Covid-19 Science Posts

Coronavirus

POSTED FEBRUARY 6, 2020

The coronavirus currently afflicting mainland China is a close relative to the virus that caused the SARS epidemic of 2002-2003. The SARS epidemic was contained and ended in July 2003 - but the mortality rate was about 10%. Although the current fatality rate of the Wuhan coronavirus is less than that, experts say that it will change as the outbreak develops.

The new virus - whose early symptoms are similar to those of a cold - can cause pneumonia, can spread from person to person, and emerged in the Chinese city of Wuhan in December. The likelihood of contracting it in the United States is low at this time. But if you develop symptoms that feel worse than a standard cold, you should see a doctor.

The virus is, like all viruses, not treatable by antibiotics, but symptoms can be relieved by prescribed pain or fever medications. The CDC says a room humidifier or a hot shower can help with a sore throat or cough. And the standard remedy for a cold - drink plenty of fluids and get rest - will also help.

Containment is key to combat the Wuhan coronavirus before it becomes endemic and a permanent threat to the world's health. The journal Nature notes:

One big question is whether the coronavirus will continue to circulate in the community. If efforts to contain the virus fail, there’s a reasonable chance that it will become endemic. As with influenza, this could mean that deaths occur every year as the pathogen circulates. During the current outbreak, there have been several cases of infected people displaying no symptoms. If such cases are common, it will be more difficult to control the disease’s spread, making it more likely that the virus will become endemic.

Links to a CNN article and a Nature editorial are below left and right, respectively.

The world confronts COVID-19

POSTED MARCH 15, 2020/UPDATED MARCH 25 & 29

Not since the flu pandemic of 1918 have the world's health resources been so universally challenged.

Various locations have been proposed as "ground zero" for the so-called "Spanish flu" of 1918 - among them an army base in Étaples, France, Fort Riley in Kansas, and northern China.* There is a great difference between the two situations, explains "Wired" (link below left):

"There are many additional reasons not to make blithe comparisons between the current crisis and the 1918 pandemic: stark differences in health care infrastructure and medical technology; the ravages of the first world war; the unusual tendency of the Spanish flu to kill young adults; and the fact that many, if not most, people infected with influenza in 1918 died from secondary bacterial infections (as mass-produced antibiotics did not yet exist). The global fatality rate is just an average, and the CFR of any pandemic varies immensely by age, population, and geography. During the Spanish flu, for instance, it ranged from less than 1 percent in some areas to 90 percent in one Alaskan village. What gets lost in superficial analogies is that, despite some valid and instructive parallels between the two pandemics, there are many more differences."

In 1918, the only means of stopping the spread of the disease was containment, and the efforts here were, in many instances, spotty. In addition, health care facilities were overwhelmed and could not adequately provide whatever care they were able to muster. The Wired article discusses the uncertainty in the data for the 1918 flu, the most commonly cited figures are that H1N1 infected 500 million people - about 30% of the world's population at the time. Deaths have been variously estimated at 17 million to 50 million - or 3% to 10% of those infected.

The world has come a long way in the past 100 years. Health care is much more available - in fact, the 1918 pandemic is cited as the reason the world (and in particular European nations) moved towards universal health care. There is no secrecy surrounding the outbreak**. Antibiotics are available to treat the secondary bacterial infections, and antiviral medications may help with the pneumonia that could develop.***

The real long-term solution is, of course, the development of an effective vaccine against COVID-19. Creating a vaccine capable of preventing the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 will probably take at least a year to 18 months. While there are about 10 vaccine candidates in the works — and at least one of them could begin clinical trials in April — it would still take about three more months to conduct the first stage of human testing and another eight months or so to complete the next stage of the trial process, according to health officials. (LATimes, Mar 12)

While such a vaccine will not be available for the current outbreak or even the 2020-21 flu season, future outbreaks will be more containable. In the meantime, extensive "social distancing" appears to be the most effective means of slowing the outbreak, according to simulations in a Washington Post article (link below right).

USA Today reporting on the Google homepage presents 5 key safety tips for protecting against the coronavirus:

1. HANDS Wash them often

2. ELBOW Cough into it

3. FACE Don't touch it

4. FEET Stay more than 6 FT APART (REVISED MAR 25 - Google's safety tips and the USA Today article both had this as 3 feet, which is not in line with the guidelines.)

5. FEEL sick? Stay home

[MARCH 29 - CLICK HERE FOR THE CURRENT GOOGLE CORONAVIRUS "DO THE FIVE" PAGE WHICH IS BEING UPDATED REGULARLY.]

The New York Times has a great article with advice for those most prone to serious cases of the disease, the elderly (over 60), especially those with underlying chronic illness. Among the advice given is: "Wash your hands frequently with soap and warm water for 20 seconds (the time it takes to sing “Happy Birthday” twice) or clean them with alcohol-based hand gel; avoid handshakes; stay away from large gatherings; clean and disinfect objects that are touched frequently; and avoid public transportation and crowds. Stock up on supplies."

Al Jazeera has advice on what to do if, worst case scenario, you are self-quarantined or locked-down:

At least 14 days are recommended for a self-quarantine, while the duration of a lockdown depends on the decision of a local government. Given the likelihood that more and more people around the world will be house-bound, preparing one's home for that eventuality is an increasing concern. Among the things [to be stocked] are:

Non-perishable foods, including shelf-stable beverages, sauces, pasta, pulses, rice, cereal, crackers, and dry goods, including tea, sugar, and coffee.

Basic medical supplies, including over-the-counter medications to alleviate possible symptoms - which, in mild cases, have a lot in common with the symptoms of the common cold. Medicines for fever, congestion, and cough are recommended. It is also important to keep a one-month supply of prescription medication on hand as well in case getting to a pharmacy for a refill becomes difficult.

Cleaning and hygiene supplies needed would include soaps for handwashing, bathing, laundry, and cleaning, as well as disinfectants to keep surfaces clean.

Also important is preparing some activities that can be undertaken within the home, whether a list of books to read or an entertainment or exercise subscription that can be used without going out.

Al Jazeera also reports something I did not see anywhere else: avoid over-the-counter anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or cortisone.

