could help to bridge the evolutionary gap between simpler microbes and eukaryotes. The researchers called it Lokiarchaea, after Loki, the trickster of Norse mythology.
Biologists have for the first time captured and grown this elusive microbe that is similar to those that might have given rise to all complex life on Earth. It took the researchers 12 years to cultivate pure laboratory cultures of these microbes from deep-sea mud. The effort gives scientists their first look at the kind of organisms that could have made the jump from simple, bacteria-like cells to eukaryotes — the group of organisms whose cells have nuclei and other structures, and which includes plants, fungi, and humans and other animals. [below center: link to Nature article on Lokiarchaea]
Biologists have for the first time captured and grown this elusive microbe that is similar to those that might have given rise to all complex life on Earth. It took the researchers 12 years to cultivate pure laboratory cultures of these microbes from deep-sea mud. The effort gives scientists their first look at the kind of organisms that could have made the jump from simple, bacteria-like cells to eukaryotes — the group of organisms whose cells have nuclei and other structures, and which includes plants, fungi, and humans and other animals. [below center: link to Nature article on Lokiarchaea]
*There are indications of life arising earlier, but the discovery of microfossils in ancient rocks in Australia is the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth.
**"Life" is manifested in functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli or adaptation to the environment originating from within the organism.
Above: WHO map of status of Ebola outbreak as of June 4
Above: WHO map of status of Ebola outbreak as of June 4
Stopping Ebola
Stopping Ebola
Two Ebola drugs have proven so effective in a clinical trial that researchers will make the treatments available to anyone infected with the virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where Ebola has killed nearly 1,900 people over the past year. It is the second deadliest Ebola outbreak in history.*
Two Ebola drugs have proven so effective in a clinical trial that researchers will make the treatments available to anyone infected with the virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where Ebola has killed nearly 1,900 people over the past year. It is the second deadliest Ebola outbreak in history.*
Both drugs outperformed two other experimental treatments in the unprecedented multi-drug clinical trial in the DRC, the World Health Organization, INRB and NIAID said in a joint statement on 12 August. The survival rate for people who received either drug shortly after infection, when levels of the virus in their blood were low, was 90%. [below right: link to Nature article]
Both drugs outperformed two other experimental treatments in the unprecedented multi-drug clinical trial in the DRC, the World Health Organization, INRB and NIAID said in a joint statement on 12 August. The survival rate for people who received either drug shortly after infection, when levels of the virus in their blood were low, was 90%. [below right: link to Nature article]
*In 2014 more than 10,000 people died. Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone were especially hard hit.
U.S. gene-editing trials underway
U.S. gene-editing trials underway
POSTED SEPTEMBER 28, 2019
The development of CRISPR/Cas-9 gene-editing technology is one of the most important scientific advances of the decade. This technology allows researchers to modify genes in days rather than weeks or months. CRISPR/Cas-9 has the potential to cure or prevent genetic diseases, produce hardier, more nutritious crops, eliminate malaria with a mosquito "gene drive", and develop effective new antibiotics* and antivirals.
The development of CRISPR/Cas-9 gene-editing technology is one of the most important scientific advances of the decade. This technology allows researchers to modify genes in days rather than weeks or months. CRISPR/Cas-9 has the potential to cure or prevent genetic diseases, produce hardier, more nutritious crops, eliminate malaria with a mosquito "gene drive", and develop effective new antibiotics* and antivirals.
Over the past year, four clinical trials using CRISPR/Cas-9 gene-editing technology have been launched in the United States. The goal of the trials is to treat and possibly cure patients with serious diseases. The four U.S. clinical trials involving CRISPR have the potential "to tackle cancers such as melanoma and lymphoma, sickle cell disease, and even blindness."
Over the past year, four clinical trials using CRISPR/Cas-9 gene-editing technology have been launched in the United States. The goal of the trials is to treat and possibly cure patients with serious diseases. The four U.S. clinical trials involving CRISPR have the potential "to tackle cancers such as melanoma and lymphoma, sickle cell disease, and even blindness."
