BUDDHISM

A Level Religious Studies

Buddhist Practices + Identity

Unit 3.3 Meditation 

Introduction

Meditation in Buddhism developed from early Practices adopted in part of other religions by the Buddha and the early Sangha.  As time went buy Buddhist developed their own aims and particular approaches to Mediatation.

Today Mediatation in Zen and Pure Land, and Tibetian Buddhism in Mahayna and Theravada remains popular in Japan and China, and Srilanka. However in Theravada it is used largely by the ordiined and the laity to Puja or acts of devotion. 

Key Content

Topic         

Content

Key Knowledge

3.3  Practices that shape and express religious identity - The different types and purposes of meditation,

their context and application and how they shape and express religious identity

·         The different types and purposes of meditation In Buddhism

·          

·         Basic ideas

·         How Samatha and Vipassana differ.

·         What the goal of mediation is.

·         What the four Jhannas are

·         The importance of Kalyana Mitta, Posture, breathing, and the cultivation of Metta

·         The place and context of meditation as part of the Noble Eightfold Path, links to wisdom and morality, including the influence of types of meditation on moral development.

·         The context and application of Samatha and Vipassana in Theravada and emphasis on the eightfold path

·         The links between Mediation Samatha, wisdom prajna and Ethics sila in Therava

·         How mediation helps in moral development through the practice of Metta Bhavana in Theravada.

·         The practice and purpose of dhyana, samatha and vipassana as types of meditation, including accounts of meditation techniques, their purposes and context in Mahayana.

·         The context and application of Samatha and Vipassana in Mahayana and emphasis on dependent orgination.

·         The links between Meditation Samatha, and Mahayana ideas of wisdom prajna i.e.e Sunyatta / Trikeya and Ethics the six parimitas in Mahayana

·         How mediation helps in moral development through the practice of selflessness and interdependent / sunyata mediation  in Mahayana .

·         Understanding of the purposes of meditation in terms of Enlightenment and the relative importance of some aspects of meditation. The practices of chanting, giving and study to understand Buddhism as it is lived by laypeople as well as monastics.

·         How far enlightenment is a goal for all Buddhists?

·         Why mediation might not be an important practice for Theravada laity or Pure land Buddhists.

·         What the purpose of giving or offering is in Theravada and Mahayana.

·         How did study is of relative important in Theravada and Mahayana.

·         How chanting is used in Theravada and Mahayana.

You need to understand the issues raised by the distinctive meditation and devotional practices and emphases of Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism and how they shape and express religious identity, including:

·         how the distinctive practices and teaching emphasis Sunyata, Ekeyana, Upaya, Trikaya, Cittamatra and Tathagata) are understood as related to practice in Mahayana in contrast to Theravada, both historically and in the contemporary world.

·         whether or not the visualisation of Mahayana transcendent Bodhisattvas is developed out of the idea of Trikaya,  

·         What significant things T Bhikkhu and J Goldstein have said about Theravada beliefs and practices.

Introduction to Mediation Videos

Key Words

Samatha – Meditation aimed at calming and energising the mind and cultivating metta and karuna. This existed in India before the time of the Buddha.

Metta -  Love

Bhavana – cultivating or developing positive virtues and an enlightened mind.

Vipassana Vipassana meditation is insight meditation which aims to come to a deeper level of understanding about the true nature of reality, for example, by contemplating the three marks of conditioned existence - impermanence, unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and not-self. This is specifically Buddhist, unlike samatha meditation.

Jhanas/Dhyanas Stages of higher consciousness often developed in meditation. There are four stages. In older texts, these states arise when the mind has withdrawn from the five senses and consciousness becomes increasingly unified, blissful and subtle.

the four brahma viharas or 'divine abidings'  are a series of four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them. - There are four types: meditation on loving kindness, on compassion, on joy and on equanimity.

Mindfulness - Mindfulness is the practice of purposely bringing one's attention in the present moment without evaluation, a skill one develops through meditation or other training. Mindfulness is a technique extracted from Buddhism where one tries to notice present thoughts, feeling and sensations without judgement. The aim is to create a state of “bare awareness”.  Mindfulness derives from sati, a significant element of Buddhist traditions, and is based on Zen, Vipassanā, and Tibetan meditation techniques.

Anapanasati meditation is the mindfulness of breathing

Puja– Acts of devotion understood not as directed as a personal deity but typically as offerings that develop merit PUNNYA

Zazen – Meaning Just sitting – meditation to discover your buddha nature

Meditation in Buddhism:  Basics

Key Ideas

v  Meditation is an ancient practice that existed long before the time of the Buddha.

v  The term bhavana best describes Buddhist meditation because meditation is the process of mental  development and increased self-awareness.

v  There are two broad groups of meditation: samatha and vipassana.

v  Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Wapola Rahula suggests that samatha meditation existed before the time of the Buddha and is therefore not exclusively Buddhist.

v  Vipassana meditation is insight meditation and involves coming to a deeper level of understanding about the true nature of reality through contemplation, which is wordless, and beyond concepts and thoughts.

v  The goal of meditation is to free the mind from delusion and craving so that it is free, energised and able to act with spontaneous care and compassion.

v  The different types of meditation include:

o   breathing

o   mindfulness

o   metta bhavana

o   zazen

o   chanting

o   visualisation.

v  puja is a devotional act which allows a Buddhist to show respect to the Buddha or a Bodhisattva for their teachings.

v  puja may involve meditation, prayer and making offerings.

Meditation is an ancient practice that existed long before the time of the Buddha. It is a deep form of concentration and contemplation that explores the processes of the mind and its relationship to the external world. Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Wapola Rahula suggests that samatha meditation existed before the time of the Buddha and is therefore not exclusively Buddhist. The term bhavana best describes Buddhist meditation because meditation is the process of mental development and increased self-awareness. This includes understanding the nature of impermanence, suffering and not-self.

Basic types Samatha and vipassana meditation

There are two broad groups of meditation: samatha and vipassana. Samatha is meditation which aims to energise, calm and uplIft the mind.  It steadies, composes and concentrates attention around an object like the breath or the body feelings and encourages loving kindness for self and others.  Vipassana meditation is insight meditation which aims to come to a deeper level of understanding about the true nature of reality, for example, by contemplating the three marks of conditioned existence - impermanence, unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and not-self. There are a wide variety of different types of samatha and vipassana meditation. These all relate to the last three aspects of the Eightfold Path: right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. It uses the intelligence in a focused way to contemplate different topics as well as life situations. It develops mental clarity and understanding.

The goal of meditation

The goal of meditation is to transform the mind. Samatha 'calm abiding' calms and uplifts the mind and creates a mind of loving kindness, empathy and compassion (Brahma viharas or 'sublime abodes'). It counteracts distraction and brings about mental focus and peace of mind. However, the goal of meditation also includes vipassana -living with wisdom and understanding that frees one from samsara the whole deluded way of seeing oneself and the world. Meditation is a process of 'cleansing the mind from the three fires and moving towards a more enlightened way of living, ultimately to nirvana Itself. The four stages of higher consciousness developed in meditation are called the four jhanas.

Four jhanas

1 When unwholesome states of mind cease due to the practice of right effort

2 Rapture and inner tranquillity as the result of concentration which is free from

craving

3 Detachment. fully mindful of the individual moment and alert

4 purity of equanimity and mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain

Basic Practice - Learning to meditate

The first stage of learning to meditate is to overcome the five hindrances and to develop the Brahma viharas.

+ The five hindrances are desire for sense pleasures, ill will, sloth, restlessness and doubt. These will stop people from being able to meditate and benefit from it.

+ The Brahma viharas are the four divine abodes or four states of mind a person needs to cultivate which will also help one to overcome the five hindrances. They are loving kindness (metta), compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. This can be done by following the ideas in the Eightfold Path (right effort).

Right effort helps a Buddhist to control their mind. There are four stages which someone would practise:

1. Prevent unwholesome thoughts (greed, hatred and ignorance) from arising.

2. Get rid of unwholesome thoughts that have already arisen.

3. Cultivate wholesome thoughts (generosity, loving-kindness and wisdom) that have not yet arisen.

4. Maintain the wholesome thoughts that have already arisen.

Kalyana Mitta

The practice of meditation and indeed Buddhism as a whole requires spiritual guidance from someone more experienced. The Buddha called this relationship 'kalyana mitrata', which mean something like 'beautiful friendship'. He said friendship of this kind was very important. The Kalyana Mitta is a good friend or teacher. In the process of meditation, there occur all kinds of psychological and physical experiences which mean you need the advice and support of someone who has already been through these experiences. Buddhist tradition says that the Buddha gave each newcomer a meditation topic suited to them. The Kalyana Mitta attempts to do the same.

Posture

The correct posture is very important in meditation in order to sit still and comfortably for an hour or so. The best position is seated, with folded legs and a straight back. The hands are folded together in the lap. In many practices, the practitioner breathes from the hara (the centre of gravity in the stomach) and eyes are half closed, so that the practitioner is neither distracted by, nor ignores, the world around them.