France's Health Minister Olivier Veran said on Twitter on Saturday for pain relief it was better to take paracetamol (known in the US as acetaminophen - such as brand name Tylenol) because over-the-counter anti-inflammatory drugs may worsen the coronavirus. Vera explains, "The taking of anti-inflammatories [ibuprofen, cortisone] could be a factor in aggravating the infection. In case of fever, take paracetamol. If you are already taking anti-inflammatory drugs, ask your doctor's advice" .... Patients should choose paracetamol, also known known in the United States by the generic name acetaminophen and commonly by the brand name Tylenol, because "it will reduce the fever without counter-attacking the inflammation", the health ministry added. Anti-inflammatory drugs are known to be a risk for those with infectious illnesses because they tend to diminish the response of the body's immune system."

Don't panic but stay safe.

*This most recent hypothesis is that the flu originated somewhere in northern China in late 1917 and swiftly moved to western Europe with the 140,000 Chinese laborers the French and British governments recruited to perform manual labor to free up troops for wartime duty. (History.com)

**Early reports of vast numbers of soldiers falling ill in military camps were shrouded in secrecy as neither the Allies nor the Central Powers wanted to admit a weakness. (History.com)

*** The pneumonia caused by viruses is likewise viral and not treatable with antibiotics.

The role of AI in the coronavirus battle

POSTED MARCH 22, 2020

Even with the best minds of medical science trying to develop a vaccine against COVID-19, the effort will take a year to eighteen months. With a vaccine unavailable for this current outbreak and for the coming fall 2020 version as well, the best hope for containing the spread (beyond the social distancing and lockdowns currently in place) may be the artificial intelligence effort underway all over the world as governments and private companies race to find answers.

One such effort is at Oak Ridge National Laboratory where scientists have harnessed the power of IBM's AI-enhanced supercomputer known as Summit. CNN reports:

Viruses infect host cells by injecting them with a "spike" of genetic material. Summit's job is to find drug compounds that could bind to that spike and potentially stop the spread. Oak Ridge researcher Micholas Smith created a model of the coronavirus spike based on research published in January. With Summit, he simulated how the atoms and particles in the viral protein would react to different compounds. The supercomputer ran simulations of over 8,000 compounds that could bind to the spike protein of the virus, which could limit its ability to spread to host cells. Summit identified 77 of them and ranked them based on how likely they were to bind to the spike.

Scientists are quick to point out that this is a first step and the findings will be used to inform future studies, saying that Only then will we know "whether any of them exhibit the characteristics needed to mitigate this virus." (More in link below left)

Beyond searching for a treatment, AI may also be the most effective means of containing the virus in other areas. The Next Web site (link below right) identifies these areas: tracking the outbreak, diagnosing patients, disinfecting areas, and speeding up the process of finding a cure for COVID-19.

• Tracking the coronavirus outbreak with machine learning

Combined with the assistance of human experts, BlueDot’s AI can not only predict the start of an epidemic, but also forecast how it will spread. In the case of COVID-19, the AI successfully identified the cities where the virus would be transferred to after it surfaced in Wuhan. Machine learning algorithms studying travel patterns were able to predict where the people who had contracted coronavirus were likely to travel.

• Using computer vision to detect coronavirus infection

Computer vision algorithms can perform [screening] at large scale. An AI system developed by Chinese tech giant Baidu uses cameras equipped with computer vision and infrared sensors to predict people’s temperatures in public areas. The system can screen up to 200 people per minute and detect their temperature within a range of 0.5 degrees Celsius. The AI flags anyone who has a temperature above 37.3 degrees. The technology is now in use in Beijing’s Qinghe Railway Station.

• Robots at the frontlines of the fight against COVID-19

Chinese firms are using drones and robots to perform contactless delivery and to spray disinfectants in public areas to minimize the risk of cross-infection. Other robots are checking people for fever and other COVID-19 symptoms and dispensing free hand sanitizer foam and gel. Inside hospitals, robots are delivering food and medicine to patients and disinfecting their rooms to obviate the need for the presence of nurses. Other robots are busy cooking rice without human supervision, reducing the number of staff required to run the facility.

• AI is speeding up drug research

DeepMind, the AI research lab acquired by Google in 2014, recently declared that it has used deep learning to find new information about the structure of proteins associated with COVID-19. This is a process that could have taken many more months. Understanding protein structures can provide important clues to the coronavirus vaccine formula.

Developments in containing and treating COVID-19

POSTED APRIL 7, 2020/UPDATED APRIL 17 & MAY 4

As the world awaits the development of a safe, effective vaccine for COVID-19, medical scientists are also focusing on drugs that might potentially be of use in the treatment of the disease. Public health officials meanwhile are devoting their efforts to containing the spread of the virus, looking for strategies to best prevent the spread of the disease beyond the prophylactic measures given in the CDC recommendations. Here is a brief summary of some of the things we have learned so far.

POTENTIAL TREATMENTS - RESEARCH AND TRIALS

At this time in the United States, there are no drugs approved by the FDA as safe and effective for the treatment of COVID-19. UPDATE MAY 4: "On May 1, the Food and Drug Administration authorized the emergency use of remdesivir, an experimental antiviral drug, to treat COVID-19. Emergency authorization does not mean that the drug is FDA-approved, a standard that only comes after a detailed review showing that a drug can safely and effectively treat a particular disease. The agency can issue an emergency use authorization (EUA) for unapproved medical products that may help treat a life-threatening disease when no approved alternatives are available, and that’s what it did here." (The Verge, May 1)

Clinical trials are underway for several combination or mono-therapies. In addition, data from other countries' experience are being gathered. Clinical trials that have been done are on extremely small samples.

• Key to keeping alive a patient with a serious case of COVID-19 is preventing massive organ damage and failure. This strategy of "supportive care" is to do whatever's possible to keep vital organ systems functioning. That means monitoring vitals such as temperature, blood pressure and oxygen levels and trying to keep those as normal as possible. Providing oxygen can be critical, particularly for a lung ailment. The method can range from a simple tube in the nostrils (a nasal cannula) to much more aggressive approaches, such as a mechanical ventilator, which involves a breathing tube threaded into a person's airways. (NPR, Feb 11)

• A specific combination of existing drugs has shown it is capable of wiping out the novel coronavirus in a small-scale study conducted in France. Doctors gave confirmed COVID-19 patients a drug cocktail that included the anti-malaria drug hydroxychloroquine and the antibiotic azithromycin. The results of the trial were published in the International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. (BGR, Mar 20) UPDATE 4/17: Researchers stop COVID-19 drug trial after 11 patients die. A recent clinical trial in Brazil highlights the dangers of two potential COVID-19 treatments: chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine.