The Smithsonian website [link right] summarizes the trials:
The Smithsonian website [link right] summarizes the trials:
Editing Patients’ T Cells to Fight Cancer
Editing Patients’ T Cells to Fight Cancer
The first clinical trial in the U.S. to use CRISPR in a treatment began last September. Led by University of Pennsylvania professor of medicine Edward Stadtmauer, it consists of genetically modifying patients’ own T cells—a type of immune cell that circulates in the blood—to make them more efficient at fighting certain kinds of cancer cells.
Boosting Fetal Hemoglobin in Patients With Sickle Cell Disease
Boosting Fetal Hemoglobin in Patients With Sickle Cell Disease
A trial helmed by Massachusetts-based Vertex Pharmaceuticals and CRISPR Therapeutics is the first CRISPR-based clinical trial in the U.S. for a condition with a clear, heritable genetic basis: sickle cell disease.
Editing Donor T Cells to Fight Lymphoma
Editing Donor T Cells to Fight Lymphoma
The same companies behind the sickle cell treatment have also begun a trial to use CRISPR-edited T cells to treat non-responsive or relapsed non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. This cancer of the lymphatic system plays a major role in the body’s immune response. Unlike the University of Pennsylvania trial, the study involves editing T cells from donors.
Editing Photoreceptor Cells to Treat Inherited Blindness
Editing Photoreceptor Cells to Treat Inherited Blindness
At the end of July, Cambridge, Massachusetts-based Editas Medicine, working with Irish company Allergan, announced that they’d begun enrollment in a clinical trial for EDIT-101, a treatment for a type of inherited childhood blindness known as Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA). It will be the first instance of a CRISPR clinical trial that conducts cellular editing within a human body, or in vivo.
Gene-editing in humans comes with risks and raises important ethical questions.
Gene-editing in humans comes with risks and raises important ethical questions.
In 1999, an 18-year-old participant named Jesse Gelsinger died in a Phase 1 gene therapy trial—a tragedy that still lingers over the field. Another example of safety risk: a researcher created a virus with CRISPR-Cas9 that gave mice human lung cancer. Such a mistake could work on human lungs also.
In 1999, an 18-year-old participant named Jesse Gelsinger died in a Phase 1 gene therapy trial—a tragedy that still lingers over the field. Another example of safety risk: a researcher created a virus with CRISPR-Cas9 that gave mice human lung cancer. Such a mistake could work on human lungs also.
In November of last year, a Chinese researcher "reported that he had created the world’s first human babies with CRISPR-edited genes: a pair of twin girls resistant to HIV. The announcement stunned scientists around the world. The director of the National Institutes of Health, Francis Collins, said the experiment was 'profoundly disturbing and tramples on ethical norms.' " (Vox) Since the news of the researcher's experiment broke, many scientists have affirmed that CRISPR isn’t yet safe and precise enough to be used in human embryos.
In November of last year, a Chinese researcher "reported that he had created the world’s first human babies with CRISPR-edited genes: a pair of twin girls resistant to HIV. The announcement stunned scientists around the world. The director of the National Institutes of Health, Francis Collins, said the experiment was 'profoundly disturbing and tramples on ethical norms.' " (Vox) Since the news of the researcher's experiment broke, many scientists have affirmed that CRISPR isn’t yet safe and precise enough to be used in human embryos.
And then there are the serious ethical questions around "designer babies." Besides the class question (i.e.,"would this be available only to the super-rich?"), there are also dangers associated with both the procedure and the long-term consequences. The National Academy of Sciences took a stand on this in 2017 and recommended that "that genome editing for enhancement should not be allowed at this time, and that broad public input and discussion should be solicited before allowing clinical trials for somatic genome editing for any purpose other than treating or preventing disease or disability." As the Vox article [link in sidebar] points out, "if we edited a germline, future generations wouldn’t be able to opt out. Genetic changes might be difficult to undo."
And then there are the serious ethical questions around "designer babies." Besides the class question (i.e.,"would this be available only to the super-rich?"), there are also dangers associated with both the procedure and the long-term consequences. The National Academy of Sciences took a stand on this in 2017 and recommended that "that genome editing for enhancement should not be allowed at this time, and that broad public input and discussion should be solicited before allowing clinical trials for somatic genome editing for any purpose other than treating or preventing disease or disability." As the Vox article [link in sidebar] points out, "if we edited a germline, future generations wouldn’t be able to opt out. Genetic changes might be difficult to undo."