Types of meditation

As Buddhism developed, different schools placed emphasis on different sets of ideas and these became the focus of meditation practices. Therefore, there is a large number of different types of meditation.

Breathing meditation and mindfulness

Mindfulness or awareness can be cultivated all the time, as we go about our day. The Buddha taught his disciples to be aware whether sitting, standing, walking or lying down. The aim is to bring attention to our experience in each moment. Our normal state is quite distracted - replaying past events, fantasising about escape from our conditions, indulging in hatred and resentment, or just wanting to slump on the sofa or avoid our feelings with intoxicants. Mindfulness is not about getting rid of thoughts or feelings, but about noticing them without judgement and slowly creating more positive habits and more awareness of self, other and the world.

Anapanasati meditation is the mindfulness of breathing and is the most popular specific practice for developing mindfulness found in the Pali Canon. The Anapanasati Sutta teaches how to use the breath to calm and energise the body and mind. It then directs attention to the contemplation of four areas: the body sensations, feelings both pleasant and unpleasant, the mind and mental objects, and the Dharma teachings. Ajahn Sujato of the Thai Forest tradition suggests that the ultimate goal of Anapanasati is to understand these four foundations of mindfulness, which are found in the Satipatthana Sutta.

Metta bhavana

The brahma viharas are meditations on love, compassion, joy and equanimity. In Buddhism, meditation plays a crucial role on the path to enlightenment by eliminating the Three Poisons. Loving kindness meditation is called metta bhavana, from the Pali word metta which means 'love' (in a non-romantic sense) or universal kindness. The Pali Canon mentions different versions of this practice. The Buddha taught that we direct well-wishing or loving kindness firstly towards ourselves, then towards people that we love, then expand to include people that we are neutral about, and even to try to understand and wish well for those who we dislike. Finally, it extends to all beings everywhere including animals. The aim is to transform feelings of hatred and indifference into the energy of loving kindness and concern for all beings, who just like us want to avoid pain and live meaningful, happy lives. It does not mean we approve of everyone's way of going about this! Metta is one of the four Brahma viharas or sublime abodes: loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity.

Taking it further...

In Buddhism there are said to be six different realms of existence that are all characterised by suffering. They are the human realm, the animal realm, the hells, the world of hungry ghosts, the world of the jealous gods and the heavens of the gods. The gods are seen as advanced beings with considerable mental power, but when their good kamma is exhausted they die and are reborn in one of the other realms. All beings are born and reborn in one or other of these realms again and again, according to their kamma, until they reach nibbana.

Questions.

1. What is meditation?

2. What is the basic aim of meditation?

3. What are the two main types?

4.  What are the four Jhannas

5. Explain in your own words what mindfulness meditation is.

6. Explain in your own words what metta bhavana is.

7. Explain the different types of meditation in your own words.

8. Why are all of these different forms of vipassana meditation?

9. Why are there so many different forms of meditation?

Meditation in Theravada.

It is better to conquer yourself than to 'win a thousand battles.

Dhammapada 103

The purpose of meditation in Theravada Buddhism

Meditation is the main method used in Buddhism to transform people's minds from their present state of confusion, distraction and emotional entanglement to a state of peace and clarity. The Buddha himself discovered the special value of meditation -he gave up all his other religious practices in the forest in favour of meditating under the bodhi tree, and it was through meditation that he finally gained enlightenment. The imp0rlance of meditation in Buddhism is therefore based on the Buddha's personal experience of its benefits.

How should we meditate? And what happens when we do? These days meditation is taught widely in the West by many different groups, some religious and others not, but the word 'meditation' is not always taken to mean the same thing. For some, meditation is about sitting in a particular posture; for others, it is about changing one's mood through guided practices of the imagination -feeling good as you imagine lying on a tropical beach with the sun shining down on you, for example. Some people meditate by closing their eyes and cutting themselves off from their environment. Many people think of meditation as a way of escaping from life, a way of de-stressing, or a way of entering some mysterious state of trance or learning how to levitate. This is not what Buddhists mean by meditation, so we need to define its precise meaning in Buddhism.

The purpose of meditation in Buddhism is to purify the mind, put a complete end to suffering and its causes and lead people to enlightenment. Meditation has a spiritual purpose, not a worldly purpose. Even though it is true that  meditation can help people relax and feel less stressed, these are considered secondary benefits and are not the main point. The Sanskrit and Pali term for meditation is bhavana, which means 'cultivation' or 'development', that is, mental cultivation or development, a way oftraining the mind. Meditation aims at freeing the mind from greed and craving, anger, ill-will, laziness, anxiery, doubts and hesitation, and cultivating positive qualities such as concentration, awareness, intelligence, willpower, diligence, confidence, joy and tranquillity.

Ultimately, meditation aims to cut through thoughts and emotions to access the very nature of our minds, through which we gain the highest wisdom, compassion and peace.

Examining the nature of the mind, you can observe that in its natural state it has no preoccupations. It's like a flag on the end of a pole or like a leaf on a tree. By itself, it remains still; if it flutters, that is because of the wind, an external force in its natural state, the mind is the same, without attraction or aversion, without ascribing characteristics to things or finding fault with people. It is independent, existing in a state of purity that is clear, radiant and stainless. In its natural state the mind is peaceful, without happiness or suffering. This is the true stale of the mind.  Ajahn Chah, Being Dhamla

Buddhist meditation is not a way of escaping from life or avoiding responsi­bilities; rather, it aims to give buddhists the strength and confidence to face responsibilities and to live life well. The paradox is that, even though its main purpose is a long-term one, meditation brings tangible benefits in the short term, too.

It is important to note that meditation was practised in India before the Buddha and that he learned it from shramana teachers in the forest Nevertheless, certain meditation methods were developed by the Buddha and are unique to Buddhism. There are two main types of meditation in Buddhism: samatha and Ilipassana. Samatha probably existed before the Buddha and is still practised by Hindus today, whereas Vipassana was developed by the Buddha himself and is a method practised specifically by Buddhists.

Whatever form of meditation one does, it is usually practised in formal sessions, that is, timed sessions that have a clear beginning and end. The first thing to do is to create a pleasant environment: make sure the room is clean, tidy and well aired; create an area of the room where you are comfortable and place something inspiring such as a flower, a candle or a favourite picture as an object of focus; make sure you will not be disturbed. You can sit either cross­legged on a cushion on the floor, in full lotus posture if possible, or otherwise on a chair. The most important point about the physical posture is to keep your back straight. Make sure you are comfortable, and breathe normally.

Most Buddhists in the West try to meditate at least once a day. It is not usual for lay Buddhists to go to temples or monasteries to meditate; instead, they practise at home where they create a special corner for the purpose. Beginners are generally advised to meditate for only short periods at a time, say 5 or 10 minutes, because regularity is considered more important than lengthyJ sessions. Traditionally in Asia only monks and nuns meditate regularly, but as Budhism has spread to Western countries this pattern has changed, because most Buddhists here are lay people. However, lay people in Asia do engage in chanting, and this has a definite meditative quality, arousing joy, calm, concen­tration and mindfulness, for example.

Questions

1 Explain the aims and methods of meditation in Theravada .

2 Discuss the importance of meditation for the achievement of nibbana.

Samatha meditation

Samatha meditation develops mental concentration and focus and brings about peace of mind. The word means 'calm abiding' and so samatha is sometimes called 'tranquillity meditation'; it allows all our busy thoughts to settle of their own accord until we are able to rest peacefully and at ease with ourselves.

The first step in samatha meditation is the cultivation of 'mindfulness', by which is meant awareness of ourselves and our state of mind. There are four main types of mindfulness to practice: mindfulness of body, of feelings and sensations, of mind and of mental states. We simply focus on one of these for a short while and become aware of it and of how it feels. Focusing the mind like this calms both the mind and the body and is a useful preliminary to other samatha practices.

One of the first methods taught to beginners is often breathing meditation, which can be part of the mindfulness of body. The idea is to rest the mind solely on the breath and not let it get carried away by distracting thoughts and emotions. We can either just notice the breath going in and out; or count the breaths from one to ten, on the out breath, several times over; or focus on the sensation of the air moving in and out of the nostrils. As soon as we notice that we are daydreaming, that our mind has wandered off and we are thinking about something else entirely, we simply bring our focus back to the breathing and begin again.

We can replace the breath with other objects of focus: a candle flame, a flower, a picture, or a statue of the Buddha, for example. The object simply acts as a support for our concentration. Gradually our thoughts slow down, we become less distracted and more centred. Imagine leaving a glass of muddy water on a table; if you don't stir the water, the mud will gradually settle to the bottom quite naturally and the water will become clear. Samatha is like this: the thoughts and emotions slowly settle and the mind naturally becomes clear and undisturbed.

Samatha meditation can be pursued to reach much higher states of conscious­ness; this occurs in four stages or jhanas (Sanskrit dhyanas). The first jhana brings detachment, clarity, concentration. In the second jhana one rests in stillness, rapture and joy. The third jhana brings a more rarefied joy. The fourth jhana is a state of clear, calm consciousness, totally peaceful and undisturbed.