• As of Mar 20, 86 clinical trials were underway (Live Science Mar 23). Among the drugs being tested:

  • A drug developed by Fujifilm Toyama Chemical in Japan is showing promising outcomes in treating mild to moderate cases of COVID-19. The antiviral drug, called Favipiravir or Avigan, has been used in Japan to treat influenza, and [in February], the drug was approved as an experimental treatment for COVID-19 infections.

  • Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of malaria, lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, but preliminary research in human and primate cells suggests that the drugs could effectively treat COVID-19. UPDATE 4/17: Researchers stop COVID-19 drug trial after 11 patients die. A recent clinical trial in Brazil highlights the dangers of two potential COVID-19 treatments: chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine.

  • A Gilead Sciences drug that was originally tested in people with Ebola, remdesivir, is being repurposed to see if it can effectively treat COVID-19. Remdesivir is being studied in five large clinical trials, two of which could read out results in early April. UPDATE MAY 4: The FDA has authorized remdesivir for emergency use on patients who are hospitalized with a severe enough case of the disease that they need to be given supplemental oxygen or placed on a ventilator. "Data from clinical trials of the drug has been mixed. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) said this week that patients in its study who were treated with remdesivir recovered from COVID-19 four days faster than patients who were given a placebo. Eight percent of the group given the drug died, compared to 11 percent of the placebo group." (The Verge, May 1)

  • On March 19, pharmaceutical company Roche announced that it was launching a trial to see if tocilizumab, an immunosuppressant approved to treat rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, could improve outcomes in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

  • Losartan is a generic blood-pressure medication that some scientists are hoping could help patients with COVID-19. The University of Minnesota has launched two clinical trials using the inexpensive, generic drug. The first would evaluate whether losartan can prevent multi-organ failure in those hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. The second would evaluate if the drug can prevent hospitalizations in the first place.

A guide to the vaccines and drugs that could fight coronavirus - the most complete guide I've seen, posted by Vox on Mar 27.

WHO launches global megatrial of the four most promising coronavirus treatments (Mar 22)

The role of AI in the coronavirus battle (Mar 22)

CONTAINMENT

• • Early recognition of the seriousness of the threat and taking immediate and complete steps to combat it are crucial. South Korea and Taiwan are examples of this approach. The United States and Italy are not.

  • But some regions of Italy did fare much better than others in containing COVID-19. Vox reports on a Harvard Business Review study which describes four successful strategies used in Veneto which had a fraction of the number of cases suffered by neighboring Lombardy:

    • Extensive testing of people both those with symptoms and where possible, those who were asymptomatic

    • Proactive tracing - If somebody tested positive, everybody they live with was tested or, if tests weren’t available, they were required to self-quarantine.

    • Emphasis on home diagnosis and care - health care providers would go to the homes of people with suspected Covid-19 cases to collect samples, keeping them from exposing other people by visiting a hospital or doctor’s office.

    • Monitoring of medical personnel and other vulnerable workers - Doctors, nurses, caregivers at nursing homes,grocery store cashiers and pharmacists were monitored closely for possible infection and given ample protective gear to limit exposure.

Antivirals may be the best hope for defeating COVID-19

POSTED MAY 12, 2020/UPDATED MAY 23, 2020

Life will return to normal once a safe and effective vaccine for COVID-19 is found. What if such a vaccine cannot be found quickly? Or at all?

New York Magazine [link below left] interviewed Adolfo García-Sastre, director of the Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, and Rachel Roper, a professor of immunology at East Carolina University who took part in efforts to develop a SARS vaccine - SARS is caused by a close relative of the coronavirus. García-Sastre noted, “Some viruses are very easy to make a vaccine for, and some are very complicated. It depends on the specific characteristics of how the virus infects.” And the SARS experience of Professor Roper indicates that COVID-19 is on the difficult end of the scale. Given the similarities of the diseases, their response to vaccination would likely be close to identical. So it’s troubling that when researchers conducted animal testing on prospective SARS vaccines, they ran into difficulty. The two versions that they tested both successfully triggered the host animal’s immune system to produce antibodies, but neither was very effective at protecting against the illness.

Although the FDA has never approved a vaccine for humans that is effective against any member of the coronavirus family, which includes SARS, MERS, and several that cause the common cold, there is a massive effort underway to develop a vaccine and researchers may succeed. One promising path builds on ongoing work to develop a vaccine against HIV.

A parallel, extremely important effort to find an effective antiviral is also underway. Should the vaccine route take too long, antivirals may our best, perhaps only, hope to contain COVID-19. Development of antivirals is not easy either. A May 12 article in Cosmos [link below right] explains why:

"To replicate, viruses enter a host cell and hijack its machinery. Once inside, some viruses lie dormant, some replicate slowly and leak from cells over a prolonged period, and others make so many copies that the host cell bursts and dies. The newly replicated virus particles then disperse and infect new host cells. An antiviral treatment that intervenes in the viral “life” cycle during these events could be successful. The problem is that if it targets a replication process that is also important to the host cell, it is likely to be toxic to the human host as well. Killing viruses is easy. Keeping host cells alive while you do it is the hard part."

There have been some antiviral success stories - for example, several can treat Influenza A or B. "Much depends on knowing the intricacies of the SARS-CoV-2 virus [the virus responsible for the pandemic] and its interactions with human cells. If researchers can identify unique elements in how it survives and replicates, we can exploit these points of weakness and make an effective antiviral treatment."

MAY 23 UPDATE: "Dr. Anthony Fauci expressed "cautious optimism" Friday [May 22] about the initial results from a coronavirus vaccine trial — which were widely celebrated this week — and said it remains "conceivable" that a vaccine for the deadly pathogen could be available by the end of the year." (NPR) If so, the effort by the Cambridge, MA-based Moderna would be one of the fastest vaccine developments ever. Stat, an American health-oriented news website, interviewed vaccine experts who caution that Moderna did not present data critical to assessing their Covid-19 vaccine. Stat concludes that "there’s really no way to know how impressive — or not — the vaccine may be." More on the reservations voiced by the vaccine experts at Stat.

