Knowledge Organiser Unit 1.2 Equality

Applied Ethics: Equality

Key Words -

Ontological Equality Ontological equality refers to the philosophical concept that all human beings are fundamentally equal in their essence or being. This concept suggests that regardless of differences in social status, wealth, intelligence, race, gender, or any other distinguishing characteristic, all individuals share an equal and inherent worth or value. While ontological equality emphasizes the inherent worth of every individual, equality of outcome focuses on equal results for everyone, and equality of opportunity emphasizes providing equal chances for success.

Assumption of Equality- the belief or presumption usually made that all individuals, regardless of their differences, should be treated as equals in terms of rights, opportunities, and worth. This assumption is foundational to many democratic societies and ethical frameworks. It implies that no person or group is inherently superior or inferior to another based on factors like race, gender, social status, or other characteristics. Aspects of the assumption of equality:

Inherent Worth: Every individual is believed to have inherent worth and dignity simply by virtue of being human. This means that each person's life is valuable and should be respected.

Equal Rights: All individuals should have equal rights under the law and equal access to opportunities such as education, employment, and healthcare. Discrimination based on arbitrary factors is considered unjust.

Fair Treatment: People should be treated fairly and impartially, without favoritism or prejudice. This includes equal treatment before the law and in social interactions.

Respect for Differences: While the assumption of equality asserts that everyone should be treated as equals, it also recognizes and respects the diversity of individuals and cultures. Equality does not mean uniformity; it means equal respect and opportunity despite differences.

Social Justice: The assumption of equality often underpins movements and policies aimed at achieving social justice by addressing systemic inequalities and discrimination.

Equality of desert- Goods should be distributed to the extent that people deserve them. Those who do the most deserve the most resources

Equality of need-Equality is best achieved by satisfying people’s needs. Those who have greater needs should simply receive more resources

Equality of opportunity- Aims to provide people with access to the same life chances

Equality of outcome- Aims to provide people with the same income and wealth

Gender equality- Equality between all gender’s

Intersectionality- The idea that different forms of discrimination and prejudice are socially interlinked. As a result, individuals may not all have the same experience of inequality (e.g. a black woman with a physical disability may face different issues to a black able-bodied male)

Moral equality- Treating all people the same despite their differences

Numerical equality- Equal treatment of similar people

Post-colonialism- A field of academic study which emerged in the latter half of the twentieth century, post-colonialism explores the nature of colonial power and its cultural legacy.

Proportional equality- Different treatment of similar people to achieve equality

Racial equality- Equality between all ethnicities

Strict or simple equality- Everyone has the same amount of goods (money, resources)

Key Scholars

Martin Luther King 1929-1968

Joni Eareckson Tada 1949- Present

OTHER

David Hume

Immanuel Kant

Jeremy Bentham

John Locke

Karl Marx

Key Texts

Context

- Equality in ethics focuses on whether the differences in people should make a difference to how we treat other people
- Egalitarianism is the view that equality is the most important ethical concern. Ancient writers tended to discuss equality as a type of justice, e.g. Aristotle distinguished between numerical equality and proportional equality (see key words above)
- Different scholars had different arguments in relation to equality: John Locke (1632-1704) argues that all humans have a natural right to freedom and only be ruled by their own consent, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argues that each individual person is an “objective end” and that it’s always wrong to exploit other people, since humans have equal worth purely on the basis of being human. Bentham (1748-1832) argues that each person’s pain or pleasure is as morally important as any other’s
- Even when most societies believed in a natural human hierarchy, Christianity proposed the challenging idea that all human beings were equally loved and valued by God: “God does not show favouritism”- Romans 2:11. The Old Testament describes God creating all humans equally and in the New Testament, St. Paul claims that differences of sex, race and social class are meaningless to God, “There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus”- Galatians 3:28. These passages describe ontological equality- human beings are equal in a spiritual sense. Christians also belief that social inequalities are temporary and ultimately unimportant due to the afterlife and ‘end of the world’. Unequal conditions in life rewards them with true equality in the afterlife.
- Critics of religion point out that religious beliefs often only appear to promise equality while actually supporting inequality in society. Karl Marx argued that religion is the “opium of the people” which removes pain and puts people into a dream like state. It disguises the painful realities of life and encourages people to live in a dream-world where they will be rewarded after they die. Marx recognises that religion promotes ontological equality, however thinks this offers no solution to inequality and in fact makes it harder to fight. Religion needs to be abolished so that real equality can be achieved.
- There have been influential campaigners and institutions motivated by a religious concept of equality. St. Francis of Assisi came from a wealthy background but rejected wealth, gave away his possessions, and lived in ‘holy poverty’. He also preached the equality of humans and animals. The Catholic worker movement, founded by Dorothy Day in 1933 during the Great Depression, encourages members to live in voluntary poverty while helping the homeless.
Racial inequality has been present throughout history, such as European imperialism and colonialism, the Atlantic slave trade, apartheid and segregation. More modern movements include Martin Luther King Jr and the Civil Rights Movement and BLM.