Samatha can lead on to various mystical states, such as the 'Sphere of Nothingness' and the 'Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception'. However, the Buddha was not satisfied with these states because he found that they do not lead to liberation from samsara. This is why samatha is always taught together with vipassana.

The meditations on love

Just as a mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own life, even so, let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings. The Buddha, Metta SutUi

You might think that merely focusing on an object is a dry and abstract type of meditation, but there are many other methods, and one of the most popular is the brahma viharas or 'divine abidings'o There are four types: meditation on loving kindness, on compassion, on joy and on equanimity. The point of these practices is to help develop the capacity to love others. We do want to love other people and be kind to them, but all too often our love is blocked in some way and we don't know how to love fully. Maybe we are afraid of getting hurt; maybe we have been traumatised by a past experience of failure or abuse. The medi­tations on love aim to help us to re-connect with the love deep inside us and to have confidence in ourselves, so that we are then better able to love others. These practices aim to enable us to pass from virtuous aspirations to the reality of action, and to extend our love genuinely, equally and impartially to all beings, without prejudice or boundaries of any kind.

Loving kindness

Loving kindness or metta is the genuine wish that everyone should be happy. The meditation begins with remembering the feeling of having been loved. This love does not necessarily have to have come from your parents or partner; you might have felt most love from your grandparents or even a pet, for example. Whatever your experience of the love and kindness of others, however small, you remember that and recognise that you are lovable and worthy of love. Once this is well established, you extend that loving feeling progressively, in ever increasing circles, first to those who are dear to you, then to people you feel neutral or indifferent towards, and then to those you have problems with. Finally, your love embraces all beings in the universe. With each phase of the practice you repeat the following phrase to yourself: ‘May I/you be happy, may I/you be well’.

Compassion

Compassion or karuna is the genuine wish to free all beings from suffering. The meditation focuses on individuals or groups with specific types of suffering, and generates the resolution that you will do everything in your power to help them.

Joy

Joy or mudita is sincere rejoicing at the happiness of others. It counteracts jealousy. The meditation involves thinking of the happiness of particular individuals and generating sympathetic joy, beginning with situations that come easily and culminating in those you find difficult.

Equanimity

Equanimity or upekkha means the loving of all beings equally. This counteracts prejudice and discrimination, likes and dislikes. We extend our love to family and friends, and then systematically extend our love in exactly the same way to others we usually have less sympathy for. Equanimity also includes developing even-mindedness throughout the ups and downs of life.

There is no virtue in being dragged down or depressed by the misfortunes of others or ourselves. Each one of these meditations develops positive qualities in us that act as an antidote to particular negative emotions.

·        Loving kindness is the antidote to aggression.

·        Compassion is the antidote to cruelty.

·        Joy is the antidote to envy and jealousy.

·        Equanimity is the antidote to prejudice and resentment.

The meditations on love or ‘divine abidings’ are said to develop the mental qualities of the higher gods, the brahmas, and are also known as immeasurable because they give us a ‘big heart’. They are considered important for Buddhist practice because Buddhism in general lays so much emphasis on having a kind, loving and compassionate attitude. As the Buddha says in Dhammapada 254: ‘The way is not in the sky; the way is in the heart’.

Each one of these meditations develops positive qualities in us which act as an antidote to particular negative emotions. Loving kindness is the antidote to aggression. Compassion is the antidote to cruelty. Joy is the antidote to envy and jealousy. Equanimity is the antidote to prejudice and resentment.

The meditations on love or 'divine abidings' are said to develop the mental qualities of the higher gods, the brahmas, and are also known as immeasurable as they give us a 'big heart'. They are considered important for Buddhist practice because Buddhism in general lays so much emphasis on having a kind, loving and compassionate attitude. As the Buddha says in Dhammapada 254: 'The way is not in the sky; the way is in the heart'.

Other subjects of meditation

The fifth century CE Theravadin scholar Buddhaghosa recommends many other subjects for contemplation and especially Ten Recollections: the qualities ofthe Buddha, the qualities of the Dharma, the qualities of the Sangha, virtue, generosity, faith, death, the human body, breathing and peace.

Buddhaghosa recommends that certain topics are particularly suitable for different types of people. For example, meditation on death or on the human body (focusing on what the body is composed of -organs, waste matter and so on) may be appropriate for extrovert people who are attached to material

174 things and worldly pleasures, but would be quite unsuitable for anyone who was sad and depressed. Cheerful people with strong faith should meditate on the many qualities of the Buddha, the Dharma or the Sangha. Those who are aggressive and full of hatred should meditate on the four brahma viharas or aspects of love.

Questions

1 Explain the aims and methods of samatha meditation in Theravada .

2 Discuss the importance of samatha meditation for the achievement of nibbana.

3 Describe how Buddhists practise Metta bhavana meditation and explain its spiritual benefits.

4 Describe Buddhahoshas other subjects for contemplation and the specific acts of meditation he suggests and explain its spiritual benefits.

Vipassana meditation

Vipassana is often translated as 'insight meditation' as it aims to develop insight into the very nature of things, ultimately leading to wisdom and realisation of the ultimate truth of nirvana. Vipassana uses our intelligence and our powers of observation and analysis to bring us to a deeper level of understanding. Usually samatha is practised first, as the basis for vipassana; this is because one needs to be mindful and focused in order to analyse a topic for any length of time without getting distracted.

The topics that a Buddhist might choose to take as the focus for vipassana meditation are almost limitless, but in general the main topics are related to the Four Noble Truths.

It is possible to contemplate any life situations that we wish to understand more deeply and come to terms with. Vipassana cultivates a type of under­standing that is neither based on the senses nor on ordinary consciousness but on what we might call the intuitive mind. In particular, meditators train their minds to see the impermanence, suffering quality and non-inherent existence of each object of meditation.

The point of vipassana meditation is that understanding of the Dharma does not remain theoretical but becomes personal and related to experience. [n this way, Buddhists develop personal conviction about the truths ofthe Dharma and believe in them not simply because they have been taught to do so. It is also a way of developing an understanding of life that is in accord with the Dharma.

Because it is important to adapt meditation practice to our state of mind, Buddhism emphasises the importance of practising under the guidance of an experienced meditation teacher. Learning from books is unsatisfactory because we need advice and guidance when questions or difficulties arise .

Questions

1 Explain the aims and methods of Vipassana meditation in Theravada .

2 Discuss the importance of meditation for the achievement of nibbana.

4 Do you agree that Buddhists practise meditation simply to escape from the problems of life?

Meditation in Mahayana and Vajrayana

Overview

Meditation is just as important in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism as it is in Theravada. It plays a similar role on the path to enlightenment. The two main methods of shamatha and vipasyana (the Sanskrit equivalents of samatha and vipassana) are also practised in Mahayana Buddhism. So what is the difference between meditation in Theravada and meditation in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism? There are three main factors:

·        Buddhanature (Tathagatagarbha)

·        Skilful means (Upaya)

·        the master-disciple relationship (Kalyana Mitta)

The first difference is the principle of tathagatagarbha or buddha nature (see Chapter 4). According to this principle, every being has the potential for buddhahood or enlightenment within, so the spiritual path is simply a way of re-discovering it, uncovering it and bringing it to fulfilment. As a result of this perspective, meditation in Mahayana and Vajrayana has two characteristics:

Meditation is described not as a method to acquire qualities one does not already have, but rather as the way of revealing and realising the qualities one has deep within. Because buddhahood is within us all the time, it is theoretically possible to realise this at any time. Enlightenment is immanent and could be attained right now, suddenly and immediately, just as it could be attained gradually through a life-long process of religious practice.

In Mahayana and Vajrayana there are two ways of attaining enlightenment, the sudden way and the gradual way, and different meditation methods are used in each. In the light of this we can better understand the following description of meditation by the Tibetan master Sogyal Rinpoche.

The purpose of meditation is to awaken in us the sky-like nature of mind, and to introduce us to that which we really are, our unchanging pure awareness, which underlies the who le of life and death .

In the stillness and silence of meditation, we glimpse and return to that deep inner nature that we have so long ago lost sight of amid the busyness and distraction of our minds. Isn't it extraordinary that our minds cannot Slay still for longer than a few moments without grasping after distraction; they are so restless and preoccupied. According to some authorities, up to 13% of people in the United States suffer from some kind of mental disorder. What does that say about the way we live?

We are fragmented into so many different aspects. We don't know who we really are, or what aspects of ourselves we should identify with or believe in. So many contra­dictory voices, dictates, and feelings fight for control over our inner lives that we find ourselves scattered everywhere, in all directions, leaving nobody at home.

 Meditation, then, is bringing the mind home. Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying

The purpose of meditation is to awaken our buddha nature and it follows that any method that has this effect is considered a valid skilful means. Skilful means (upaya) is the second key principle of meditation in both these vehicles. This is the reason why so many different meditational methods are used in Mahayana and Vajrayana in addition to th e shamatha and vipasyana methods described in Chapter 14.

Each method is effective for a panicular state of mind, a panicular mental tendency or a panicular situation. These methods include visualisations, reciting mantras or nembutsu, and meditating on koans (riddles), for example. We will look briefly at the methods used in the Zen and Pure Land traditions in panicular.