Related Posts:

Developments in containing and treating COVID-19 (4/7 last update 5/4/20)

The role of AI in the coronavirus battle (3/22/20)

The world confronts COVID-19 (3/15 last update 3/29/20)

Coronavirus (2/6/20)

How to permanently end disease (12/17/19)

Covid-19 research updates and preventing a second wave

POSTED JUNE 1, 2020

The journal Nature summarized the latest research into the coronavirus in a May 29 article. [link below left] The research supports much of what is commonly believed, contradicts other suppositions, and provides hope for vaccine and antiviral development. Among the findings:

• Surgical face masks effectively block the spread of seasonal coronaviruses in respiratory droplets.

• The nose is the probable starting point for COVID-19 infections.

• Cases of COVID-19 are likely to surge after current social-distancing measures are eased, according to models, particularly if SARS-CoV-2 spreads more efficiently in some seasons than in others — as influenza virus does.

• A person’s saliva accurately reveals whether they are infected with SARS-CoV-2, a finding that could make tests for the virus safer and more widely available.

• A number of papers pointed out the role of "superspreaders" in the development of large clusters of the virus and the existence of viral "hot spots" in confined areas.

• A study of 68 people who had recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection found that they all had generated varying amounts of antibodies against the virus. A fraction of these antibodies strongly blocked the coronavirus from invading human cells.

• Molecular snapshots of a key SARS-CoV-2 enzyme in action provide clues to how drugs, including the experimental therapy remdesivir, attack the virus. Further studies could lead to the identification of new antiviral compounds.

As many countries emerge from lockdowns, researchers are poised to use genome sequencing to avoid an expected second wave of COVID-19 infections. The method depends on widespread testing and global genomic surveillance will be important when international travel resumes. Studies already show that outbreaks tend to be shorter and smaller when genomics is used to help contact tracing. (Nature - link below right)

Covid-19 Updates: Vaccines, Antivirals, and Other News

POSTED JUNE 29, 2020

Confirmed deaths from COVID-19 have surpassed a half million globally. Confirmed cases are accelerating in nearly all regions except Europe. This post is an update on the latest progress to develop a vaccine or an anti-viral treatment and most recent findings on the disease and containment strategies.

Covid-19 Updates: Vaccines, Antivirals, and Other News

POSTED AUGUST 13, 2020

Covid-19 has killed three-quarters of a million people globally, with the death rate holding steady at 5000 to 6000 per day since mid-May.

This post is an update on the latest progress to develop a vaccine and anti-viral treatments and recent findings on the disease and containment strategies.

Covid-19 Updates: Vaccines, Antivirals, Other News

POSTED SEPTEMBER 14, 2020

Deaths due to Covid-19 globally have reached 925,000 with the average daily rate remaining between 5000 and 6000, as it has since May. This is an update on progress in understanding and fighting the disease.

Covid-19 Updates: Vaccines, Antivirals, Other News

POSTED OCTOBER 12, 2020

Deaths due to Covid-19 globally have surpassed 1,070,000 with the daily rate averaging above 5000, as it has since May. As summer gives way to fall, Covid cases have been spiking in Europe, and restrictions that had been lifted in the summer are being re-imposed. This is an update on progress in understanding and fighting the disease.

Covid-19 Updates: Vaccines, Antivirals, Other News

POSTED NOVEMBER 5, 2020/UPDATED 11/9/20

Covid deaths worldwide have surpassed 1.2 million. The daily death rate has been climbing since mid-October.

CNN, Nov 3: "Lockdowns are multiplying throughout Europe as Covid-19 cases rise exponentially, threatening to push health services across the continent to breaking point. Fearing all of its intensive care beds could be full by mid-November, France implemented nationwide restrictions at the end of October -- as did Belgium and Ireland. Germany's softer, so-called "lockdown light," restrictions began on Monday, and Austria is following suite on Tuesday. UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson has called for a second lockdown to begin in England later this week, while daily record increases of coronavirus infections in Italy appear to foreshadow another round of severe restrictions." Infectious disease experts are concerned that lockdowns are not enough and that more testing, contact tracing, self-isolation and quarantine are necessary.

Covid-19 Update: Vaccines and Research News

POSTED DECEMBER 8, 2020

Promising news about vaccines comes in the midst of a surge in Covid-19 cases that is threatening to overwhelm hospitals around the world. Globally, more than 1.5 million people have now died from the disease. The daily death toll continues to rise as it has since mid-October and is consistently exceeding the highest rates seen in the spring.

Large-scale Phase III tests completed on at least two vaccines - Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna - showed effectiveness rates above 90%.

On December 2, the UK became the first country in the world to approve the Pfizer/BioNTech coronavirus vaccine, paving the way for mass vaccination. Britain's medicines regulator, the MHRA, says the vaccine, which offers up to 95% protection against Covid-19 illness, is safe to be rolled out. The first doses will be given today to people 80 years of age and older. Care-home residents had been designated as a top priority, but health authorities are still exploring how to distribute the vaccine outside hospitals because it comes in deep-frozen packs containing 975 doses that must be stored at –70 ℃ .

With the UK approval, seven vaccines have now been approved for early or limited use. In addition to Pfizer/BioNTech, two Russian vaccines have been approved for early use in Russia, and four Chinese vaccines have been approved for emergency or limited use (two by U.A.E and two by China). Experts warn that the Russian and Chinese vaccines have not yet completed their Phase III trials.

The United States and the European Union are scheduled to review vaccine candidates from Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna in the coming weeks, and those major economies may begin rollouts well before the new year arrives. The US plans to deliver the first doses of Pfizer’s vaccine to states by December 15, while shipments of Moderna’s vaccine will arrive by December 22. The CDC recommendation in the US is for the vaccine to be given first to healthcare personnel and residents of long-term care facilities.

Poorer nations face lesser access to the vaccines, and the World Health Organization is mounting an effort to better ensure equitable distribution. W.H.O. and one of its major partners—the European Medicines Agency (EMA)—are now moving into their final stages of evaluation for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. On December 1, the EMA accepted Pfizer’s application for authorization and is expected to conclude its assessment no later than December 29. An identical review was also launched for Moderna’s vaccine candidate. Its completion is expected on January 12.

Anticipating regulatory approval, China’s Sinovac Biotech said it has received more than $500 million from investors to help it ramp up production and distribution capacities for its leading Covid-19 vaccine candidate, CoronaVac. The investment will help the company boost vaccine production, which it hopes will double to 600 million doses annually — roughly enough for 300 million people — upon the completion of a second production facility in late 2020. (Forbes, Dec 7)

A link to the New York Times vaccine tracker is below left and a link to the journal Nature's research news is below right. Both are updated daily.

