Sufficient emphasis has not been given to the nexus joining Vico with Herder, (16) but if we recognize in Vico the birth of the philosophy of history (17) and not simply the historical compilation typical of the Enlightenment, we must concede to Herder either the anticipation of or direct influence on the emergence of this discipline. 

(17) In reality, this is a “bio-cultural” conception of history, but not in itself less philosophical than any other. As for the designation, Voltaire is among the first to have spoken of the “philosophy of history.”

In: Historiological Discussions, Silo

Chapter 2: The Past Seen as Without Temporal Foundation, 2.1 Conceptions of History

Topics

• Religious tolerance: Voltaire is famous for his fight against religious fanaticism and intolerance. In works such as ‘Traité sur la tolérance’ (Treaty of Tolerance) and ‘Candide’, he fiercely criticises the excesses of the Catholic Church, religious persecution and obscurantism. His slogan ‘Écrasez l'infâme’ (Crush the infamous; an allusion to intolerance and religious fanaticism) summarises this fight well.

• Freedom of thought and expression: Voltaire was a fervent defender of freedom of thought and expression, which he considered to be fundamental principles. He often used irony and satire to criticise censorship and the restrictions imposed by the authorities. This theme is omnipresent in his ‘Dictionnaire philosophique’ (Philosophical Dictionary) and his numerous pamphlets.

• Reason and science: Voltaire valued reason as a tool for understanding the world and for human progress. He admired the sciences and scientific progress of his time and considered them to be the best means of freeing humanity from superstition and error. In his writings, he praised figures like Newton and criticised dogmas that hindered knowledge.

Major works

• Candide, or Optimism (1759): the story of Candide, who travels the world and experiences the horrors of war, famine, disease and human cruelty.

• ‘Philosophical Letters’ (1734): letters in which Voltaire compares English institutions and customs with those of France, praising religious freedom, tolerance and the British political system.

• ‘Treatise on Tolerance’ (1763): written in response to the case of Jean Calas (a Protestant falsely accused and executed for the murder of his son). Voltaire defends Calas and uses the case to denounce religious intolerance and argue for religious freedom.

• ‘Philosophical Dictionary’ (1764): a tool for spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment. It covers religion, politics, science and philosophy.

• ‘Zadig, or Destiny’ (1747): the story of Zadig, a wise and virtuous young man who undergoes a series of adventures and misadventures in his search for justice and happiness.

Another work mentioned by Silo:

• ‘Essay on the Manners and Spirits of Nations’ (1756-1758):

extensive world history in which Voltaire broadens his study to include global history, including the history of Asia, Africa and the Americas. He focuses not only on political events, but also on the mores, customs, religious beliefs and arts of different civilisations. In this essay, Voltaire develops a critical and philosophical approach to history. He seeks to understand the causes of historical events and to explain the development of societies through the prism of reason and progress. Voltaire challenges traditional narratives, which are often influenced by religion or prejudice, and attempts to write a more rational and secular history. He emphasises the importance of economic, social and cultural forces in the development of civilisations.

Influence

Voltaire's ideas not only had a great influence on the thinkers and statesmen of his time, such as J. J. Rousseau and Frederick II, but also on the thinkers who later promoted the French Revolution.