Some of the leading researchers in the field including two of the three CRISPR pioneers — Emmanuelle Charpentier and Feng Zhang — issued a call in March 2019 to adopt a moratorium on heritable genome editing. Bioethicist Franҫoise Baylis is the author of “Altered Inheritance: CRISPR and the Ethics of Human Genome Editing” (Harvard University Press, September 2019). In an article at StatNews [link right], she writes:
Some of the leading researchers in the field including two of the three CRISPR pioneers — Emmanuelle Charpentier and Feng Zhang — issued a call in March 2019 to adopt a moratorium on heritable genome editing. Bioethicist Franҫoise Baylis is the author of “Altered Inheritance: CRISPR and the Ethics of Human Genome Editing” (Harvard University Press, September 2019). In an article at StatNews [link right], she writes:
I wrote “Altered Inheritance” as a call to action. It is a call for scientists to slow down, to reflect deeply on their science and their priorities, and to find meaningful ways to contribute to science policy in pursuit of the common good. It is also a call for all of us to take collective responsibility for the biological and social future of humankind as we think carefully about what kind of world we want to live in, and how genome editing technology might help us build that world.
*Antibiotic-resistance costs some 700,000 lives each year -nearly twice the number who die from malaria. Most recently, ETH Zurich researchers have shown that antimicrobial-resistant infections are rapidly increasing in animals in low and middle income countries.
Clinical Trials
Clinical Trials
What is CRISPR/Cas-9?
What is CRISPR/Cas-9?
"If you haven’t heard of CRISPR yet, the short explanation goes like this: In the past nine years, scientists have figured out how to exploit a quirk in the immune systems of bacteria to edit genes in other organisms — plants, mice, even humans." (Vox -link below)
Bioethics
Bioethics
How to permanently end disease
How to permanently end disease
POSTED DECEMBER 17, 2019
Over the past couple of years, Quanta Magazine has published a quartet of articles on the eradication of infectious diseases. The authors lay out the successes of and challenges for the scientists, doctors, nurses, and others involved in the efforts to end these diseases that kill more than 17 million people per year.
Over the past couple of years, Quanta Magazine has published a quartet of articles on the eradication of infectious diseases. The authors lay out the successes of and challenges for the scientists, doctors, nurses, and others involved in the efforts to end these diseases that kill more than 17 million people per year.
In "How to Permanently End Disease," Tara C. Smith explores why smallpox was completely eradicated so quickly while other diseases have proven to be stubbornly resistant. She points the mix of biological and psychological factors that make smallpox almost ideally suited to eradication :
In "How to Permanently End Disease," Tara C. Smith explores why smallpox was completely eradicated so quickly while other diseases have proven to be stubbornly resistant. She points the mix of biological and psychological factors that make smallpox almost ideally suited to eradication :
First, it’s a virus that only affects people, not animals. Wipe it out in humans, and that’s it, you’re done.
Second, the disease makes its presence clearly and unambiguously known. It produces a rash that’s easy to identify and distinct from rashes caused by other diseases.
Third, smallpox has a highly effective vaccine, made from a virus closely related to smallpox called the vaccinia virus. Because the vaccine contains a live virus, the immune system produces a rapid, strong and lasting response. The vaccine can even stop a smallpox infection in its tracks
The fourth reason — and an increasingly relevant one — is not a biological consideration, but a psychological one: Smallpox was a feared disease. People knew it was deadly, and even survivors could be scarred for life. This translated to political support from world governments and local support among populations receiving the vaccination.
If any one of these factors is missing, eradication will be much more difficult. Smith makes a comparison to measles, which shares all but the psychological factor with smallpox. She writes, "So while we may have the biological tools to allow us to eradicate certain diseases, that’s not enough." Smith concludes her article quoting Larry Brilliant, an epidemiologist and former WHO physician who took part in the smallpox eradication campaign“It’s not science, it’s public will...Public will is so critical.”
If any one of these factors is missing, eradication will be much more difficult. Smith makes a comparison to measles, which shares all but the psychological factor with smallpox. She writes, "So while we may have the biological tools to allow us to eradicate certain diseases, that’s not enough." Smith concludes her article quoting Larry Brilliant, an epidemiologist and former WHO physician who took part in the smallpox eradication campaign“It’s not science, it’s public will...Public will is so critical.”