The CDC's recommendations on prioritizing the vaccine once approved can be found at How CDC Is Making COVID-19 Vaccine Recommendations.

Covid-19 Update

POSTED JANUARY 15, 2021

Tracking the pandemic

The death toll from the Covid-19 pandemic is approaching 2 million globally. The daily death rate from the virus has continued to rise since mid-October and is surging across most regions. There have been more than 90 million confirmed cases. BBC posted a summary on Jan 11 [link below].

Vaccines

Two vaccines have been approved for full use and eight others for limited use. Twenty vaccines are now in the critical Phase 3 testing so there is hope for more approvals in the near future. [link below center]

Vaccinations have begun in wealthy countries. In the United States, where racial and economic disparities in the mortality rate of Covid-19 have been noted, the patchwork of state-level reporting systems on who is getting the vaccine is inadequate to address this reality. "Without complete, public federal public-health data or uniform standards for state-level reporting, ...it will be impossible to tell whether vaccination efforts throughout the country are achieving their stated aims—and it will be impossible to identify and fix efforts that aren’t." (The Atlantic, Jan 13)

Vaccine distribution to poor countries and to oppressed groups is a concern.

• Thousands of volunteers from low-income nations in Africa helped to develop several vaccines during trials. Despite that, new research from Oxfam suggests wealthy countries have snapped up more than half of the doses from the leading vaccines while only representing 14% of the world's population. [link below left]

• In the United States, at least one governor has ordered undocumented immigrants to the back of the vaccination line. In Israel, the world leader in vaccination rate, the government is similarly delaying vaccination of Palestinians in the Occupied Territories. [link below right].

The new variant strains and additional precautions

New more contagious strains of the novel coronavirus have emerged around the world including in the UK, South Africa, the United States and Japan. It is likely that there will be other variants. The UK strain has now been identified in 50 countries. While the new strains have not been found to be more deadly, their high transmission rate will result in higher hospitalization rates as hospital systems around the world are struggling to treat patients.

"More cases mean more really sick people, more strain on hospitals and health workers, more rationing of health care — and more deaths, including the entirely preventable ones now firmly linked to ICU bed shortages. More cases will also give the virus more opportunities to mutate further and potentially escape our vaccines." (Vox, Jan 14 - link below)

Health experts are warning that we should avoid optional trips whenever possible because of the increased transmission rates and consider wearing better masks. [link below] Cloth masks were supposed to be a stop gap measure until better masks became available. In many areas - such as Austria, Taiwan, and the Bavarian region of Germany medical grade masks are being made available and, in some instances, mandated for public transportation and in stores.

Covid-19 Update

POSTED FEBRUARY 12, 2021

The daily case rate and daily death rate from Covid-19 / SARS-CoV-2 may have peaked. The global daily rates that have been rising steadily since mid-October now show a slight downward trend. (See W.H.O. dashboard below right.)

As of February 11, there have been 107 million confirmed cases and more than 2.3 million deaths from the virus.

Vaccines

The intensive global effort to develop a vaccine against the novel coronavirus continues to produce results. There are now 4 vaccines approved for full use and 6 authorized for limited use. An additional 20 vaccines are in critical Phase 3 clinical trials. (See New York Times Vaccine Tracker below left.)

Globally 160 million doses of vaccine have been administered.* Nearly 80 percent of those doses have been administered in Europe, China, and the United States.

It takes one to two weeks after the second shot to achieve the maximum level of protection against COVID-19, and it is unknown how long this immunity will last after a person is fully vaccinated. Even after we have reach maximum immunity, experts advise that "we should still practice distancing measures as much as we can in the shorter term until we get broader distribution of the vaccine...and that people continue to follow the guidelines of avoiding large groups, wearing masks and staying at least six feet apart."

Research

In a paper recently published in the journal Nature, a team of researchers led by Angela Wahl and Lisa Gralinski of the University of North Carolina found that "therapeutic and prophylactic administration of EIDD-2801, an oral broad spectrum antiviral currently in phase II–III clinical trials, dramatically inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in vivo and thus has significant potential for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19."

Last year, the world’s largest trial of COVID-19 drugs, the United Kingdom’s RECOVERY trial, had found dexamethasone to be effective for critically ill Covid-19 patients. Now that same study has found a second drug effective in the treatment of hospitalized patients. "The anti-inflammatory drug tocilizumab cut the death risk of people hospitalized with the disease, reduced their need for a mechanical ventilator, and shortened time spent in the hospital...But tocilizumab is about 100 times more expensive than dexamethasone , raising questions once again about how to make sure populations across the world can benefit from scientific progress against COVID-19." (Science, Feb 11)

Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh have discovered how SARS-CoV-2 mutates to escape antibody binding. "In a recurring pattern of evolution, SARS-CoV-2 evades immune responses by selectively deleting small bits of its genetic sequence...Since these deletions happen in a part of the sequence that encodes for the shape of the spike protein, the formerly neutralizing antibody can't grab hold of the virus." The lead researcher Kevin McCarthy notes that it is not an all-or-nothing antibody situation, that "how far these deletions erode protection is yet to be determined. At some point, we're going to have to start reformulating vaccines, or at least entertain that idea."(Science Daily, Feb 3)

The Variants

Quartz (link below left) gives a rundown on the Covid-19 variants now making their way around the globe. Some key points:

• Four variants have been identified so far. Colloquially labelled for where they were discovered - UK, South Africa, Brazil and most recently California - they have spread to more than 50 countries.

• The virus mutations are relatively minor and most vaccines developed for the original strain should offer some protection against them. That said, vaccines have proven less effective against the "South Africa" strain, and that country announced it was halting administration of the Astra Zeneca vaccine.

• There is limited evidence on the severity of the illness caused by the variants - i.e., they may not be more severe than the original strain. The "UK" strain is more contagious and could lead to more hospitalizations This may impact treatment if a region is ICU-bed limited.

• The uncertainty highlights why it is still best to avoid getting Covid-19 at all, which means staying vigilant with pandemic precautions: hand-washing, physical distancing, and wearing a mask (or two) when inside public spaces.

• The CDC advises that the U.K. variant may become the dominant strain in the US in a matter of weeks.

