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1.Which of the following is NOT one of the four cardinal virtues that were valued by Plato?
a. Sincerity
b. Temperance
c. Justice
d. Courage
e. Prudence
2. TRUE or FALSE? Temperance means ‘moderation or self-restraint in one’s behaviour i.e. self-control.’
3. TRUE or FALSE? Prudence means ‘regard for decency of behaviour, speech e.g. freedom from vanity and boastfulness’.
4. TRUE or FALSE? Aristotle outlined his ethical theory in a book called The Metaphysics.
5. TRUE or FALSE? In the above work, Aristotle argued that Virtue ethics does not question how we act, but focuses on self-development. It is agent-centred and seeks to find goodness by through the cultivation of certain qualities of personality or character.
6. TRUE or FALSE? Because of this, Aristotle’s theory can be said to be neither a deontological or a teleological ethical theory.
7. TRUE or FALSE? Aristotle believed that ultimate purpose of developing certain desirable character traits was to achieve eudaimonia , human flourishing or happiness.
8. TRUE or FALSE? Aristotle argued that as humans, everything we want or desire should lead to happiness, because happiness is good as an end in itself.
9. TRUE or FALSE? If the vice of deficiency is cowardice and the virtuous Golden Mean is courage, then the vice of excess is rashness.
10. TRUE or FALSE? If the vice of deficiency is stinginess and the vice of excess is extravagance, then the virtuous Golden Mean must be generosity.
11. TRUE or FALSE? Aristotle rejected action-based ethics. He said that an action may seem good but have a bad motive – this is the exact opposite of the utilitarian view, which argues that motive is irrelevant. Virtue ethicists say the action is irrelevant but the motive is pivotal because it shapes who we are as people.
12. Aristotle argued that that we can learn to be virtuous by imitating virtuous people, like Jesus, Gandhi or Mother Teresa. Which of the following is NOT a possible criticism of this claim?
a. In our day-to-day lives, we cannot always imagine what our virtuous role models would do, so Aristotle’s view is, to an extent, impractical.
b. We can develop virtues in isolation, without guidance from others.
c. If what we are supposed to do is copy other people, this might prevent us from thinking for ourselves.
d. Someone who is a role model for some people might not be for others. For example, Mother Teresa has been severely criticised for her opposition to abortion, and Osama bin Laden is regarded as a hero and freedom fighter by some.
13. TRUE or FALSE? Practical wisdom or arête is a kind of knowledge that guides action. It is distinct from purely intellectual wisdom, and is meant to describe a capacity to coordinate judgment, understanding, and insight in such a way as to result in effective action reflective of the Golden Mean.
14. TRUE or FALSE? Aristotle thought that the virtues could not be cultivated in isolation. Participation in the wider community or phronesis was essential.
15. TRUE or FALSE? Virtue ethics is also known as Aretaic ethics, from a Greek word which can be translated as ‘moral excellence’ and could be used to describe the state of someone who has perfected a particular virtue or a skill that clearly expresses that virtue eg. A successful military leader might be said to exhibit the virtue of courage guided by phronesis if their victories are won through careful strategy and tactics, knowing when to fight and take risks and when not to, when to make peace with an enemy on the right terms, and so on.
16. Which modern Catholic virtue ethicist argued (in spite of their religious faith), that moral philosophy (which is often based on the notion of laws and rules) requires upgrading ‘because it rests on the notion of a law without a lawgiver.’ Virtue ethics is therefore more suitable for a secular (non-religious) age?
a. MacIntyre
b. Foot
c. Hursthouse
d. Anscombe
e. Nussbaum
17. Which modern virtue ethicist argued that actions performed in the name of an unworthy cause cannot be called virtuous? An example might be a jihadist Muslim demonstrating courage by carrying out a terrorist attack in the name of Islam, or a bank robber displaying the same virtue in the name of greed. For this philosopher, motive and action have to be synchronised for the behaviour to be regarded as virtuous.
a. MacIntyre
b. Foot
c. Anscombe
d. Nussbaum
e. Hursthouse
18. Which modern virtue ethicist argued in their book After Virtue that ethics had become too preoccupied with reason and autonomy (the individual freely and independently making their moral decisions in isolation)? Given that ethics is grounded in communal living (e.g. loyalty, trust, friendship are virtues that can only arise through interaction with others), and virtue ethics is a system that recognises this fact, we should return to it, taking our cue from suitable inspirational role models within a community to do so.
a. MacIntyre
b. Foot
c. Anscombe
d. Nussbaum
e. Hursthouse
19. Which philosopher might have argued that following role models (as recommended by Aristotle and MacIntyre) would be fatal to morality because it would prevent someone from taking responsibility for their own moral decision-making, based on reason, autonomy, good will and the categorical imperative?
a. Kant
b. Anscombe
c. Sartre
d. Fletcher
20. Which philosopher might have argued that following the example set by role models is wrong because in doing so you would be denying your own freedom to choose what to do for yourself, and your own responsibility for doing so?
a. Kant
b. Anscombe
c. Sartre
d. Fletcher
21. Which modern virtue ethicist is a moral absolutist when it comes to the virtues, insisting that justice, temperance etc. are essential elements of human flourishing across all societies and throughout time?
a. MacIntyre
b. Foot
c. Anscombe
d. Nussbaum
e. Hursthouse
22. Which modern virtue ethicist counters the claim that Aristotelean Virtue ethics does not offer enough specific guidance about how to make moral decisions and therefore cannot help with resolving moral dilemmas, by arguing that although the theory does not prescribe exactly how one might respond to a given situation, it does at least provide a framework for how one might think about a moral dilemma e.g. in terms of the Golden Mean?
a. MacIntyre
b. Foot
c. Anscombe
d. Nussbaum
e. Hursthouse
23. TRUE or FALSE? Another criticism of Aristotle’s version of virtue ethics is that in favouring virtues like temperance, prudence and the use of the Golden Mean, it would seem that risk takers and those who take things to extremes are to be condemned as lacking in virtue. But if someone enjoys dangerous sports, or gives up their day job to start a business that may not succeed (as frequently happens in Dragon’s Den), should they be criticised if they flourish and find happiness/fulfilment (eudaimonia) in doing so?