The other characteristic of meditation in Mahayana and Vajrayana generally, though less in Pure Land, is that the teacher plays a different role in,the student's development on the path. The teacher or master has a one-to-one relationship with each student and gives advice on meditation according to individual needs. The teacher is seen as being able to uansmit his or her understanding to the student wordlessly, with the aid of various techniques that communicate the ultimate truth of things directly, without concepts, from mind to mind. It is considered that this special uansmission of spiritual understanding from master to disciple lies at the very heart of Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions and ensures that the power and authenticiry of the Buddhist teaching is continued from one generation to the next.

Questions

1 Explain the aims and methods of meditation in Mahayana.

2 Discuss the importance of meditation for the achievement of compassion, non-dualism and of Buddhanature discovery.

3 Describe how Mahayana Buddhists practise samatha meditation and explain its spiritual benefits.

4 Do you agree that Mahayana Buddhists practise meditation simply to learn how to help others with their problems of life?

Meditation in Zen Buddhism

The term Ch'an (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) means 'meditation'. It is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyana. This in itself reflects the importance given to meditation in Zen Buddhism. Zen is founded on the direct grasp of reality that is passed down from master to student and does not rely on study of the scriptures. One Chinese master described Zen teaching as follows:

“a direct transmission of awakened consciousness outside tradition and outside scripture; not founded on words; directly pointing to the human heart; seeing into one's own nature and realising buddhahood. “ Cited in H. Dumoulin, A History of Zen Buddhism

Zen Buddhist mediation

'Zazen' literally means seated meditation and is a means of insight into the nature of existence, particularly sunyata (emptiness). Zazen is considered the heart of Soto Zen practice. The aim of zazen is just sitting. Practitioners notice all judgemental thinking and let words, ideas, images and thoughts pass through their mind without pushing them away or fixating on them.

They do not try to focus on anything, even the breath. Eventually, the mind becomes clear, like a lake, and they understand the open nature of the mind. This is known as shikantaza. Practitioners remain as much as possible in the present moment, aware of and observing what passes through their minds and around them. Soto Zen founder Dogen says, 'Sitting fixedly, think of not thinking. How do you think of not thinking? Non-thinking. This is the art of zazen.'

Zen Buddhist meditation and scriptures.

Meditation is accorded more importance than the study of Buddhist scriptures in Zen. Since the ultimate truth is beyond words, it cannot be conveyed in ordinary language. Intellectual study is often considered to be a hindrance rather than a help in understanding what is non-conceptual. If the scriptures are studied at all, preference is given to the Lankavatara Sutra, the Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra, but the extent to which study is encouraged varies from teacher to teacher. In the Rinzai tradition, students read episodes from the lives of past masters and students in that tradition and use these as subjects for meditation.

These words emphasise the importance of the mind-to-mind transmission of the ultimate truth from master to disciple. The teacher uses methods that point directly to the student's heart so that he or she can realise his or her own nature there and then. This is the skilful, effective and rapid way of attaining buddhahood according to Zen. The experience that is sought in Zen is that of perfect wisdom or prajiiaparamita, the realisation of shunyata or the empty nature of all things as described in Madhyamaka, or again the realisation of the non­dual nature of things spoken of in Chittamatra. Fully realising this is seeing the world as it really is, and this is enlightenment.

Meditation in Rinzai Zen

The Rinzai tradition emphasises the sudden approach to enlightenment. The sudden, instantaneous insight into enlightenment is called wu in Chinese and salOli in Japanese. Salmi has been likened to the shattering of a block of ice and as a classic mystical experience of great unity, great peace, a feeling of really knowing the truth, of having transcended time and space, and experiencing a higher state of consciousness that is impossible to put into words. Many of the methods used in Rinzai aim to bring about satan and produce a sense of shock or surprise in the student which awakens him or her from the sleep of ignorance. The purpose of Rinzai has been described as bringing about 'a revolution in the seat of consciousness', entailing a total shift from confusion to enlightenment. The methods used are eccentric and dramatic, such as shouting, beating and hurling insults. It is believed that gentler methods will not be powerful enough to jolt us out of the deep-seated torpor of ignorance that clouds our minds, and that defilements and negative habits are so strong in this day and age that only dramatic methods will work. These methods are seen as examples of skilful means applied by the Zen master to an individual student.

The other method used in Rinzai is meditation on kung-an (Chinese) or kames (Japanese), which are riddles, and on mondos, which take the form of questions and answers. Here are some examples of koans.

What is the sound of one hand clapping?

If you meet the Buddha on the road, kill him.

Why did Bodhidharma come from the West?

Examples of mondos include:

What is the Buddha? Three pounds of flax. Is there Buddha nature in a dog? Emptiness.

One can attempt some form of explanation for koans and mondos, but the main point is that they cannot be understood with the rational mind. As students struggle to understand them their minds get exhausted, and in that exhaustion the intellect gives up and an intuitive insight dawns. We could say that all these methods in Rinzai have the effect of purging the mind sc that the student breaks through from the ordinary mind to the wisdom mind (prajfza) and the buddha nature.

Meditation in Soto Zen

Soto Zen emphasises the gradual approach to enlightenment and brings about a progressive understanding of the truth, primarily through intensive daily  practise of meditation.

Sitting meditation is called zazen. The sitting posture is important, with legs crossed in lotus position, the back straight and the hands resting one upon the other in the lap. Zazen is practised with the eyes open because the material world of the senses is not rejected. Soto monks will often sit in a simple meditation hall in rows with their backs to each other, staring at the blank wall. They practise concentration on their breathing and observation of thoughts, similar to the methods of shamatha and vipasyana.

The aim is simply to sit mindfully. Meditation is not seen as a method of reaching a goal, but as the goal itself. Meditation is the expression of buddha nature. There is a cartoon that illustrates this: an older monk and a younger monk are meditating together and the younger one says, 'Well, I've been doing this for 5 years now. What's next?' The older monk replies, 'What do you mean

"What's next"? This is it!'

Soto students practise meditation in long sessions, and, to prevent anyone from falling asleep, the master may patrol the meditation hall and strike anyone who is drowsy on the shoulder with a stick. Sitting meditation alternates with walking meditation (kin hin), when students will walk slowly in a circle round the room or courtyard, maintaining mindfulness of every bodily movement and sensation as well as every thought in the mind.

Meditation and the martial arts - The famous Shao-lin temple, China

Bodhidharma founded Shao-lin monastery in southern China, and it has since become famous as the home of kung fu. It is said that, while he was in a 9-year retreat, Bodhidharma felt the need to practise some form of physical exercise and developed martial arts as a way of expressing meditation in action. Originally, martial arts were practised only by those who had eliminated selfish desires and aggression through meditation practice, and served as a non-violent form of defence without weapons and completely free from anger, jealousy, greed or any other negative motivation.

The integration of martial arts into Zen practice proved attractive to Japanese warriors following the Rinzai school between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. Unfortunately, the practice became decadent, to the extent that groups of monks were hired as mercenary armies by rival warlords and the Buddhist values on which martial arts were originally based were forgotten.

The expression of meditation in everyday life

The purpose of meditation is to develop a state of mind beyond thought, the state of 'no thought' where there is no separation between subject and object. Once this state has been attained, it extends beyond meditation sessions and continues throughout the day and night. This pure concentration means that one is completely present and mindful in whatever one is doing, hence the Zen saying: 'When I eat, I eat; when I sleep, I sleep: Zen Buddhists in Japan, too, developed a number of formal ways of expressing the peaceful and harmonious qualities of meditation in life. These formal expressions include calligraphy, painting and drawing, archery, the tea ceremony, gardening and flower arranging (ikebana).

One of the pioneers of Japanese Zen was Eisai (1141-1215), who popularised the drinking of tea, arguing that it would be better for warriors than alcohol. Zen monks found it helpfully refreshing. 'Whenever one is in poor spirits, one should drink tea: said Eisai. During the civil unrest in Japan in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Soto Zen monasteries developed the tea ceremony, a ritual lasting several hours and performed in complete silence, involving the preparation of a large pot of tea by the Zen priest. The atmosphere of the ceremony is one of total peace and calm; every movement and gesture is graceful mindful and harmonious; and all those who look on remain in meditation throughout.

Both gardening and flower arranging are ways of taking natural elements such as landscape, trees, plants, flowers, stones and water, and combining them in such a way that a sense of balance and harmony is created. The spirit of these activities was influenced by Taoism and its closeness to nature. The result is a garden or a flower arrangement that naturally inspires meditation and is conducive to meditation practice.

Questions

1 'Many different methods but only one aim'. Is this a fair assessment of Buddhist meditation?

2 Explain the distinctive features of Zen meditation.

3 To what extent is Zen meditation completely different from samatha and vipassana?

4 'The main goal of the various forms of Buddhist meditation is to learn more about yourself.' Explain and assess this view.