The Atlantic's Katherine J. Wu writes that because of our immune system's resilience, "The Body Is Far From Helpless Against Coronavirus Variants". The virus is evolving, but the antibodies that fight it can change, too. "For every trick the virus plays, the immune system arguably has an equally impressive one. Vaccines remain an essential ally, armoring the body before it encounters the virus. And although the variants have opened up gaps in that chain mail, the pliancy built into our bodies can at least buy time to repair them."

Updated Protection Guidelines

In the US, Federal health officials urged Americans to consider wearing two masks as one of several strategies to better protect themselves against the threat of more contagious variants of the coronavirus. Two methods substantially boost fit and protection, according to a CDC report and updated guidance on its website. One is wearing a cloth mask over a disposable surgical mask. The second is improving the fit of a single surgical mask by knotting the ear loops and tucking in the sides close to the face to prevent air from leaking out around the edges and to form a closer fit. (Washington Post, Feb 10)

Notes:

*The number of people vaccinated globally is lower than 160 million since many have already been given the necessary second dose.

Covid-19 Update

POSTED MARCH 10, 2021

Worldwide, the number of confirmed deaths due to the virus stands at 2.6 million. [W.H.O. Covid-19 Dashboard below right]

There are now 6 vaccines approved for full use. [New York Times Vaccine Tracker below left]. Less than 1% of the world's population has been fully vaccinated (two doses).

Daily Covid-19 case and death rates are continuing a global downward trend that began in mid-January. No one knows for sure why. In the US, the decline has been attributed to a number of possible factors:

1) the holiday surge is behind us

2) more people have been exposed and diagnosed

3) vaccinations are helping to stop transmission among at-risk groups

4) a change in coronavirus conversations around the country from "this will go away" to "this can go away if we take certain precautions”

Research (from the journal Nature)

• The "South Africa" variant is proving to be more resistant to current vaccines, but recent research suggests that a vaccine developed to protect against this variant would be effective against many other variants. (10 March)

• Emerging coronavirus variants do not seem to elude important immune-system players called T cells. T cells were collected from volunteers who had either recovered from the original strain or had received a coronavirus vaccine. The T cells recognized all four of the current variants, thanks to viral protein snippets that were unaffected by the variants’ mutations. The results suggest that T cells could target these variants. (5 March)

• Asymptomatic coronavirus infections were four times less frequent in health-care workers who had received a single dose of the Pfizer/BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine than in their unvaccinated counterparts. (2 March)

• The two-shot Pfizer vaccine is highly effective at preventing severe COVID-19, according to an analysis of more than one million people in Israel. The researchers found that, at 7 days or more after the second shot, Pfizer’s vaccine was 94% effective at preventing COVID-19 and 92% effective against severe disease. The study covered a period when the emerging "UK variant" was circulating widely in Israel, which suggests that the vaccine is effective at preventing COVID-19 caused by that variant.(26 February)

• The anti-inflammatory drug tocilizumab can save the lives of people hospitalized for COVID-19 whose immune systems have gone into overdrive against the coronavirus. The drug also cuts the need for invasive ventilation, according to the UK study. (15 February)

Covid-19 Update

POSTED APRIL 7, 2021

The global death toll from the coronavirus now exceeds 2.8 million.

The downward trend in cases and deaths noted since mid-January has stopped. Both cases and deaths have begun to increase again.

The vaccination effort is progressing. Eight vaccines have now been approved in one or more countries for general use. More than 665 million vaccine doses have been administered worldwide, equal to 8.7 doses for every 100 people. For "herd immunity" to be achieved, public health experts estimate that 70% of the world would have to be inoculated or have recovered from the disease.

Very roughly, the global level of "inoculated or recovered" is about 6%. For the US, that figure is about 26%. As the New York Times notes, "There is a stark gap between vaccination programs in different countries, with many yet to report a single dose."

A recent complication is that about a third of all humanity, living in the poorest countries, will get almost no coronavirus vaccines in the near future because of India’s urgent need to vaccinate its own massive population. Because of agreements made earlier by the group responsible for vaccine distribution to poor nations, the AstraZeneca vaccine is now the only viable candidate it has. The bulk of the supply of this vaccine comes from one company in India, Serum. To improve the situation a group of 100 countries led by South Africa and India, have requested fellow WTO members to agree a time-limited lifting of COVID-19-related intellectual-property (IP) rights.

Research and Regulatory News

AstraZeneca

A pediatric trial of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine has been paused pending a review by the UK's medicines regulator of rare blood clot cases in adults. The trial in children had not raised any safety concerns, but it would be paused while Britain's Medicines and Healthcare Regulatory Agency reviews rare cases of people who suffer blood clots while at the same time having low levels of blood platelets. The medicines regulator said at least 30 people in the country had experienced rare types of blood clots after receiving the vaccine, but warned it was too early to know whether the shot itself triggered the clots. (CNN, Apr 6)

In additional bad news for what many see as the main hope for stopping the coronavirus globally, a senior official for the European Medicines Agency (EMA) says that there is a link between AstraZeneca’s COVID-19 vaccine and very rare blood clots in the brain but the possible causes are still unknown. (Reuters, Apr 6)

Healthline

In a study of almost 4,000 vaccinated healthcare personnel, first responders, and other essential and frontline workers, the CDC found that the messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines developed by pharmaceutical companies Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna prevented 80 percent of cases after the first dose and 90 percent after the second dose. Researchers said the dearth of positive COVID-19 tests in the study group indicates that the vaccines reduce the risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by vaccinated individuals to others.

Pfizer-BioNTech said that the ongoing phase 3 clinical trial of its mRNA vaccine shows that strong immunization persists for at least 6 months among vaccinated individuals. Researchers found that the vaccine was 100 percent effective against severe disease as defined by the CDC, and 95.3 percent effective against severe COVID-19 as defined by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Nature

Vaccinating many people against SARS-CoV-2 could stall infection rates among unvaccinated children in the same community. (Apr 2)

Antibodies from people infected with the 501Y.V2 coronavirus variant first identified in South Africa are also effective against previously circulating variants, suggesting that vaccines against 501Y.V2 might work against a range of coronavirus variants. (Mar 30)

An analysis of millions of coronavirus test results in Denmark suggests that natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 protects against reinfection in most people — but this protection is significantly weaker in those aged 65 years or older. (Mar 19)

A SARS-CoV-2 variant called B.1.351 (also known as 501Y.V2), which was first identified in South Africa in late 2020, has been linked to reduced efficacy for vaccines developed by Novavax and Johnson & Johnson. Now, in another unintentional test of the variant’s effects, the vaccine developed by the University of Oxford and AstraZeneca seemed to offer only 21.9% protection overall against the development of mild or moderate COVID-19, and just 10.4% against those cases caused by the B.1.351 variant. There were no cases of severe COVID-19 or hospitalization in either group. (Mar 17)

The New Normal

The world is very slowly returning to a new normal. Advice for the fully vaccinated and travelers from the CDC is summarized in the links below.