History of equality/ social and legal changes

Gender equality

Simone de Beauvoir: sex and gender are different things. Gender is defined and created by society. The idea of a ‘woman’ is rooted in society – a society made and controlled by men. Expectations of behaviour are set by men who see themselves to represent the norm for human behaviour.

Waves of feminism:

First wave feminism (late 19th to early 20th century): the Suffragette movement – the focus was on ensuring equal voting rights for women.
Second wave feminism (1960s – 80s): Emerged alongside the civil rights movement – expanded on the legal demands made by the first wave to include wider social issues such as reproductive rights and domestic violence. Sought to liberate women from the oppressive gender roles discussed by de Beauvoir.
Third wave feminism (1990s – present): Influenced by post-modern theorists such as Judith Butler, who sought to deconstruct fixed concepts of sexuality and gender. Sought empowerment, freedom and choice for women.
Fourth wave feminism (2010s - ?): In recent years, it has been suggested by some feminist thinkers that a new wave of feminism has begun in the age of social media. Concepts such as intersectionality and social privilege are discussed.

Social and legal changes:

1918: Women over 30 get the right to vote
1920: Sex discrimination act
1928: Women get the same voting right as men
1967: Abortion is decriminalised
1970: Equal Pay Act
1994: Rape becomes a criminal offence

Racial equality

Martin Luther King came to national fame after the Montgomery Bus Boycott. He was instrumental in the civil rights movement in America.

King was known for his pacifism, but there is evidence to suggest that his actual views were much more nuanced.

King’s campaigns for non-violent resistance had a profound effect on the civil rights movement and the broader struggle for racial equality.

In 1964, the US government passed the Civil Rights Act, effectively bringing to a close the era of legally-sanctioned racial segregation.

Malcolm X rejected King’s philosophy of non-violent resistance and argued that armed struggle may be required if black Americans were ever to be truly liberated from racism.

The injustices carried out against black people in America at the time, Malcolm X thought, should be fought against ‘by any means necessary’.

Intersectionality is the idea that different forms of discrimination and prejudice (gender, race, ability etc.) are socially interlinked. As a result, depending on the exact nature of their identity, individuals may not all have the same experience of inequality (e.g. a black woman with a physical disability may face different issues to a black able-bodied male).

Social and legal changes:

1964: Civil Rights Act signed by the US president, ending legally-sanctioned segregation
1965: Voting Rights act removes measures designed to prevent black people from voting
1976: UK parliament passes the Race Relations Act, making it illegal to deny an individual access to education and employment due to their race

Disability equality

Following a terrible accident, Joni Eareckson Tada was paralysed from the neck down at the age of 17; she has since devoted her life to charity.

In her books, Tada confronts an age-old problem for religious believers: suffering. How can an all-loving, all-powerful God allow innocent people to suffer?

Tada argues that God permits suffering because it draws us closer to God. Only by facing hardship do we have a need for Christ in our lives.

She states that disabled people are ‘audio-visual aids’ for the Church which ‘sustain those of us who face lesser conflict’. In other words, they demonstrate to the rest of the congregation how the wretchedness of suffering can be overcome by faith. Hence it is vital for disabled people to be an integral part of the Church.

Medical need: Advances in medical technology led to the development of the medical model of disability, which understands disability as an illness to be treated. Ethically, the suggestion is that equality for disabled people is best achieved by directing resources to healthcare. Critics argue that the medical model looks at what is “wrong” with the person, not what the person needs.

