PART ONE:

1.  Define and briefly explain the meaning of Karma.

          First, as you pointed out in your lecture, karma is often misunderstood in the west, since it is often seen as a form of fatalism, but karma is not fatalist because it can be changed.  Instead, karma is a doctrine of radical freedom and responsibility; each person’s actions determine their destiny.  So our physical, mental, and verbal activity has an effect on our lives in the present and in the future.  Karma expresses a relationship between cause and effect in the realm of morality.  As Huston Smith notes, “The literal meaning of karma . . . is work, but as a doctrine it means, roughly, the moral law of cause and effect” [Smith, 64].  As you stated in your lecture on karma on February 4, it can be seen as retribution for errors in your past life, and based on the way you handle this retribution you may either grow, or you may even fail to a greater degree.  In other words it has a corrective value, and you can thus change your karma.

2.  List at least three characteristics that all enlightened beings (i.e., in Buddhism) have in common.

          All enlightened beings have discovered the cause of suffering and have thus extinguished all desires and cravings.  They have recognized the illusory nature of the self (anatta), and the impermanence (anicca) of this world.  A Buddha has achieved perfect wisdom and universal compassion, while a Bodhisattva has achieved wisdom and compassion, but not perfect wisdom and less than universal compassion.  An Arhat has extinguished desire as a disciple of the Buddha, but still has some ignorance.  All enlightened beings can choose not to be reborn.

3.  Briefly explain why in Judaism it is important to honor your father and mother.

          First it is important to honor your father and mother simply because it is a part of the revelation given to Moses by God in the Torah.  Next it is important to look at what the commandment itself says, “Honor your father and mother, that you may long endure on the land that the Lord your God is assigning to you” [Novak, 187].  The commandment connects honoring parents with a promise, and the promise can be interpreted in two ways.  The first would be on the level of the individual, and it promises you a long life and protection on the land God has given you, as long as you care for it and honor your parents.  The second way of looking at it is in a communal sense, thus the People of Israel will long endure on the land if they properly honor their parents.  Jewish tradition also holds that when you honor your parents you also honor God.  This is true because a child's life is viewed as coming from the parents and from God also.  The father and mother together with God produce the child, so the child must honor all three of them.

4.  List the four Yogas (types of Hindu practice).

          The first type of yoga is called Jnana Yoga, it is known as the way to God through knowledge.  As Huston Smith points out, the type of knowledge “. . . has nothing to do with factual information; it is not encyclopedic” [Smith, 29].  Instead, it is a type of intuitive knowledge, or gnosis, which changes one into that which they seek to know.  It is the recognition that the self is illusory, and that the Atman (God within) is the True Self.  Jnana Yoga is ultimately the search for the trans-personal absolute.

          The second type of yoga is called Bhakti, it is the way to God through love.  Bhakti Yoga is centered on the idea of a personal communion with God, and not an absorption into the absolute.  In it the individual believer remains distinct from God, but enters into a communion of love with the Divine Being.  For there to be love, there must be another being distinct from yourself.  True love is radically self-giving, and one must pour oneself out into the other.  As the classical Hindu devotional puts it, “‘I want to taste sugar; I don’t want to be sugar’” [Smith, 33].  There is thus a big difference between pouring oneself out into the other, and becoming the other.

          The third yoga is known as Karma Yoga, and it is described as the way to God through work.  In this system, work is seen as the vehicle for self-transcendence; it is work done without the thought of self-aggrandizement, and thus it is simply done for the sake of others.  As the Gita says, “You have the right to work, but for works sake only.  You have no right to the fruits of work” [Novak, 31].  Helping others when you can is the duty of a karma yogi.

          The final yoga is the way, or royal road to God through reintegration; it is called Raja Yoga.  This form of yoga helps you to understand reality by re-directing your attention inward.  The spiritual masters of India realized very early on that proper meditation requires training, and that mere intellectual activity or development is not enough.  This is an area where the west tends to be superficial.  Raja Yoga consists of five preliminary practices and three inner practices.  The preliminary practices are: (1) abstention from doing evil, (2) the observances, (3) the postures, (4) proper breathing, and (5) the withdrawal of the mind from sense objects.  Once these preliminary steps are completed it is possible to move on to the three inner practices.  The inner practices are: (1) one pointedness of mind, in which you direct your mind on a single point for extended periods, but you do not experience the point itself; instead, you enter into a different state of consciousness; (2) is meditative absorption, in this state you go deeper into your mind; and finally (3) you achieve samadhi, which is the absorption of your jiva into the Atman.