Covid-19 Update

POSTED MAY 7, 2021

The death toll from the coronavirus now exceeds 3.2 million. Driven by the surge in India, global daily cases and deaths have been increasing.

India's "double variant"

Scientists are studying what caused the surge that has overwhelmed the Indian health care system. In particular, they are trying to determine whether a variant of the coronavirus first detected in India is to blame. The variant, B.1.617, has been dubbed "the double variant" because it has two key mutations to the outer "spike" portion of the virus that attaches to human cells. It has now been reported in at least 17 countries.

The W.H.O. has described it as a "variant of interest", suggesting it may have mutations that would make the virus more transmissible, cause more severe disease or evade vaccine immunity. White House chief medical adviser Anthony Fauci said that preliminary evidence from lab studies suggest Covaxin, a vaccine developed in India, appears capable of neutralizing the variant. (Reuters, Apr 30)

Vaccinations

The vaccination effort continues, and the Biden Administration has now thrown its support behind a move at the World Trade Organization (WTO) to temporarily lift patent protections for coronavirus vaccines. Eight vaccines have been approved in one or more countries for general use. More than 1.2 billion vaccine doses have been administered worldwide, equal to 16 doses for every 100 people. For "herd immunity" to be achieved, public health experts estimate that 70% of the world would have to be inoculated or have recovered from the disease.

"Long Covid" Research

An international survey by Patient-Led Research for COVID‑19, one of various groups drawing attention to persisting problems, asked nearly 3,800 patients with ongoing illness to describe their symptoms. A significant number—85.9 percent—reported having relapses in the months after their initial infection, usually triggered by mental or physical exertion.

An article in April's Atlantic [link below left] cites informal estimates that 10 to 30 percent of those infected with the novel coronavirus have long-term symptoms. Patients of all ages and backgrounds exhibited "a wide array of problems, from persistent loss of taste and smell to chest pain." Work done at New York's Mount Sinai Hospital found that "those patients who had been seriously ill had the lung scarring that comes with COVID pneumonia; others had readily observable heart problems, including myocarditis, an inflammation of the heart muscle. Still others had blood clots."

But 90% of the patients with long-term symptoms - mostly those who had mild to moderate cases - were a puzzling group where "we couldn’t see what was wrong.” Early on, many doctors, predictably, dismissed these cases as the result of anxiety or hypochondria.

At Mount Sinai, interdisciplinary research teams have been trying to figure out what was happening. Their work on patients with the more severe manifestations of long-term Covid pointed to a possible explanation - dysautonomia, or impairment of the usual functioning of the autonomic nervous system, which controls blood pressure, temperature regulation, and digestion.

Long Covid is now getting the attention it deserves. The journal Nature reports: "Following a series of workshops by the NIH, W.H.O. and others, a research agenda for long COVID has now emerged. The WHO is working to harmonize global research efforts. The NIH is investing US$1.15 billion over the next 4 years to better understand the long-term effects of COVID-19, with an eye to both prevention and treatment. And the first-of-its-kind HEAL-COVID platform trial being conducted by Britain's National Institute for Health Research provides one template for what future trials in this space could look like."

Other news and research from Nature:

• Many of the antivirals tested in earlier trials proved ineffective. Now, a landmark program to test potential COVID-19 therapies in dozens of countries is restarting with a fresh roster of treatments — this time aimed at tempering the raging immune responses that can worsen severe disease. The clinical trial, named Solidarity and coordinated by the World Health Organization (WHO), will test three drugs that dampen inflammation, an approach that has already shown promise in people hospitalized with COVID-19. The three drugs to be tested are infliximab, used to treat autoimmune conditions; imatinib, a cancer drug; and artesunate, an anti-malaria drug with potential anti-inflammatory effects. Each of these drugs will be given alongside standard care, which in many regions includes the immune-suppressing steroid dexamethasone. (Nature, May 7)

• In January, Qatar saw a surge driven by the fast-spreading B.1.1.7 variant, which was first identified in the United Kingdom. Weeks later, the B.1.351 strain first identified in South Africa and linked to reinfections and dampened vaccine effectiveness, took hold. Amid this storm, researchers in Qatar have found some of the strongest evidence yet that current vaccines can quell variants such as B.1.351. The findings — published on 5 May in The New England Journal of Medicine — suggest that current RNA vaccines are a potent weapon against the most worrisome immune-evading variants. Pfizer and BioNTech are developing an updated RNA vaccine targeting B.1.351, as is Moderna. Early results from Moderna’s efforts suggest that a booster shot of the updated vaccine triggers a strong response against B.1.351. (Nature, May 6)

• "The World Health Organization (WHO) is considering approving two of China’s COVID-19 vaccines for emergency use, potentially opening the door to wide distribution in lower-income nations through the COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX) initiative. A successful outcome in the coming weeks might boost global confidence in these vaccines, say scientists. China's five different vaccines have not been used widely in wealthy nations, but are already sustaining immunization campaigns in the global south." (Nature, May 4)

Finally, summaries of key COVID research milestones published by Nature over the past year are in the link below right.

Covid-19 Update

POSTED JUNE 4, 2021

• Case rates and deaths are decreasing from their peaks in early May. The global death toll from the novel coronavirus now exceeds 3.7 million with new confirmed cases highest in India, Argentina and Brazil.

• Eight vaccines have been approved in one or more countries for full use. 5.7% of the world's population has been fully vaccinated. A substantial proportion of the population must be vaccinated against COVID-19 to begin inducing herd immunity. This varies by disease and is an area of ongoing research. Some medical experts have estimated that for Covid-19 that figure for herd immunity may be on the order of 70% fully vaccinated or recovered.