Social need: a social model of disability which viewed society, rather than the individual, as being responsible for disability. The core idea is that what actually disables a person is society not having the facilities that individuals need. Proponents argue that a social model is required if disabled people are to have independence and dignity.

Disability and equality in the UK today: Following the 2010 Equality Act, the social model of disability is endorsed – employers must make ‘reasonable adjustments’ for disabled workers.

Social and legal changes:

1944: a ‘disabled person’ is legally defined for the first time in the Disabled Persons Employment Act
1995: Disability Discrimination Act – greater employment rights to disabled persons
2010: UN convention of the rights of people with disabilities signed by the UK govt

Secular concepts of equality

There are three concepts of equality:

Strict (or simple) equality: everyone has the same amount of goods (money, resources)
Equality of need: Summed up by Marx’s proclamation that goods should be distributed ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. The idea is that equality is best achieved by satisfying people’s needs
Equality of Desert: Goods should be distributed to the extent that people deserve them. Those who do the most (e.g. put in the most effect, produce the most, have the greatest talents), deserve the most resources. This is a form of meritocracy

Religious concepts of equality

Scriptures such as the Bible and the Qur’an stress equality as being essential to the faith.

However historically, both the UK and US have been dominated by the ethics of Christianity, yet the societies of both have been riven by inequality.

In India, the Hindu caste system remains in place.

In America, Conservative Christians continue to oppose the basic tenets of feminism. Quiverfull movement – restore very traditional gender roles.

Traditionally Christians do not believe that animals have rights but they do believe in environmentalism and protecting animals. This is because they believe God created the world carefully and gave humans dominion over it and responsibility to look after it.

There are a number of passages in the Bible that support ideas around stewardship:
- - EXAMPLE: “And God looked at everything he made and saw it was good” (Genesis 1)
  - EXAMPLE: “God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to till it and keep it” (Genesis 2)
  - EXAMPLE: “The earth is the Lords, and everything in it” (Psalm 24)
  - EXAMPLE: “The land is mine… you are my tenants” (Leviticus 25)

Christian arguments in favour of equal rights for women

Women travelled with Jesus
Figures like Mary Magdalene play a key part in the Gospels
God created everyone in His image

Christian arguments against equal rights for women

Genesis 2:18 – God creates Eve as a helper for Adam
Genesis 2:22 – God creates woman from the rib of man
Genesis 3:6 – Eve is responsible for eating the forbidden fruit

Christian arguments in favour of racial equality

Biblical verses emphasise that all races are of equal value to God
Parable of the Good Samaritan – a critique of racist attitudes. Jews and Samaritans hated one another, yet Jesus tells his Jewish audience it was the Samaritan who helped the injured man
The message of Christ is at the heart of Martin Luther King’s thinking about equality

Christian arguments against racial equality

Old Testament – slavery was commonplace
Some elements of the Church historically supported slavery, although this would have little modern support amongst Christians

Christian attitude to disability: Many of Jesus’s miracles involve him curing people who are deaf, blind or unable to walk. Christ was a great healer and emphasised love as the most important teaching.

However, modern campaigners for disability equality are not seeking pity or healing, but respect. The demand is for autonomy and equal rights, not a miraculous cure.

On the other hand, many charities have been spearheaded by members of the Church.

Race and equality

Natural

Strengths

The

Weaknesses

Natural Law is reli

Situation Ethics

Situation Ethics is

Strengths

It does promote environm

Weaknesses

Legislation

Virtue Ethics

The Golden Mean seems useful in

Aristotle argues that a virtue lies between two vices
Our use of planet could be seen as similar with you arguing it is virtuous to use the environment for what we need but not use more than we need.

Weaknesses

Virtues can be

Strengths

The Golden d.

Points of debate

Feminism is a very broad movement – no unity
Most radical activists are often the most divisive
There are many different views about equality within religion – not all religious people have the same beliefs, they should not be tarred with the same brush
Should we view religious texts as reflective of social and cultural norms of the time – can their teachings on gender inequality be ignored?
It may be offensive to view disability as part of God’s ‘divine plan’
Does the Bible support racial equality? Jesus may be viewed as a good example to follow when it comes to racial equality. However there are also many passages advocating slavery in the Old Testament