In "The Unforgiving Math That Stops Epidemics", Smith explains the concept of herd immunity - that there is a critical level of immunization necessary to stop an epidemic and why "vaccination campaigns for flu and other diseases are about much more than your health. They’re about achieving a collective resistance to disease that goes beyond individual well-being — and that is governed by mathematical principles unforgiving of unwise individual choices."
In "The Unforgiving Math That Stops Epidemics", Smith explains the concept of herd immunity - that there is a critical level of immunization necessary to stop an epidemic and why "vaccination campaigns for flu and other diseases are about much more than your health. They’re about achieving a collective resistance to disease that goes beyond individual well-being — and that is governed by mathematical principles unforgiving of unwise individual choices."
Noting that "the necessary level of immunity in the population isn’t the same for every disease', she writes that for measles, for which there is much resistance to immunization in certain quarters, a "very high level of immunity needs to be maintained to prevent its transmission because the measles virus is possibly the most contagious known organism." Epidemiologists use a term to describe the number of people infected by each contagious individual - the “basic reproduction number” of a particular microbe. It's abbreviated R0 and varies widely among germs. The calculated R0 for measles is between 12 and 18; for the influenza epidemic of 1918 and for Ebola, it's about 2.
Noting that "the necessary level of immunity in the population isn’t the same for every disease', she writes that for measles, for which there is much resistance to immunization in certain quarters, a "very high level of immunity needs to be maintained to prevent its transmission because the measles virus is possibly the most contagious known organism." Epidemiologists use a term to describe the number of people infected by each contagious individual - the “basic reproduction number” of a particular microbe. It's abbreviated R0 and varies widely among germs. The calculated R0 for measles is between 12 and 18; for the influenza epidemic of 1918 and for Ebola, it's about 2.
Melinda Wenner Moyer writes ("Vaccines Are Pushing Pathogens to Evolve") that just as antibiotics breed resistance in bacteria, vaccines can incite changes that enable diseases to escape their control. While this is not yet considered as big a problem as antibiotic resistance, scientists have recently started studying the phenomenon in part because they finally can: Advances in genetic sequencing have made it easier to see how microbes change over time. And many such findings have reinforced just how quickly pathogens mutate and evolve in response to environmental cues. See the link left below for more details.
Melinda Wenner Moyer writes ("Vaccines Are Pushing Pathogens to Evolve") that just as antibiotics breed resistance in bacteria, vaccines can incite changes that enable diseases to escape their control. While this is not yet considered as big a problem as antibiotic resistance, scientists have recently started studying the phenomenon in part because they finally can: Advances in genetic sequencing have made it easier to see how microbes change over time. And many such findings have reinforced just how quickly pathogens mutate and evolve in response to environmental cues. See the link left below for more details.
Finally, Emily Singer ("Tolerance Used to Predict Infection's Death Toll") writes of the efforts to forecast who will bounce back from disease by studying not just the way the immune system fights infections, but how the body repairs itself. This latter less-studied part is called tolerance. It the way the body aims to curb or repair the damage inflicted by the pathogen or from resistance mechanisms, i.e., the inflammation that results from the response of the immune system to the pathogen. In the case of malaria, researches showed that "mice with a sickle-cell mutation, a gene variant that creates oddly shaped blood cells, had increased tolerance to malaria. The work helps to explain why people living in regions of Africa with high malaria rates are more likely to carry the sickle-cell trait as well." See the link right below for more details.
Finally, Emily Singer ("Tolerance Used to Predict Infection's Death Toll") writes of the efforts to forecast who will bounce back from disease by studying not just the way the immune system fights infections, but how the body repairs itself. This latter less-studied part is called tolerance. It the way the body aims to curb or repair the damage inflicted by the pathogen or from resistance mechanisms, i.e., the inflammation that results from the response of the immune system to the pathogen. In the case of malaria, researches showed that "mice with a sickle-cell mutation, a gene variant that creates oddly shaped blood cells, had increased tolerance to malaria. The work helps to explain why people living in regions of Africa with high malaria rates are more likely to carry the sickle-cell trait as well." See the link right below for more details.