Meditation in Pure Land Buddhism

Basic Idea - Pure Land Buddhism

Nembutsu ('Namo Amida Butsu') or neinfo (in Chinese) means to concentrate on Amida Buddha (see page 52) and his virtues, or to recite Amida Buddha's name. No special way of reciting the name is laid down. The important thing is to chant the name single-mindedly, focusing on the gifts or attributes of Amida Buddha. Repeating the name of Amida Buddha is traditionally a form of mindfulness meditation. This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practise this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day.

Another practice found in Pure Land Buddhism is visualisation of Amida Buddha and the Pure Land. This is found in the Contemplation Sutra, in which the Buddha describes, to Queen Vaidehi the practices of 13 progressive visualisation methods. The first of these steps is contemplation of a setting sun, Each progressive step adds complexity to the visualisation of the Pure Land, with the final contemplation being an expansive visualisation which includes Amida Buddha and Bodhisattvas,

Devotion to Buddha Amitabha

Pure Land Buddhism is based on devotion to Buddha Amitabha (Sanskrit) or Amida Buddha (Japanese) -see Chapter 16. The Pure Land tradition emphasises devotional and meditational practices over scriptural study, thus, making it accessible to ordinary people leading busy lives. In both China and Japan Pure Land became the religion of the masses. Pure Land began in China in the fourth to fifth centuries CEo By the seventh century CE five main practices were taught: reciting the name of Amida Buddha reciting the Mahayana sutras meditating on the wonders of the Pure Land, the heaven of Sukhavati paying respect to statues of Buddha Amitabha singing Buddha Amitabha's praises.

These five practices were not continued for very long, however, and the path in Pure Land Buddhism grad­ually became limited to nien fa or reciting the name of Amida Buddha. When Pure Land was introduced into Japan in the ninth century, the recitation of Amida's name and singing his praises were practised by the Tendai sect along­side their own forms of practice. But when Pure Land was established as a separate school in Japan by Honen (1133-1212), who founded Pure Land, and Shinran (1173-1262), who founded True Pure Land (also known as Shin Buddhism), the recitation of the name of Amida Buddha became virtually the sole practice. Figure 15.2 Amitabha

Pure Land Buddhism emphasises devotion, and reciting the name of Amida Buddha is the main vehicle for expressing that devotion. It is called the nembutsu and in Japanese is Namu Amida Butsu, meaning 'I bow to Amida Buddha'. The nembutsu is recited over and over again throughout the day, and can be recited while one is carrying out one's daily activities. It is a way of keeping the presence ofAmida Buddha in mind at all times and continually asking for his protection and help.

Some scholars claim that the nembutsu is a meditation method and not only a devotional practice. At the outset, followers acknowledge the dark­ness of their ignorance and with the nembutsu call out to Amida Buddha to transform them with his immeasurable light. Taitetsu Dnno writes that constant recitation of the nembutsu asks us to become authentically real as human beings by awakening us to the boundless compassion that sustains us, which is embodied by Amida Buddha. Philosophically speaking, Dnno says that the nembutsu is 'the self-articulation of fundamental reality', and by reciting it we transcend our ordinary ways of thinking and come to under­stand reality as it is.

At the core of nembutsu experience is a noetic element that enables us to see things as they are, so that we are no longer fooled or agitated by delusions. Taitetsu Unno, River of Fire, River of Water

Through this practice one can come to embody the dharmakaya, the ultimate reality that is beyond words, and one's whole being becomes vibrant with the boundless compassion of Amida Buddha. It is an experiential process that requires great self-discipline and mental focus, just as meditation does in other Buddhist traditions.

There are two differences between nembutsu practice and meditation in other traditions. First, the benefits of nembutsu recitation are not seen to depend only on the follower's own efforts but more especially on the blessings of Amida Buddha, which infuse the bodies and minds of devotees. In other words, this practice combines meditation and devotion together, and is not only an own­ powered practice but an other-powered practice. Second, the nembutsu does not have to be recited only in formal sessions, sitting in a particular posture, but can be called out at any time and during periods of daily activity. This makes nernbutsu practice flexible and easily adapted to busy working lives.

The Pure Land school of Honen allows devotion to buddhas and bodhisattvas other than Amida Buddha, but Shin Buddhism discourages this. Shin Buddhism considers that the merit gained from virtuous activity is not powerful enough in this degenerate age to be of any real help on the path to enlightenment, so devotion is the only practice that is effective. Pure Land Buddhism teaches that rebirth in sukhavati speeds up one's path to enlight­enment and that after a certain time one is reborn again to continue this path. However, Shin Buddhism teaches that rebirth in sukhavati is the final goal, the equivalent to nirvana or buddhahood, rather than a step on the way there. This may sound far removed from the original teaching given by the Buddha in ancient India, but it is seen as a form of skilful means (upaya) appropriate for an age in which confusion and negativity are rampant and people no longer have the time to spend many years in scriptural study or formal meditation.

The importance of devotion in Pure Land Buddhism indicates that this practice is closer to Vajrayana than to Mahayana. Indeed, nernbutsu recitation plays the same role as the recitation of mantras in Vajrayana.

Questions

1 Pureland Buddhists deny that they meditate.  How far can this be defended?

2 Explain the distinctive features of Pure Land practice.

3 To what extent Pure Land practice completely different from samatha and vipassana?

4 'Who was right Shinran or Honen- The main goal of the Pureland forms of Buddhist meditation to attin the pure land by faith in Amitabha is really only self-effort in disguise .' Explain and assess this view.

5 Explain why devotion in Pure Land is completely different from devotion in any other tradition.

TAKE IT FURTHER - Meditation in Tibetan Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism incorporates both Mahayana and Vajrayana forms of Buddhism. Devotion plays an important role on the path as it does in Pure Land, but it is directed not only to the buddhas and bodhisattvas but also to the lama or spiritual master who guides the student and who transmits the highest wisdom directly to him or her.

Vajrayana Buddhism

In Vajrayana Buddhism, visualisations are used to develop the mind and attributes, of a chosen Bodhisattva, This is often called deity yoga, One of the visualisations performed is:

+ seeing one’s body as the body of the deity/bodhisattva

+ seem one’s environment as the pure land or mandala of the deity / Bodhisattva

+ perceiving one's enjoyments as bliss of the deity/Bodhisattva free from attachment '

+ preferring one's actions only for the benefit of others (bodhicitta motivation, altruism).

All schools of Tibetan Buddhism teach that we have buddha nature (tatha­gatagarbha) and that meditation and other practices are all ways of uncovering this buddha nature and allowing it to reach its full potential. Generally speaking, Tibetan Buddhism teaches the gradual approach to meditation and to enlightenment, through shamatha and vipasyana, but the Dzogchen tradition taught by the Nyingma school -the oldest Buddhist school of Tibet -also teaches the direct approach. The direct approach requires devotion to a lama, which enables the lama to transmit his wisdom mind directly to the student, either silently through gestures or in words. This is called 'the transmission of the nature of mind' and it can happen very subtly in apparently quite normal situations. Devotion is important because, unless the mind of the student is completely open, he or she will not be able to recognise and realise what is being transmitted. The highest meditation is simply resting in, and abiding by, this recognition of the nature of mind. The twentieth-century master Dudjom Rinpoche describes it like this:

No words can describe it No example can point to it Samsara does not make it worse Nirvana does not make it better It has never been born 1t has never ceased It has never been liberated It has never been deluded It has never existed It has never been nonexistent It has no limits at all It does not fall into any kind of category.

A number of meditational methods are characteristic of Tibetan Buddhism, in particular the use of mantras and visualisations.

Mantras are sacred words of power, almost always in Sanskrit, the recitation of which has a deeply transformative effect on the practitioner. Each buddha and bodhisattva has his or her own mantra, so the mantra is like a name that invokes the being one is praying to and causes the mind of the practitioner to 'tune in' to his or her presence, qualities and power. Buddhas and bodhisattvas are not seen simply as external beings, but as reflections of the qualities of one's own mind. Mantra recitation is a method of awakening the corresponding qualities in one's own mind so that ultimately one's mind and that of the Buddhas become one and the same. This is the meaning of yoga in Vajrayana Buddhism: the merging, or union of one's mind with the enlightened mind of the buddhas or the lama. Guru yoga lies at the heart of Tibetan Buddhism, and underlines the importance given to devotion as a method for attaining enlightenment.

The musical quality of chanting mantras is said to have a significant healing effect and calms the emotions in a similar way to the effects of certain musical chords. Mantra practice is sometimes used as a preliminary to shamatha or vipasyana practice, because it helps the mind become relaxed and peaceful quite quickly and effortlessly, making further meditation much easier.

Mantras are recited over and over again either within formal meditation sessions or informally, in everyday life. Most Tibetan lay people would recite mantras quietly to themselves all day long as they went about their work, especially the mantra of Chenresig, the bodhisattva of compassion, which is Om mane padme hum. It is traditional to print mantras onto cloths and hoist them as prayer flags, in the belief that the wind will carry the blessings of the mantra far and wide.

Mantras are usually combined with visualisation of the buddha or deity concerned. A detailed description is given of the being to be visualised, often depicted in Sambhogakaya form (see Chapter 4), and the practice entails focusing mentally on the image until one can see it effortlessly in the mind's eye. Visualisation practice is therefore a form of shamatha concentration.