24. TRUE or FALSE? A third criticism of Aristotelean Virtue Ethics is that the type of person it would tend to produce would be a dull, middle-of-the-road, middle class type of person rather than a truly well-rounded, dynamic individual.
25. TRUE or FALSE? A criticism of MacIntyre is that in emphasising community over the individual he ignores the possibility that entire communities may be immoral and therefore subscribe to immoral virtues e.g. The Taliban in Afghanistan consider it virtuous to shoot girls trying to get an education by going to school, while in Nazi Germany it was considered virtuous to behave in an anti-semitic manner. MacIntyre claims that the most important virtues are justice, courage and honesty, but it easy to imagine the Taliban and the Nazis claiming that what they did expresses these virtues.
26. TRUE or FALSE? A criticism of Nussbaum is that she does not identify which causes or motives might be worthy and virtuous. For example, Robin Hood stole from the rich, and is generally thought of as having been virtuous to do so. But can we be sure about that? And Osama bin Laden is seen as a heroic freedom fighter by some. So was he pursuing a worthy cause when planning an attack on the World Trade Centre?
27. Which of the following is NOT a recognised strength of Virtue Ethics when compared with other ethical theories?
a. Unlike Utilitarianism, it values Justice (one of Plato’s cardinal virtues). And so it would not permit immoral actions from taking place (e.g. the death of Christians in the Roman Arena) that Bentham’s version of Utilitarianism can justify according to the principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
b. As with Kantian ethics, Virtue Ethics allows no place for the emotions and values reason (phronesis) above all else. But there is more flexibility in Virtue Ethics because the Golden Mean may be applied relativistically to the situation at hand.
c. Virtue ethics is also more flexible than Natural Law theory. For example, Natural Law theory rules out the use of artificial forms of contraception because to do so would violate the Primary Precept of reproduction. But for a follower of Virtue Ethics, the use of the pill or the condom could be seen as prudential.
28. Which of the following is NOT an accurate description of a recognised weakness of Virtue Ethics?
a. For some Christians, Virtue Ethics denies the need for God, which follows from the teaching of Original Sin. Because we are fallen and inherently sinful, we cannot become virtuous all on our own. We need the grace of God to infuse us with the higher Christian virtues of faith, hope and love to reorder the natural virtues and draw us into the life of God.
b. According to the philosopher John Doris, any virtues we think we have developed are not consistently exhibited. This is because human beings are unable to behave virtuously under pressure. This was demonstrated in Zimbardo’s psychological study of obedience to authority, in which it was found that approximately two-thirds of his experimental subjects would be willing to administer dangerous electric shocks to a stranger, simply because they were told to continue the experiment by the scientist conducting it.
c. Virtue Ethics lacks universal application as virtues tend to be relative to a given culture, community or gender e.g. bravery and courage are valued by the military, but within the Christian Quaker community, patience, compassion, agape and empathy would be seen as admirable virtues.
ANSWERS
1. a
2. True
3. False – Prudence means ‘careful, sound judgement that allows someone to avoid danger or risks’
4. False – he outlined his theory in the Nicomachean Ethics.
5. True
6. False – it is a teleological theory.
7. True but Aristotle’s notion of eudaimonia or happiness is different from that of Bentham. A well-rounded, reasonably contented person who has successfully cultivated a range of virtues and continues to exercise them is what Aristotle’s understanding entails. In other words, eudaimonia is only indirectly associated with pleasurable and euphoric states of mind and is more of an activity than anything else. In other words, it is not a ‘chilled out’, passive condition. For example, engaging in regular philosophical debate may help someone to flourish but it may not, on every occasion, cause them to feel happy.
8. True
9. True
10. True
11. True
12. b – this is because we are raised by adults who necessarily serve as role models for us. There is no escaping from this, though the examples they set might be good or bad. Note also that the first criticism was made by a philosopher called Louden.
13. False – what is being described is an accurate description of practical wisdom, but the Greek word used by Aristotle to refer to this is phronesis not arête. In other words, Aristotle believed we can find a balance between the vices of deficiency and excess through the exercising of phronesis.
14. False – the term used by Aristotle is polis not phronesis. Polis means ‘city-state’ but could also be taken to refer to citizenship, or the community of citizens who reside within a city-state.
15. True – the Greek word is arete.
16. d- Anscombe
17. b- Foot
18. a- MacIntyre
19. a- Kant (this is worth remembering when comparing Kant with Aristotle).
20. c – Sartre
21. d – Nussbaum
22. e – Hursthouse
23. True
24. True – this is a criticism made by AC Grayling.
25. True
26. False – this is a criticism of Foot.
27. b – Virtue ethics unlike Kantian ethics, is not cold-bloodedly rational. It aims to cultivate the personal development of the whole person, including the emotions. The emotions are disciplined under the guidance of reason (phronesis) so that they are expresses appropriately e.g. someone exhibiting the virtue of courage would have the emotion of fear under control, so that their actions are not timid. This is again worth bearing in mind when comparing Aristotle with Kant.
28. b- this experiment was carried out by Milgram. Zimbardo was responsible for the Stanford Prison Experiment. What these experiments show is that our immediate environment is a powerful influence on our behaviour and can override virtues that we might exhibit in other circumstances. So virtuous character traits are unstable.