Our under-rated sense of smell
Our under-rated sense of smell
POSTED JULY 26, 2020
The smell and taste of things remain poised a long time, like souls, ready to remind us. - Marcel Proust
It played a part in our evolution and is the oldest receptive system shared by all organisms. It is intimately linked with taste and memory. And yet, we greatly under-rate the sense of smell. In a 2011 survey, over half (53%) of the study’s 16 to 22 year olds would sooner lose their sense of smell than lose their laptop or cell phone.
Smell and taste are intimately linked. While scientists disagree about whether we can detect more than 5 basic tastes*, we can perceive many thousands of different odorous molecules and can discriminate at least two to three thousand of these. [1] It is actually our sense of smell that defines much of what we consider our food's flavor. Most of us have found food bland or even tasteless when we have a stuffed nose or a head cold.
Probably more than any of our other senses, smell is closely linked with memory. Those with full olfactory function may be able to think of smells that evoke particular memories; the scent of an orchard in blossom conjuring up recollections of a childhood picnic, for example. [3]
The writer Marcel Proust is renowned for his famous passage on the childhood memories evoked by eating tea-soaked madelines. He coined the term involuntary memory, in his novel Remembrance of Things Past. Proust viewed involuntary memory as containing the "essence of the past," claiming that it was lacking from voluntary memory. In his novel, he describes an incident where he was eating tea soaked cake, and a childhood memory of eating tea soaked cake with his aunt was "revealed" to him. From this memory, he then proceeded to be reminded of the childhood home he was in, and even the town itself. This becomes a theme throughout In Search of Lost Time, with sensations reminding Proust of previous experiences. He dubbed these "involuntary memories". [4]
Live Science explains why there is this link between memory and smell:
The brain regions that juggle smells, memories and emotions are very much intertwined. In fact, the way that your sense of smell is wired to your brain is unique among your senses...Scents are the only sensations that travel [in] a direct path to the emotional and memory centers of the brain. All other senses first travel to a brain region called the thalamus, which acts like a "switchboard," relaying information about the things we see, hear or feel to the rest of the brain...But scents bypass the thalamus and reach the amygdala and the hippocampus in a "synapse or two."
Finally the sense of smell played a role in our evolution and survival. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to impact the behavior of the receiving individuals. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Olfactory processing of chemical signals like pheromones is the oldest receptive system shared by all organisms including bacteria. It has been suggested that it serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses to the signals of threat, sex and dominance status among members of the same species. [4] While all animals react to pheromones, the reaction is somewhat muted in humans today. [5]
In recent months, as much as 80% of Covid-19 patients have complained of smell or taste loss. In many cases this loss of smell and taste is the first and only symptom of the disease. The downside of this is that the loss may be long-term or permanent. Some scientists believe this is because the virus causes an inflammatory reaction inside the nose that can lead to a loss of the olfactory, or smell, neurons. [2]
Smell loss occurs with both Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimers, and studies have indicated that a diminishing sense of smell can be an early sign of the onset of both conditions, occurring several years before motor skill problems develop. [3]
The loss of the sense of smell can have a profound impact on our psychological well being. Those who have lost their sense of smell often talk of feeling isolated and cut-off from the world around them, and experiencing a ‘blunting’ of the emotions. Smell loss can affect one’s ability to form and maintain close personal relationships and can lead to depression...Because of the strong connection between smell and memory, losing one’s sense of smell can result in the loss of an important sentimental pathway to memories. [3]
The sidebar has links to articles on improving your sense of smell, wine tasting, and perfumes.
Notes
*Traditionally, there were thought to be four basic tastes - sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. In recent decades, Western science has come to recognizes the East's umami (savory) as a basic taste.
Sources and references:
[1] "Olfaction", National Center for Biotechnology [2] Vanderbilt University Medical Center [3] Fifth Sense website [4] Wikipedia [5] Medium.com
Life's origins and perils
Life's origins and perils
POSTED MARCH 24, 2021
As the search for evidence of ancient microbial life on Mars gets underway, a number of recent papers remind us of how amazing a thing life is and of how easily life can be endangered.