To help practitioners develop their ability to visualise, there are paintings or thangkas depicting these beings in full and inspiring detail. It is always empha­sised that visualisation is not simply a way of developing the imagination or of fabricating images that have no relation to reality, nor is it a way of white­washing ordinary life by superimposing a perfect reality that is only wishful think­ing. Visualisation is understood as a method for developing the ability to perceive the Sambhogakaya dimension of reality, a way of expanding our minds to be in touch with dimensions of being that are unknown to the ordinary human mind.

Benefits of meditation

Tibetan Buddhists have been particularly active in exploring the physiological and mental effects of meditation from a scientific point of view. Lamas have volunteered for experiments in Harvard, Wisconsin and New York universities. There is now documented evidence of a wide range of physical benefits arising from meditation. Some findings provide measurable evidence for emotional benefits, too.

The journal Stroke published a study of 60 African-Americans with artherosclerosis or hardening of the arteries, who practised meditation for 6-9 months. The meditators showed a marked decrease in the thickness of their artery walls, while non-meditators showed an increase. Meditation brought about a potential 11% decrease in the risk of heart attack and an 8-15% decrease in the risk of stroke. Researchers at Harvard Medical School have monitored the brain activity of meditators. They have found meditation activates the sections of the brain in charge of the autonomic nervous system, which governs bodily functions we cannot normally control, such as digestion and blood pressure. This may explain why meditation helps to ward off stress-related conditions such as heart disease, digestive problems and infertility. The journal New Scientist reported brain-scanning experiments on experi­enced Buddhist meditators in the University of Wisconsin, USA. Both during meditation and afterwards the meditators showed persistent activity in the left prefrontal lobes, which are associated with positive emotions and good moods. Research at New York University suggests that Buddhist mindfulness practice might tame the amygdala, a subcortical area of the brain involved in rela­tively automatic emotional and behavioural responses. This would explain why meditators in the experiment did not become as Austered, shocked or surprised as ordinary people by unpredictable sounds, even those as loud as gunshots, and did not become as angry.

Paul Ekman of University of California San Francisco Medical School concluded, The most reasonable hypothesis is that there is something about conscientious Buddhist practice that results in the kind of happiness we all seek: The New Scientist wrote, 'Scientists have evidence to show that Buddhists really are happier and calmer than other people:

Questions

1 ‘Devotion in Tibetian Buddhism is directed at God’ How far is this true?

2 Explain the distinctive features of Vajrayana meditation.

3 To what extent is Vajrayana visualisation and other practices and meditation completely different from samatha and vipassana?

4 'The main goal of Vajrayana Buddhist meditation is to experience knowledge of non-dualism, so leaving behind everyday awareness and developing a  luminous mirror like true mind when the self is understood to be in a final state of Bodhicitta or unity.' Is this correct Explain and assess this view.

5 Explain how far devotion in Vajrayana meditation is similar to or different from devotion in any other traditions especially Theravada.

Acts of devotion

Revision activity

From your study of Theravada and Mahayana you should be able to explain the following in your own words:

+ How Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists show devotion to the Buddha

+ The role of the Buddha images in temples and home shrines

+ The similarities and differences between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists' views about worship

Puja

Meditation can also form part of wider religious practices such as puja, which means worship. Puja may involve making offerings, or gifts as well as meditation, and prayer, This is devotional practice and its purpose is to enable Buddhists to cultivate positive qualities like gratitude and reverence to the Buddha and confidence in the teachings. Puja is also a form of collective ritual which evokes the spirit and purpose of the Dharma in the Sangha community.

Buddhists may set aside a room or part of a room in their home for puja and meditation. In this place, there may be a statue of the Buddha which is the focal point of their worship. For example, they may make offerings to it as a sign of respect for the qualities it represents and a desire to develop them themselves, In a temple or monastery there is often a shrine room, which may house a statue or statues of the Buddha. The rooms and the Buddha images are often ornately decorated and coloured gold to show how, for Buddhists, the ideal of the Buddha is the most precious thing.

Puja is important as it is carried out both at home and in the temple. Buddhists use a variety of different methods in their devotional practice, for example:

+ chanting mantras or singing suttas from scripture

+ using malas (strings of beads, typically 108, to help them focus on chanting)

+ bowing (a sign of respect and devotion)

+ offering gifts such as flowers (a symbol of impermanence) or candles (which symbolise the light of wisdom) and incense (a symbol of loving kindness going out into the world).

In Mahayana Buddhism, there is a wide range of rituals and ceremonies, complicated meditations and ritual devotions to the Buddha known as Siddhartha Gotama and other Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as well. These include visualisations, pilgrimages and chanting mantras. Worship often takes the form of asking for the guidance or protection of a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva.

Chanting

Chanting in the In the early days of Buddhism, before the invention of typewriters or computers, the only way to share Buddhist texts and teachings was to memorise them and pass them on orally. Monks would chant the texts in order to learn and remember them. Today, Buddhists still chant from sacred texts: written records of what the Buddha taught. Examples might include chanting the three refuges, the five moral precepts, or the Bodhisattva vows.

Chanting is a devotional practice: it may increase a Buddhist's receptivity towards the Buddha and his teachings. It can also be used to help calm and concentrate the mind.

Chanting in Theravada

Buddhist Chanting of the Three Refuges

This is typically practiced by the laity to show their commitment to the fourfold sangha. This is chanted both to become a Buddhist and as a regular practice of being a Buddhist.  

Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Samma Sambuddhassa (x3)

This means ‘Homage to him, the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Enlightened One’

Buddham Saranam Gacchami (To the Buddha for refuge I go)

Dhammam Saranam Gacchami (To the Dharma or Dhamma for refuge I go)

Sangham Saranam Gacchami (To the Sangha for refuge I go)

Dutiyampi Buddham Saranam Gacchami (For the second time to the Buddha for refuge I go)

Dutiyampi Dhammam Saranam Gacchami (For the second time to the Dharma or Dhamma for refuge I go)

Dutiyampi Sangham Saranam Gacchami (For the second time to the Sangha for refuge I go)

Tatiyampi Buddham Saranam Gacchami (For the third time to the Buddha for refuge I go)

Tatiyampi Dhammam Saranam Gacchami (For the third time to the Dharma or Dhamma for refuge I go)

Tatiyampi Sangham Saranam Gacchami (For the third time to the Sangha for refuge I go)

Chanting in Mahayana

Mantra recitation

A mantra is a sequence of sacred syllables that is usually chanted over and over, sometimes spoken, or experienced silently in the mind. Some Buddhists believe that mantras have transformative powers. They can be used in meditation to focus the mind. Mantras often call on the spiritual qualities of a Buddha or Bodhisattva. The most common mantra, used by Tibetan Buddhists, is om mani padme hum. This represents the sound of compassion, and is associated with the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara. By chanting this mantra, Buddhists may hope to invoke the presence of Avalokiteshvara. They may feel that the mantra helps them to become more receptive to compassion, helping them to better express this quality in their lives. Buddhists may recite a mantra hundreds or even thousands of times, often using a mala (a string of prayer beads) in order to count the number of recitations. A mala usually has 108 beads.

Mantra Recitation

One of the main practices of Tibetan Buddhism is mantra recitation. This involves repeating a mantra over and over again as a form of meditation. A Buddhist might use a set of mala beads to help them keep count of the number of mantras repeated or as a way of remaining focused on just the mantra. The most well know mantra is ‘om mani padme hum’. It might be used in meditation or chanted throughout the day. Sometimes it is put on prayer wheels and spinning the prayer wheel says the chant for you.

Conze translates mantra as ‘Spell’.  This gave Western observers the impression that Mahayana Buddhism was all about magic. Conze was right to use the word spell but in today’s Harry Potter age it would be entirely inappropriate to use this word since most people no longer remember what a spell refers to in traditional witchcraft. Therefore, ‘mind protection’ would be more appropriate since ‘mantra’ it is derived from the word for ‘mind’ Every Mantra is connected to, and invokes a particular deity, which is why some western observers thought of them as magic spells.

Eg. Om Mani Padme Hum is the mantra of Avalokiteshvara.  This might translate as “Hail to the Jewel in the Lotus”

But the Nembutsu of Amitabha and even the Daimoku of Nichiren Buddhism can be regarded as mantras

Pureland Chanting

The Pure Land sect emphasises the important role played in liberation by Ambitabha Buddha who is the Buddha of immeasurable light or ‘the great saviour deity worshipped principally by members of the Pure Land sect in Japan’.

 • Pure Land Buddhists chant the phrase ‘Namo Amida Butsu’ which means ‘I entrust my life to the awakened one who has infinite light and infinite light’.

 • It is chanted single mindedly while sincerely wishing to be reborn in the Pure Land and having complete concentration on Amida Buddha and his virtues.

 • This element of total concentration is a fundamental across all forms of Buddhism especially Zen.