• Although India's new case rate peaked on May 7, the country still contributed to approximately 45% of the new cases detected globally and nearly 34% of the deaths globally during the third week of May. As India continues to fight the disease, another threat has emerged in the form of coronavirus disease-associated mucormycosis (the so-called "black fungus"). Mucormycosis is a rare but potentially fatal infection if inadequately treated. [1]

• The coronavirus P.1 variant behind Brazil’s fierce second wave of COVID-19 emerged, in part, because of relaxed social distancing, according to an analysis of viral sequences from the outbreak’s epicenter in Manaus. Since P.1 emerged, scientists have found evidence that it is more transmissible than some other variants, and evades antibodies more easily. [2]

• The World Health Organization has listed China’s Sinovac COVID-19 vaccine for emergency use, making it the eighth vaccine to receive the approval, and the second for China, after Sinopharm. [3]

• The World Bank is urging the U.S. to immediately free up excess doses of their COVID-19 vaccine supply to send to Latin America. The WHO said the region remains one of the worst affected in the world. [3]

• Vaccinating people with both the Oxford–AstraZeneca and Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccines produces a potent immune response against the virus SARS-CoV-2, researchers conducting a study in Spain have found. [4]

• Researchers have identified long-lived antibody-producing cells in the bone marrow of people who have recovered from COVID-19. The study provides evidence that immunity triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection will be extraordinarily long-lasting, although viral variants could dampen some of the protection they offer. [5]

[1] The Lancet, June 3 [2] Nature, June 3 [3] Democracy Now!, June 2 [4] Nature, May 19 [5] Nature, May 27

Covid-19 Update

POSTED JULY 5, 2021

• Globally, daily case rates and deaths from the novel coronavirus are holding steady at about 425,000 and 8,500. The death toll is nearing 4 million.

• Another wave of the pandemic is hitting many parts of the world, with countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America experiencing their highest caseloads, driven in part by the highly contagious Delta variant of the virus. [1]

• COVID-19 hotspots are also emerging across the United States, fueled by the highly transmissible delta variant and lagging vaccination rates, in California, Nevada, Missouri and Arkansas. [2]

• Eight vaccines have been approved in one or more countries for full use. A substantial proportion of the population must be vaccinated against COVID-19 to begin inducing herd immunity. This varies by disease and is an area of ongoing research. Some medical experts have estimated that for Covid-19 that figure for herd immunity may be on the order of 70% fully vaccinated or recovered.

• 11% of the world's population has been fully vaccinated with a great disparity between poor and rich nations. In the United States, 47% have been vaccinated, while Africa has had only 4% of its population receive even a single dose.

• A major concern right now is the Delta variant, a highly contagious and possibly more severe Covid virus strain, which was first identified in India in December. It then swept rapidly through that country and Great Britain as well, which has led to rising numbers of infections and deaths. The first Delta case in the United States was diagnosed in March and now cases here are rapidly multiplying. People who have not been fully vaccinated against COVID-19 are most at risk. Delta seems to be impacting younger age groups more than previous variants.[3 and link below left]

• Booster shots may be required. Research is ongoing to determine when boosters will be needed, but a number of countries including Great Britain, Australia, Germany and Russia have begun or are planning near-term booster vaccine programs.

• Below right are links to reports on Covid research: long Covid, Delta variant, herd immunity, treatments, masks.

Sources: [1] New York Times [2] ABC News [3] Yale Medicine

Covid-19 Update

POSTED AUG 10, 2021

The global death toll from the novel coronavirus has reached 4.3 million with over 200 million confirmed cases. As of August 6, 110 countries, including, the United States had reported more cases in the past two weeks compared with the previous 14 days. [1]

The more contagious delta variant is driving the rise in deaths, hospitalizations and cases.

Our world is nowhere near the end of the pandemic. The delta variant of Covid-19 is possibly the most contagious virus ever. Facing it, just 15% of the world's population has been vaccinated with more than 100 countries having vaccination rates below 5%. Speaking with CNBC, epidemiologist Larry Brilliant notes that although data suggest that the delta variant may burn itself out in a six-month time frame, there is "non-zero" probability that a super variant will emerge among the unvaccinated and that the current vaccines will be ineffective against it. In addition to boosting vaccination in countries with a low inoculation rate, Brilliant said one group of people needs a booster shot “right away” — those who are 65 years and above, and were fully vaccinated more than six months ago but have a weakened immune system. [2]

Research Studies

Researchers have found that people infected with the Beta coronavirus variant are more likely to need critical care and to die than are people infected with other variants. The Beta variant, also known as B.1.351, was first identified in late 2020 in South Africa. Beta also seems to be more resistant to immunity generated by vaccines and previous infections than are other variants. [3]

Using CRISPR gene editing techniques, a team of University of Florida researchers has identified dozens of new therapeutic targets for the development of antiviral therapies against COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. Their work also identified existing compounds that target many of these same genes and pathways and that function as inhibitors to reduce viral growth. Several factors underscore the need to develop antiviral therapies for COVID-19 along with vaccines:

• Future variants could erode vaccine efficiency. Antiviral therapies would lessen the severity of COVID-19 infections and symptoms.

• For those who can't receive vaccines, such as individuals with compromised immune systems, an effective COVID-19 antiviral would mitigate the severity and length of infections.

• In regions with little or no access to vaccines, antivirals would help relieve the burden of disease and slow its transmission. [4]

In another study using CRISPR gene-editing technology, scientists have discovered a way to stop the COVID-19 virus from replicating in infected human cells, marking major progress towards a definitive treatment and accentuating the potential of genetic engineering to cure viral diseases. At the core of the research is an enzyme (CRISPR-Cas13b) that binds to target RNAs and degrades the part of the virus genome needed to replicate inside cells. The technology's specificity, efficiency and rapid deployment properties provides a blueprint for antiviral drug development to suppress and prevent a wide range of SARS-CoV-2 mutants. [5]

The data on whether and when boosters might be needed are trickling in. Early indications suggest that antibody levels triggered by most COVID-19 vaccines are falling. What scientists don’t know is whether these drops reflect a decline in protection against the virus. Teams around the world are racing to determine what level of neutralizing antibodies or another immune marker is most closely associated with a vaccine’s effectiveness. [6]

Sources: [1] DW.com, Aug 6 [2] CNBC, Aug 8 [3] Nature, August 9 [4] MedicalXPress, August 6 [5] Alliance for Science, July 30 [6] Nature, August 5