5.  List five important ways in which Buddhism differs from Hinduism.

          The first way in which Buddhism differs from Hinduism concerns the Buddhist rejection of the Hindu caste system.  In Buddhism the human being has been liberated from the various castes, it posits the idea that a member of the untouchable caste or a member of the shudras caste, can achieve the same spiritual and meditative insights that a member of the brahmin caste can.  Secondly, Buddhism does not require one to go through all the four of the Hindu stages of life.  The Buddha himself went from the householder stage to the final stage while he was still a young man.  This is one of the most upsetting things about Buddhism from the Hindu perspective.  Thirdly, the doctrine of anatta (no-self) distinguishes Buddhism from Hinduism.  The no-self doctrine has an effect on the Buddhist view of the cycle of rebirth, because nothing substantial moves from life to life.  I was told it is like a ring being pushed into hot wax in order to make a seal, nothing substantial is transferred from the ring; instead, just the image from the ring is impressed on to the wax.  Fourthly, the Buddhist conception of the human person is different.  The notion of the five skandas is not compatible with Hinduism.  The skandas are five changing states of existence: (1) the body, (2) sensation, (3) thoughts, (4) feelings or volitions, and (5) consciousness; and this way of viewing the human person is unique to Buddhism.  Finally, the Buddhist conception of what release from the cycle of rebirth entails is different.  Nirvana is a blowing out, it is different from and in some ways it even transcends the Hindu understanding of absorption into the Atman.

6. List in the correct order the Eightfold Path.

          The Eightfold Path is the last of the Four Noble Truths.  It consists of: (1) right views, this concept deals with discovering the meaning of life; (2) right intention, as Huston Smith puts it, “[Right intention] advises us to make up our hearts as to what we really want” [Smith, 106]; (3) right speech, we must learn to control our speech and to be charitable in what we say; (4) right conduct or action, we must not kill, we must not lie or steal, we must not be unchaste, and we must avoid intoxicants.  (5) Right livelihood, we must have an occupation compatible with our spiritual calling, and one which will allow us to grow; (6) right effort, we must exert our will in order to develop a virtuous life; (7) right mindfulness, we must have a “steady awareness of every action that is taken, and every content that turns up in one’s stream of consciousness” [Smith, 110]; and (8) right concentration, this involves many of the methods of meditation employed in Raja Yoga, and is meant to clear the mind.

PART TWO:

1.  List and explain the Eightfold Yoga as found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

          As I wrote in my answer to question four in part one; there are five preliminary practices and three inner practices.  The first preliminary practice is abstention from doing evil.  The one who enters this practice must not lie or steal, must also avoid improper sensuality and greed, and because sex uses up a great amount of vital energy, celibacy is an important practice which helps clear the mind.  Next are the observances and the devotional practices, included within these are: “(1) cleanliness, (2) contentment, (3) studiousness, (4) self-control, and (5) contemplation of the Divine” [Smith, 44].  The third of the practices concerns proper posture; through posture, the lotus position in particular, one is able to gain control over the body.  Eventually the person can sit for long periods comfortably focusing and gathering energy for deeper forms of concentration. The fourth practice is proper breathing, it helps to prepare the mind for contemplation, “untrained breathing can shatter the mind’s repose” [Smith, 45].  The outer and inner breathing are connected and must be properly synchronized.  By using cycles of breathing, “There is a stretch during which animation is reduced to the point that the mind seems disembodied” [Smith, 46].  The fifth and final preliminary practice is the withdrawal of the mind from sense objects.  Now because you have gained control over your body you can begin your concentration.  As Huston Smith says, “Composed, body at ease, its breathing regular, the yogi sits absorbed in contemplation” [Smith, 46].  It is now that you begin to turn your mind inward away from the physical world of the senses.  Now that you have conquered the body you should be able to meditate without being distracted.

          After completing the preliminary practices it is possible to move on to the three inner practices.  The first of the inner practices is one-pointedness of mind.  In this phase you direct your mind on a single point for an extended period of time, but not with the intention of focusing on that point; instead, you actually focus on entering an altered state of consciousness.  In a sense you enter through a door into a higher realm.  If you are properly trained, and if you follow the methods found in the Yoga Sutras you will be able to enter various higher states of consciousness.  The second of the three inner practices is a form of meditative absorption, that allows you to go deeper into your own mind.  All of these higher states contain a tremendous degree of bliss, solidity, and stillness.  The third and final inner practice is called samadhi; in this final state of consciousness the jiva is merged into the transpersonal absolute.  As you said in your lecture, it is not really possible to explain this state in any adequate way, but the attraction to this state of bliss is said to be more satisfying than sex.