Water, Asteroids, Comets, and Meteorites
Around four billion years ago, Mars was home to enough water to have covered the whole planet in an ocean about 100 to 1,500 meters deep; a volume roughly equivalent to half of Earth's Atlantic Ocean. A billion years later, the planet was as dry as it is today. Atmospheric evaporation has been the traditional answer to the question of "what happened to Mars's water?" But according to new research from Caltech and JPL, a significant portion of Mars's water -- between 30 and 99 percent -- is still trapped within minerals in the planet's crust. The research challenges the current theory that nearly all of the Red Planet's water escaped into space. [below left]
Water is a necessary ingredient for life as we know it. Asteroids, comets and meteorites delivered water in the form of ice to Earth early in the life of the solar system. A period of heavy bombardment lasted from the earth's formation to 3.9 billion years ago. Models of the compositions of asteroids and comets suggest that they harbor enough ice to have delivered an amount of water equal to Earth's oceans. Earth still experiences impacts. Though not of the frequency and magnitude of those in the early solar system, they still do damage [1]:
At least one of the Earth's mass extinction events was due to an asteroid hitting the planet. The Chicxulub asteroid impact resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago.
One of the best-known recorded events in modern times was the Tunguska event, which occurred in Siberia, Russia, in 1908. The explosion over the sparsely populated Eastern Siberian Taiga flattened an estimated 80 million trees over an area of 2,150 km2 (830 sq mi) of forest, and eyewitness reports suggest that at least three people may have died in the event,
The 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor event resulted in numerous injuries. Its meteor is the largest recorded object to have encountered the Earth since the Tunguska event.
In 2018, physicist Stephen Hawking, in his final book Brief Answers to the Big Questions, considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet.
Lightning, Phosphorous, and Evolution
Like water, phosphorous is a necessary ingredient for life. Minerals, including phosphorous, delivered to Earth in meteorites have long been advocated as key ingredients for the development of life on our planet. Scientists believed minimal amounts of these minerals were also brought to early Earth through lightning strikes. Now "researchers from the University of Leeds have established that lightning strikes were just as significant as meteorites in performing this essential function and allowing life to manifest. They say this shows that life could develop on Earth-like planets through the same mechanism at any time if atmospheric conditions are right." Their conclusions were based on the relatively high amount of water-soluble phosphorous created in lightning strikes. [below center left]
Lightning may also have played an important role in our evolution. "As humankind branched off from other primates, there were a few key thresholds we crossed. One of these was our switch to walking upright, and there are numerous theories regarding what might have compelled us to do so." Looking at clues including iron-60 isotopes and lots of unexplained charcoal and soot in the geologic record, a paper published in May 2019 in the "Journal of Geology" proposes that "a pair of supernovae ionized our atmosphere to such an extent that lightning became exceptionally common, and burned down the trees in which our ancestors lived." [below center right]
The Magnetic Field
Scientists believe that Mars lost its atmosphere and its ability to support life when it lost its magnetic field billions of years ago. Just 42,000 years ago - in what researchers called the Adams Event - Earth's magnetic field temporarily broke down when its magnetic poles reversed for a (geologically) brief time of 1000 years. The short Adams Event is considered an excursion since the poles did not stay reversed. Chris Turney, co-leader of an international team attempting to precisely date that magnetic pole switch and its environmental impacts, pointed out that during the excursion, "Earth's magnetic field dropped to only 0-6 per cent strength.... We essentially had no magnetic field at all – our cosmic radiation shield was totally gone." The reversal of the magnetic field resulted in auroras, electrical storms, and strong cosmic radiation. The result: major climate changes, extinctions of megafauna across mainland Australia and Tasmania, and, possibly, the demise of the Neanderthals. Early humans would have been both inspired and terrified by the amazing auroras seen in the sky, brought on by the magnetic field fluctuations. The researchers speculate that the calamities would have forced our ancestors into the caves, leading to the amazing cave art that came about approximately 42,000 years ago. [below right]
Much of modern life - think electrical grids, GPS, etc. - depends on Earth's magnetic poles. Even an excursion such as the Adams Event would cause havoc. But pole reversal happens all the time. The poles have reversed hundreds of times over the billions of years of Earth's existence. For the past 20 million years, the poles flipped about once every 200,000 to 300,000 years, which brings us to some bad news and some good news:
The first piece of bad news - we are overdue. The last permanent pole reversal was 780,000 years ago.
The second piece of bad news - the magnetic field has lost 9% of its intensity over the past 200 years, and this may be a sign of a coming reversal.
The good news - an average reversal takes about 7000 years, which will give out scientists and technologists plenty of time to make adjustments.