Giving

Giving as a devotional practice is done for a variety of reasons by a Buddhist practitioner-  e.g. to gain a blessing from a Buddha or enlightened being, to develop ones own compassion and generosity,  to gain a blessing from Monks and nuns who are believed to be able to convey spiritual power by giving a blessing (Sanskrit: adhiṣṭhāna, Pali: adhiṭṭhāna) through chanting, a blessed object or some other means.

The Practice of Giving and the Three Refuges

All Buddhists are committed to the three refuges- The Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. The Dharma or teaching was that supporting the Sangha by making offerings would help make merit / Punya.  Giving is linked in Buddhist teaching to the earliest practices of fourfold sangha.  In what Thanissaro Bhikkhu calls the emergent ‘economy of gifts’ where ordained monks were supported by the patronage of laity and the laity in turn could make merit punya by giving to monks. 

“Monks, householders are very helpful to you, as they provide you with the requisites of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicine. And you, monks, are very helpful to householders, as you teach them the Dhamma admirable in the beginning, admirable in the middle, and admirable in the end, as you expound the holy life both in its particulars and in its essence, entirely complete, surpassingly pure. In this way the holy life is lived in mutual dependence, for the purpose of crossing over the flood, for making a right end to suffering and stress”. — Itivuttaka 107 / Khuddaka Nikāya | The Short Collection / Sutta Pitaka - the Buddha

The Practice of Giving and Puja as inclusive of offerings

Puja is widely practiced across Buddhist traditions both Theravada and Mahayana. 

The word puja means ‘worship’ or ‘adoration’. It comes from the Hindu culture of the Buddha's childhood. Although the same word is used in Buddhism, it does not mean worship in the sense of honouring a god or gods. Instead, it is a sign of commitment to the Buddhist path, to the Dhamma, to a Buddha or to a Bodhisattva. Buddhist puja can be performed at a home shrine, in a temple or monastery, at a stupa or at a site of pilgrimage. Images of the Buddha or a Bodhisattva may be present during puja. In addition, Buddhists may use images of lotus flowers (which symbolise enlightenment) and the Buddhist Wheel (which is the main symbol of Buddhism) to represent the Dhamma.

• Theravada puja traditions focus on ‘making merit’. This means earning positive karma by making offerings to monks or a monastery, chanting mantras and reciting Buddhist texts.

• Mahayana puja traditions include confessing bad actions, wishing others well and celebrating the good in the world.

For many Buddhists, puja devotional rituals include prostrating (kneeling and bowing with forehead, hands, knees and feet touching the floor) themselves towards a Buddha image to show commitment and to request blessings. They may also make offerings, such as flowers, food, water and other gifts. When one flower is offered, this symbolises unity. When three flowers are offered, this symbolises the Three Jewels (also known as the Triratna). Gifts such as water and food represent the respect paid to the Buddha, as if he were an honoured guest.

Giving as Practice in Theravada

Laity in Theravada focus on Giving as an act of Punya or merit making and also in developing one of the three Wholesome roots Dana (Generosity), Meta (Love), Prajna (Wisdom) and by giving as a way of resisting the Three poisons Greed, Hatred and Ignorance  thus individual development!

As from a heap of flowers many a garland is made, even so many good deeds should be done by one born a mortal.— Dhammapada 53

•      “The practice of giving is universally recognized as one of the most basic human virtues, a quality that testifies to the depth of one's humanity and one's capacity for self-transcendence. In the teaching of the Buddha, too, the practice of giving claims a place of special eminence, one which singles it out as being in a sense the foundation and seed of spiritual development.” Bhikkhu Bodhi The Practice of Giving 1995

•  ‘According to the Buddhist monastic code, monks and nuns are not allowed to accept money or even to engage in barter or trade with lay people. They live entirely in an economy of gifts. Lay supporters provide gifts of material requisites for the monastics, while the monastics provide their supporters with the gift of the teaching. Ideally — and to a great extent in actual practice — this is an exchange that comes from the heart, something totally voluntary. For the monastics, this means that you teach, out of compassion, what should be taught, regardless of whether it will sell. For the laity, this means that you give what you have to spare and feel inclined to share. There is no price for the teachings, nor even a "suggested donation." Anyone who regards the act of teaching or the act of giving requisites as a repayment for a particular favor is ridiculed as mercenary. Instead, you give because giving is good for the heart and because the survival of the Dhamma as a living principle depends on daily acts of generosity. The primary symbol of this economy is the alms bowl. If you are a monastic, it represents your dependence on others, your need to accept generosity no matter what form it takes.’   Thanissaro Bhikkhu The Economy of Gifts 1997

Giving as Practice in Mahayana

The Paramita of Generosity is the first of the Six Parimitas (Virtues / Perfections) developed by the Bodhisattva and is thought of as  the foundation for the other five paramitas.

The idea in Mahayana of ‘interbeing’ or what the Dali Lama calls ‘selfish-altruism’ means that to give to others is to give to yourself!  The idea of helping others by showing compassion is central to The Bodhisattva vow.  Mahayana Buddhist aims transform the universe in an instant, because even the smallest of our actions matters, and that the key to all of it is the state of our own mind and heart. The first chapter of the Sutra, “Skillful Means,” states repeatedly that people who perform small acts of devotion, such as making an offering at memorial to the Buddha, “have fulfilled the Buddha Way.”  Mahayana Buddhists teach you can fulfill the Buddha way by using precious materials to build memorial mounds, or stupas, over the Buddha remains, or to create buddha images. You can fulfill the Buddha way by making offerings of flowers, incense, and music to such memorials or images. But not just that:

“…Even if little children at play, Use reeds, sticks, or brushes, Or even their fingernails, To draw images of Buddha, All such people, Gradually gaining merit, And developing their great compassion, Have fulfilled the Buddha way… Lotus Sutra Chapter 1

Giving in Tibetan Buddhism 

Several Tibetan writers speak of varied numbers of types of giving.  : Tenzin K in 4 Types of Giving says there is …

1. Material Support / Protection, - to provide necessities. People can’t do spiritual practices if …they are starving and have to spend a large proportion of their time on survival.

2. Confidence - This means to reinforce in others minds their own Buddha Nature and, if you break that down to something non-Buddhists can relate to by being specific about what Buddha nature means, then what we are trying to do with the second kind of giving is to remind people of their inherent knowledge and skill. This means their own capacity to know their situations and their problems and what solutions will work best.

3. Emotional Support, to provide Relative understanding – This is to understand interdependence, Action and Result – to teach others about the effects of their actions.

4. Dharma Teachings - promoting peace and joy and wisdom and compassion both internally and externally.

Study

Study is used as a devotional practice for a number of reasons

• It provides Buddhists with their guiding principles for proper faith and practice, that the Buddha taught.

• It helps them strengthen their practice and deepen their faith by regularly and systematically engaging in an activity in a way familiar to Buddhist followers historically . e.g. living a devoted life of study in a Buddhist monastery - simple 20-minute meditation session once a day on a Koan.

The Practice of Study and the Three Refuges

All Buddhists are committed to the three refuges- The Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. The Dharma or Buddhist basics of belief and teaching were discovered and taught by the Buddha and are preserved and passed on by the Sangha. The Buddha gave four important discourses or sermons – the first his Deer Park sermon ‘the turning of the wheel of dharma’ outlining the four noble truths.  

Today while different Buddhists disagree on the exact nature of the Sangha and Dharma they generally agree that it is the role of the Sangha to pass on the teaching of the Buddha or Dharma in some form.  Thus, the emphasis on study is embraced across Buddhist traditions as the role of the novice practitioners, and laity. 

Study as Practice in Theravada

In Theravada study as practice reflects Theravada views about the goal of Buddhism as achieving a state of Nibanna described in the Four Noble Truths.  It is further related to the idea of right view and right intention in the eightfold path as the practices of Prajna / Wisdom Steps in the threefold way.   While typically the practice of study is limited in Theravada to the ordained the laity may do some limited types of study as practice.  

Laity in Theravada.

•      Study of the Dharma (scriptures teachings etc) is emphasised for all Buddhists, and it would be expected that the laity listen to Buddhist preaching at the local worship hall or temple on a regular basis.  Perhaps they may listen to the reciting the of Tipitaka ‘Sutta Pitaka’ as part of some Buddhist festivals e.g. Dharma Day.

•      In Theravada it is thought possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened only Monks can do the depth of required study to achieve enlightenment in practice as part of the Threefold way.  This includes eth study of the advanced Tipitaka teachings of ‘Abhidhamma Pittaka’, and the commentarial works of e.g. Buddhagosha and others.  In fact most monks don’t ever study much of the literature. 

•  Dharma Day is celebrated in Theravada countries on the full moon day of July. It marks the beginning of the Buddha's teaching. Dharma Day is usually celebrated with readings from the Buddhist scriptures, and is an opportunity to reflect deeply on their content. If an individual practises Buddhism within a monastic tradition, Dharma Day is usually celebrated in a temple, Buddhist centre or monastery in the presence of monks or nuns.  Dharma Day is important to Buddhists today as it reminds them of the Buddha's teachings and what they can learn from his enlightenment and apply to their own lives.

Theravada Scholar - Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment.”