2.  Explain the paths of the Arhat and the Bodhisattva and how they differ.

          The Arhat is a disciple of the Buddha who still has some ignorance, but has extinguished all desire.  He has achieved holiness and when he dies he will choose not to be reborn.  During his life he will aid others, so that they can achieve release from the cycle of rebirth, but unlike a Bodhisattva he does not choose to come back through the cycle of rebirth in order to continue to help others.  Huston Smith indicates that the Buddha viewed the world from a somewhat legalistic perspective, he saw that, “events are governed by the law of cause and effect” [Smith, 119].  The Arhat is required to grow into an autonomous agent, so that he increasingly becomes independent of the causal nature of the world.  Smith points out that, “as long as spirit remains tied to body, its freedom from the particular, the temporal, and the changing cannot be complete” [Smith, 119].  This is why the goal of the Arhat is to seek release and not rebirth.

          The Bodhisattva, who like that Arhat still has some ignorance, has decided to continue in the cycle of rebirth in order to help others achieve release.  He has achieved wisdom and compassion, but not perfect wisdom and less that universal compassion.  The Bodhisattva is one who vows “not to desert this world ‘until the grass itself be enlightened’” [Smith, 124].  Since there are always new individuals in need of enlightenment it appears as though the Bodhisattva will never enter nirvana, and never achieve full enlightenment himself.  But Huston Smith says that is not a correct view, he states that the Bodhisattva, “has risen to the point where the distinction between time and eternity has lost its force” [Smith, 147].  Time and eternity in some sense become identified, because they are viewed as “two sides of the same coin” [Smith, 147].

          Both the Arhat and the Bodhisattva must extinguish desire, and both assist others in the achievement of enlightenment.  They differ in that the Arhat does this only in this life, while the Bodhisattva continues in the cycle of rebirth in order to help others achieve release, those who happen to live in different times and in different places.

3.  Explain the different reasons given in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Judaism why basic morality is fundamental to the religious life.

          I do not believe the reasons given are all that different in these three religions, though the concepts used to describe morality and the goals to be achieved through it are different in some respects.  Both Hinduism and Buddhism would be in complete agreement with Judaism that proper moral living is one of the first steps toward union with the absolute, though the conception of what that union entails, and what the absolute is would be viewed differently.  But even Jnana and Bhakti Hinduism conceive union with the absolute differently, yet their moral systems are not different.

          Buddhism’s five moral precepts: (1) no killing, (2) no stealing, (3) no sexual misconduct, (4) no wrong speech, and (5) no use of intoxicants; are not that different from Judaism’s ten commandments, or even all 613 (mitzvot) commandments.  In both cases the precepts or commandments are meant to purify or sanctify the individual, before and during their spiritual journey.  As you pointed out in your lecture, the precept concerning no sexual misconduct means that a lay Buddhist is to commit himself to lifelong monogamy, or if one is a monk or a nun to celibacy.  For Judaism the commandment against adultery is no different.  The purpose in following these precepts differs only in the goal to be achieved.  In Judaism the goal is communion with a personal God, in Buddhism the goal is to be released from the samsara (the cycle of rebirth), and thus achieve nirvana.  So the goals of Judaism and Buddhism are different, but when you compare Judaism and Bhakti Yoga even the goal is similar.  In your lecture on March 4, you emphasized the importance of moral purity if one is to advance in Buddhism, and it follows that the same would be true in Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Karma Yoga, and in Judaism.

          The first of the preliminary practices in Raja Yoga is to abstain from doing evil; this is the starting point of the royal road to reintegration.  None of these three religions (i.e., Buddhism, Hinduism, or Judaism) would say that moral licentiousness can lead to anything good.  If you look at the seven Noahic commandments you can see that they are very similar to the five moral precepts of Buddhism.

          In conclusion I would say that the reasons for following the fundamental moral precepts in these three religions is not all that different.  Where they differ is in their understanding of the goal to be reached by living a moral life.

4.  Discuss the Jewish understanding of God and the different ways in which a Jew relates to God.

          In Judaism God is a personal and transcendent being, and he is also absolutely one, as the Shema says, “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” [Deut., 6:4].  God is the creator of the universe, and he has created humanity in his own image.  God operates in history and manifests his will by revealing himself to us.  This is one of the reasons why Judaism developed a linear conception of time, and emphasized the uniqueness of historical events.  Judaism conceives of God as omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient.  Nevertheless, although God is omnipresent in Jewish doctrine, the ancient Jews also believed that God was present in the Temple in a unique way.