References: [1] Wikipedia
Life extension and aging: what will the next breakthrough be?
Life extension and aging: what will the next breakthrough be?
POSTED AUGUST 25, 2021
For hundreds of years, the average life expectancy for human beings was between 30 and 40 years. Living conditions in the first half of the 19th century in industrializing nations were vastly different from today. People died painfully, a great many in infancy or childhood, from diseases such as tuberculosis, pleurisy, typhus, tonsillitis, cholera and dysentery. Poor sanitation, lack of proper sewage management, non-existent or inadequate treatment of drinking water, no food inspection or municipal garbage collection, crowded housing and no real understanding of nutrition - all worked to reduce the life expectancy of those who did make it through childhood. [1]
Today, the average global life expectancy is about 72 years, double what it was 200 years ago. [graph below] The increase in life expectancy began in the latter part of the 19th century due to public health improvements such as control of infectious diseases, more abundant and safer foods, pasteurization, cleaner water, toilets, and other nonmedical or social improvements. The period between 1880 and 1920 is often referred to as the “First Public Health Revolution” and it occurred before the medical interventions of antibiotics, vaccinations and advanced surgical techniques were in place. The medical advances of the 20th century are the other part of the story. The World Economic Forum website has an infographic from AperionCare of the 50 most important medical and other discoveries. AperionCare estimates that 1 billion lives globally have been saved by each of these discoveries: synthetic fertilizers, blood transfusions, agricultural advances, and vaccines. [1, 2]
Is a similar doubling of the average human lifespan possible within the next 200 years? Probably not. While the average human lifespan has been steadily increasing since the 19th century, the maximum human lifespan has not. The oldest age a human can ever achieve appears to be about 120. The upper limit to our longevity isn’t about our health, it’s about how we’re built. Our bodies simply break down with time — our DNA accumulates damage, cells stop replicating, our organs don’t function as efficiently. At a certain point, even if people can make it to age 110, the system grows too flawed to function. [3]
This process of the age-related deterioration of cells to the point where they cease to replicate is called cellular senescence. Cellular senescence contributes to impaired tissue regeneration, chronic age-associated diseases and organ aging. But cellular senescence also plays a role in inhibiting the growth of tumors. If we can stop cellular senescence while maintaining its tumor-inhibiting function, we may be able to slow aging and cure the age-related diseases that make old age so difficult for so many.
Here is a rundown on some of the exciting areas being explored.
Telomeres
Translating lab results from anti-aging experiments on animals to humans is difficult, and clinical trials on humans might take decades. The key to a solution is in finding a suitable "biomarker" that can be tracked in the human test subjects - something that correlates well with aging. Enter the telomere.
At the heart of the aging process and life span are the telomeres, distinctive structures found at the ends of our chromosomes. They consist of the same short DNA sequence repeated over and over again. As we age, we lose some material from these telomeres. Finally, when the telomere becomes too short, the chromosome reaches a ‘critical length’ and can no longer be replicated. Shorter telomeres have also been associated with increased incidence of diseases and poor survival. [4]
Given the importance of telomeres in the aging process, researchers have been studying ways to extend the active life of telomeres. Though research is still in the early stages, if researchers find a way to preserve, or even grow, telomere length, then this treatment could have profound impacts on how humans age and their susceptibility to disease in older age. Studies have shown that activation of the telomerase enzyme can increase telomere length in mice by as much as a factor of 2*, and in a study in humans, it was found that repeated daily hyperbaric oxygen therapy sessions increased telomere length by more than 20% and decreased the number of senescent cells by 10-37% in an aging population.
We don't have to wait for a breakthrough in telomere research, though, to begin getting some benefits from the knowledge already gained. There is ample evidence that we can increase telomere length by simple lifestyle changes - a proper diet, exercise, and managing chronic stress, for example.
In a survey report [5], the National Center for Biotechnology Information found:
- Telomere length is positively associated with the consumption of legumes, nuts, seaweed, fruits, and 100% fruit juice, dairy products, and coffee, whereas it is inversely associated with consumption of alcohol, red meat, or processed meat.
- A dietary pattern characterized by a high intake of whole grains, fish and seafood, legumes, vegetables, and seaweed was found beneficial in a Korean study.