Study as Practice in Mahayana

The Mahāyāna Buddhist practice of study is quite varied. A common set of virtues and practices which is shared by all Mahāyāna traditions are the six perfections or transcendent virtues (pāramitā). A central practice advocated by numerous Mahāyāna sources is focused around "the acquisition of merit, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood"   Another important class of Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is textual practices that deal with listening to, memorizing, reciting, preaching, worshiping and copying Mahāyāna sūtras.

•      Mahāyāna Buddhism generally takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in early scriptures as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning karma and rebirth, anātman, “emptiness?”, dependent origination, and the Four Noble Truths. Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia have traditionally studied these teachings in the Āgamas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the Nikāyas used by the Theravāda school. The basic doctrines of Mahayana are also contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as the Abhidharmakośa and the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra.

•      In Tibetan Buddhism studying under a Lama or teacher as part of a lineage is key. They are often a senior member of a monastic community - a monk or a nun - but lay people and married people can also be lamas. They are very often reincarnations of previous lamas. Dalai is a Mongol word meaning ocean, and refers to the depth of the Dalai Lama's wisdom. 

•      In Pureland Buddhism Study as practice involves the study of the Pure Land sutras, (the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Infinite Life Sutra), Amitayurdhyana Sutra (Contemplation Sutra) and the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Amitabha Sutra). While the main practice most Pureland Buddhists do is chanting/  reciting the name of Amitabha (Chinese: niànfó, Japanese: nembutsu) Pure Land Buddhism also includes a large group of practices which are done alongside Buddha recitation. This includes the study of the Pureland scriptures and while not widely done the need to defend apologetically Pureland historically from e.g. Zen meant learning to argue for the efficacy of Pure Land practice

In Zen Buddhism śūnyatā, "emptiness", as well as buddha-nature, the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken are important ideas that must be ‘studied’. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but don't realize this as long as they are not awakened. The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to the idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances.  The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and it is studied pragmatically to help understand the practices of mediation.  Normally texts are thought of little importance. Some Zen thinkers - Bodhidharma, Hui-neng, Lin-chi, and Ta-hui even goes to far as to define itself as a non-textual tradition- the sutras are thought just "names and forms" that must be rejected in order to attain authentic practice and enlightenment. Dogen in contrast says to reject the sutras is to reject the Buddha's proclamation of Dharma. For Dōgen, the spoken Dharma is as essential as the ‘the "wordless dharma’ – Shōbōgenzō. Or "thinking without thinking." E.g “flower sermon”.  Sōtō Zen emphasizes meditation and the inseparable nature of practice and insight. Its founder Dogen is still highly revered. Soto is characterized by its flexibility and openness. No commitment to study is expected and practice can be resumed voluntarily.   Rinzai Zen emphasizes kōan study and kensho but less textual study

Questions

1. Explain in your own words what puja is.

2. How does puja link to meditation?

3. Why might Buddhists do both puja and meditation?

4. Why might Buddhists chant as practice in Theravada Buddhism?

5. Why might Buddhists chant as practice in Mahayana Buddhism?

6. Why might Buddhists make offerings as practice in Theravada Buddhism?

7. Why might Buddhists make offerings as practice in Mahayana Buddhism?

8. Why might Buddhists study as practice in Theravada Buddhism?

9. Why might Buddhists study as practice in Mahayana Buddhism?

Take it Further: Buddhist meditation in the West

Most practising Buddhists in the West try to meditate at least once a day. It is not usual for lay Buddhists to go to temples or monasteries to meditate;instead, they practise at home, where they create a special corner for the purpose. Beginners are generally advised to meditate for only short periods at a time, say five or ten minutes, because regularity is considered more important than lengthy sessions.

Traditionally in Asia only monks and nuns meditate regularly, but as Buddhism has spread to western countries this pattern has changed because most Buddhists there are lay people. However, lay people in Asia do engage in chanting, and this has a definite meditative quality, arousing joy, calm,

concentration and mindfulness, for example. Meditation is practised regularly by British

followers at Vajraloka Buddhist Centre, near Corwen, Denbighshire.

The first thing to do is to create a pleasant environment: make sure the room is clean, tidy and well aired; create an area of the room where you are comfortable, and place something inspiring such as a flower, candle or favourite picture, as an object of focus. You should make sure that you will

not be disturbed. You can sit cross-legged on a cushion on the floor or in full lotus posture if possible, but if this is too uncomfortable you can sit on a chair. The most important point about the physical posture is to keep the back straight. You should sit comfortably and breathe normally.

Meditation has in recent years become a popular practice largely because of the way it relieves the stresses and mental strains of modern life. People long for peace of mind, and discover that meditation can bring this about. In Theravada, silent meditation is practised alongside pujas or short prayer ceremonies. Followers are encouraged to take advice from an experienced meditation teacher before exploring the practice at home, to ensure they do it correctly.

Modern mindfulness meditation

In 1979, Jon Kabat-Zinn founded the Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program at the University of Massachusetts to treat the chronically ill. This program started the use of mindfulness Ideas and practices in medicine. Mindfulness is now widely applied In schools, prisons, hospitals, mental health settings and business settings.

Mindfulness is big business. It is estimated to be worth trillions of dollars worldwide due to Its expanding range of must-have products. These include downloadable apps, books t? read or colour in and online courses. This led Slavoj Zizek to describe Buddhism as the perfect supplement for a consumerist Society', a view shared by Ronald Purser in his book McMindfulness. However, others have suggested that this is because of the selective appropriation of Buddhist practices, stripped of their religious content and fitted into a secular, materialist worldview.

Taking it further...

A simple shrine usually consists of a statue or photo of the Buddha, and one or several offerings, for

example a candle, incense and flowers. In Theravada, the decoration of temples and shrines is often kept very simple.

Benefits of meditation

Meditation eliminates the Three Poisons of craving, aggression and ignorance. In particular, samatha eliminates craving and aggression, while vipassana eliminates ignorance, but in practice these two methods work together. In addition to eliminating negative emotions, meditation develops positive for example the brahma viharas develop love, compassion, joy and

Each type of meditation acts as an antidote to negative emotions or attitudes and helps to develop the positive counterpart. Sustained meditation practice carried out correctly over many years brings about the corresponding qualities and virtues: peace of mind, kindness, love and compassion, joy and impartiality, freedom from doubts and hesitation, clarity and insightful ness. You may wonder how one can tell whether one is meditating correctly or not. Buddhist masters often say that the main sign of successful practice is an increase in love and compassion.

'Magical' powers

Advanced Samatha meditation is said to develop supernatural powers such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, the knowledge of others' thoughts and the recol ­lection of former lives. However, Buddhists underplay the importance of such powers, and monks are forbidden to boast of their powers to others or even to display their powers in public. Such powers are not considered essential for gaining nirvana; on the contrary, they can become a distraction on the spiritual path because one might become quite attached to them and proud of them. They are perhaps spoken of in a symbolic way, but Buddhists do believe they are possible to achieve in reality.

A recent example ofthe type ofextraordinary power that meditation can bring was the tragic burning of the Buddhist monk Thich Quang Doc during the Vietnam War. On 11 June 1963 he drove to a busy road junction in Saigon, sat in the road and poured petrol on himself to draw the world's attention to the inhumanity of the war. Watched by a horrified crowd of passers-by and reporters, he lit a match and over the course of a few moments burned to death. As he burned he continued to sit in a meditation posture and did not move a muscle or utter a sound. H is silence and composure were haunting. This event was shown on television around the world and it became a turning point after which Vietnam protests became widespread in the USA. This was not a suicide ftom desperation but out of self-sacrifice.

Social benefits

Meditation practice has been introduced in prisons to remarkable effect. The first experiments occurred in Indian gaols, where the Burmese teacher Goenka has taught lO-day meditation retreats open to prisoners of all religions. The first 3 days focus on samatha and the last 7 days on vipassana. Meditation has helped many inmates come to terms with the crimes they have committed, ask forgive­ness oftheir victims, and has given them the strength to change and begin a new life. This has obvious social benefits. Similarly, meditation has been introduced on a voluntary basis in prisons in the USA and the UK with positive effects. It is acknowledged as a more effective method for bringing about a change of heart in criminals than a penitentiary system that lacks compassion and understanding.

Questions

1. Explain how Buddhist Mediation is being adopted in the West.

2. What are thought to be the benefits of meditation?

3. Why might Buddhists think there are social benefits to meditation?

Exam Questions

Choose one of the following to complete

Explore the goal of Buddhist meditation. 8 marks

Assess the idea the goal of Buddhist meditation to reach a state Nibanna. 12 marks

Analyse the view that the goal of meditation is to gain enlightenment 20 marks

Evaluate the extent to which meditation is the uniting feature of Buddhism? 30 marks

Lesson Videos on Meditation

you will find a full suit of resources in the google classrom you have been given if you are a Marling Student. 

There are six lessons

1. The general principles of Buddhist Meditation

2. Samatha Mediation

3. Vipassana Meditation

4. Tibetian / Pureland Visualisation and Chanting

5. Zen- Rinzai and Soto beliefs and practices

6. Buddhist Puja / Devotionalism.