          The ancient Jews related to God through the Tabernacle in Jerusalem.  It had been established as a result of the Mosaic Covenant, and was in a sense a conduit for communication with God.  By offering sacrifice and prayer the Jews were able to worship God and ask for his assistance.  Through the sacrificial cult the Jews could be made pure, and thus enter into communion with God.

          Covenants have always been important in Judaism, and the two most important are: (1) the Abrahamic Covenant, and (2) the Mosaic Covenant.  In each of the covenants God promises to do certain things for his people, and the people agree to follow certain commandments which ultimately purify them, so that they can render true service to God and their neighbor.  Some of the covenants are general covenants made with all mankind, and others are particular covenants made only with Israel.

          Gentiles are bound by the seven Noahic commandments, while the Jewish people are subject to the 613 (mitzvot) commandments of the Mosaic Law.  The central belief of Judaism is found in the first commandment, and in the love of God.  If the Jews keep God’s commandments he promises them that they will flourish, both materially and spiritually.  One of the most important aspects of the Jewish relationship with God is the keeping of the Sabbath.  For a Jew the only way to have a relationship with God is to keep the commandments.

PART THREE:

Use specific and detailed information from at least two of the religions you have studied to illustrate how religions can provide effective paths to greater self-understanding.  What do those paths have in common?  Are there ways in which religious traditions can also stand in the way of greater self-understanding?

          Raja Yoga is one of the best examples of how a religion can effect you in a good way, and how it can deepen your knowledge of your own being.  Because it starts by concentrating on the body, and helping you to control your passions, it helps you to become a stronger person.  It increases your physical stamina, thus allowing you to sit completely still for extended periods of time.  It helps you to control your desire for food and other bodily necessities.  It helps you to purify your body and mind, and thus prepare yourself for the later inner practices.  By following these practices you gain a sense of self-awareness.  By slowly closing yourself off from the outside world you gain the ability to look inside your mind and discover a universe of new and undreamed of worlds.  Rather than being a selfish or self-centered practice, Raja Yoga actually helps you to transcend your own smallness of mind.

          This is similar to what you do in Buddhism through the Four Noble Truths, and the Eightfold Path.  By looking inside yourself, you are actually able to escape the smallness of your own individual existence and you are opened to the infinite.  In Buddhism the recognition of the cause of suffering is like an epiphany.  Because once you understand the cause of suffering, you can begin to move beyond it, and can end craving and desire, and thus achieve a sense of peace.  After you have done this you can begin to move down the Eightfold Path.

          The Eightfold Path can look like a heavy burden to an outsider, but to a follower of the Buddha it is a common sense course of action.  It flows naturally out of the need to extinguish craving.  It gives you a world view, and allows you to organize your life around sound principles of moral living.  In this sense the Eightfold Path transcends Buddhism, and it would fit quite nicely into any religion.  Who can argue with the necessity of having a right view of the world, and of understanding its proper purpose?  Who could argue with having the right intention, of setting your heart on its proper end?  Using the right kind of speech seem quite natural, for you should never verbally harm anyone.  Who can disagree with the idea of right action?  Most people will admit that it is wrong to steal or lie.  After all the root of sin is greed; the constant desire for what you do not possess.  Right livelihood is merely having the right job for your spiritual life and happiness, who could find this to be a problem?  Right effort is simply living a virtuous life.  Right mindfulness means that you must be aware of what you are doing and thinking.  Finally, right concentration brings us back to Raja Yoga and its various methods of preparation for meditation.  It helps to clear your mind.

          Obviously Buddhism and Hinduism are closely related, since Buddhism began as a reform movement within Hinduism.  They also share a similar view of the world, and their ultimate goals are also quite close.  They share a common tradition of meditation with only minor differences of perspective, but they both discover the meaning of existence by looking within the mind.

          The way a religious tradition can get in the way of self-understanding is by becoming to rigid.  When this happens it in a sense ceases to be a living tradition.  Sometimes it is not so much the tradition which gets in the way; instead, it is the individual believer who by his lack of a proper intention merely goes through the motions of the tradition, but without really believing in anything.  This is another way in which a tradition can die.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Philip Novak.  The World’s Wisdom.  (San Francisco:  Harper San Francisco, 1995).

Huston Smith.  The World’s Religions.  (San Francisco:  Harper San Francisco, 1991).

Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism Examination

by Steven Todd Kaster

San Francisco State University

Philosophy 502-02:  World Religions

Dr. Ron Epstein

1 April 1998

Copyright © 1998-2025 Steven Todd Kaster