- While physical activity has been associated with longer telomere length and protection against age-related telomere attrition, the mechanisms by which physical activity exerts its positive effects on telomeres are still largely unknown; and there is currently no clear consensus on the optimal exercise dose to exert the most beneficial response on telomere health.
Caloric Restriction
In rich countries, overeating and obesity are serious health problems. Caloric Restriction (CR) is a well-established intervention for reducing age-associated chronic diseases and enhancing lifespan. Recent studies have shown that 30-40% CR can reduce cell senescence in the mouse liver and intestine. However, most people cannot follow such a severe diet program. This raises the need for the development of natural or synthetic molecules that can mimic the effects of CR, without reducing food intake:
-Natural polyphenols such as the resveratrol found in grape peel and red wine are among the substances being studied.
-A drug discovered in the soil of a South Pacific island may help to fight the aging process. When US scientists treated old mice with rapamycin it extended their expected lifespan by up to 38%. Rapamycin appears to have a similar effect to restricting food intake. Researchers caution that more work is needed since a side effect of rapamycin is to suppress the immune response. A recent study also showed that the treatment with rapamycin is harmful when mice have short telomeres.
Reversing Epigenetic Modifications
Another branch of research is focusing on reversing the chemical modifications in our DNA that occur as we go through life. These changes are called epigenetic changes. Epigenetics involves how cells "read" genes without changing the underlying DNA sequence. Many recent scientific studies demonstrate the connection between epigenetics, especially DNA methylation, and aging.
The pioneer in this field is Steve Horvath, a professor at the University of California Los Angeles known for developing the Horvath aging clock, which is a highly accurate molecular biomarker of aging. In the TEDX talk below left, he describes the results of a study of 10,000 tissue samples from 145 different mammalian species: the rate of change of DNA methylation explains at least 50% of the differences in lifespan across mammalian species. Horvath believes that, with 10,000 researchers now in this promising field, anti-aging interventions based on the "epigenetic clock" are on the horizon.
The Metformin Controversy
Researchers have found that metformin, an inexpensive drug commonly used to treat type 2 diabetes, extends the life span of young non-diabetic animals. The American Federation for Aging Research recently initiated the first clinical testing of this potential life-prolonging effect in aged humans without diabetes. But stay tuned...there is some discouraging news out of Germany that suggests that aging sets a limit for the health span benefits of metformin outside of diabetes. [6]
A few final thoughts
In addition to the tens of thousands of researchers working in the field, billions of dollars are being invested in the search for a "cure for aging" by companies such as Unity Biotechnology, BioAge, BioViva, The Longevity Fund, AgeX, The Methuselah Foundation, and Google's Calico division. Even if these efforts do not achieve another doubling of the human lifespan, the knowledge gained will be applicable to age-related diseases. One of the fallouts from the work will be an increase in our "health span." We will live better lives for a longer time.
The authors of The Telomere Effect, Nobel-prize-winning molecular biologist Elizabeth Blackburn and psychologist Elissa Epel, point out that you have more control over your own aging than you may imagine. You can actually lengthen your telomeres — and perhaps your life — by following sound health advice, the authors argue, based on a review of thousands of studies. One of the benefits of telomere research is that it is quantifiable: it can "provide a new level of specificity and tell people more precisely...what exactly about exercise is related to long telomeres, what exact foods are related to long telomeres, what aspects of sleep are more related to long telomeres." [link below right]
The course of our lives, how we spend our time in each of Shakespeare's "seven ages of man"* will be different. Social support systems will need to be re-imagined as the proportion of elderly increases. Some countries, such as Japan, are already seeing an impact and searching for solutions. A 2019 article in The Diplomat suggests that much of the effect of the aging of Japan's population can be mitigated by "stimulating labor-augmenting technological change and extending the working life of the elderly." [7]
Yes, robotics and artificial intelligence will play a role in helping the human species make the transition to this new world, but also the wisdom that comes with age will have an even longer time to grow and help the coming generations.
*According to Shakespeare’s character Jaques in As You Like It, men go through seven stages in their lives: Infancy, Schoolboy, Teenager, Young man, Middle aged, Old aged, Dotage & death.
Sources: [1] San Juan Basin Public Health [2] World Economic Forum [3] Vox [4] YourGenome.org [5] National Center for Biotechnology Information [6] Medical Express [7] The Diplomat
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