Physics Time Line 1821-1899

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1821  network of semaphore towers across France transmits messages in minutes during good weather--military & commercial usage

1821  Fresnel shows that light is transverse;  no longitudinal component.  This supports light as waves, not particles.  Later backed up by Hertz, 1890s.

1821  Start of the Comanche-Mexican Wars (Wikipedia).  Ends in 1870.  Mexico revolted from Spain but didn't have the military to protect its frontier.  Horses and cattle stolen by Comanche were readily sold in the U.S., and there apparently was no U.S. authority to prohibit the trade on human-rights grounds.

1822  Fourier proposes that any periodic waveform may be synthesized from sums of sines and cosines of the fundamental frequency and integer multiples thereof.  This is the basis for frequency analysis and modern spectrum analysis.

1800s  Mathematicians in the 1800s stopped trying to predict with absolute certainty where a prime number was, and instead started looking at the phenomenon of prime numbers as a whole. This analytic approach is what Riemann will be a master of, and where his famous hypothesis will be made.

1824   Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics," publishes Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire.  It is ignored until 1849.  His work improves the efficiency of steam engines, reducing the amount of wood or coal burned.  See 1709, deforestation.

1824   Aspdin invents Portland cement;  modern formula includes calcium carbonate (limestone), silicon dioxide (glass), alumina & ferrous oxide to lower melting point, & gypsum to regulate setting time.  Firing drives off water, principally from the limestone, making calcium oxide anhydride (quicklime).  Adding water back causes various calcium reactions which cause early setting and later gain of strength.  See 1867.  Modern Type S lime at builder supplies is CaOH, not CaO.

1826   Talbot finds different colors from salts vaporized in flames

1826  Poggendorff improves on Nobili's galvanometer by adding a small mirror, to make the mirror galvanometer;  a light beam is reflected off the mirror.  Commercial, moving-coil meters in the 1900s often incorporate a "mirrored scale," far short of Poggendorff but useful to align the eye perpendicular to the meter face.

1827  Dove recognizes “battle” between cold air from the poles & warm air from equator.  This the cold and warm fronts that separate high and low-pressure air masses.  When John & Margaret will live 18 months in Detroit in 2005, John will recognize muggy summer air as being from the Gulf of Mexico.

1827  Free Press Association defends George Houston, publisher of The Correspondent, a journal of Biblical criticism when blasphemy convictions are still possible.  See 1859, 1927.

1827  Robert Brown finds all small particles in air or liquid meander when seen in a microscope--called Brownian motion, but unexplained for 36 years and without math explanation for 78 years.  Particles of organic origin behave the same as inorganic particles, the meandering is not a lingering effect of life.       Animalcule and molecule had been terms of thinking.

1827  friction match invented by Walker.  1830  Sauria replaces antimony sulfide with white phosphorous but that causes phossy jaw in the factories.  1906  White phosphorous banned.  Modern safety matches place the red phosphorous in the striking surface on the side of the box;  match head has potassium chlorate (oxidizer) and antimony (III) sulfide or sulfur (fuel).  Modern strike-anywhere matches have phosphorus sesquisulfide in the match head and also powdered glass.  For both types, friction converts a little of the phosphorus into white phosphorous which ignites.

1828  Wöhler writes to Berzelius that he has synthesized an organic compound, urea, in the lab using inorganic chemicals.  The idea of a “vital force” in living creatures, necessary to synthesize organic compounds, becomes outmoded.  Wöhler gives the formula for urea as CH4N2O and notes that ammonium cyanate, NH4OCN, has the same atoms but in a different arrangement, and with different properties.  Berzelius goes with the latter discovery and advocates for isomerism. 

1828  Around this time, chemistry advances from inorganic toward organic.  Previously, chemists worked with gases, metals, salts, acids, and oxides.  Many reactions were reversible and established the roles of atoms and durable anions such as sulfate and carbonate.  Going forward, organic chemicals are increasingly synthesized and understood.  The reactions are usually not reversible.  Lavoisier by 1794 finds organic materials burn to carbon dioxide and water.  Others then find decomposition products of oxygen and nitrogen.  In all, organics are found to be composed only of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, a fraction of the known inorganic atoms but able to form hundreds, thousands, and millions of the complex chemicals of life.  The organic reactions are more and more seen to be those of inorganic chemistry, not from any mysterious life force.  The gulf between inorganic and organic is gradually seen to not be a gulf at all.  Source:  Giant Molecules 1966 Time Inc., Herman Mark and the editors of LIFE

1828   the hot blast is introduced to blast furnaces to make use of the heat in waste gas from the furnace.  The air blast goes at 60 m.p.h., a violent blast, and it is introduced into the bottom of the furnace where the pool of molten iron stands for some meters above;  1350 deg C and blast pressures up to 5 kg/sq cm.  The high temperature is from recycled heat in tall, brick-filled "chimneys."  Birmingham has historic Sloss Furnaces.      The public road beside the Dearborn (Detroit) River Rouge Ford plant lets the public get quite close to operating blast furnaces;  go  to the little park memorializing the six killed and 14 seriously burned in 1999 when natural gas in piping in the River Rouge power plant was inadequately vented and exploded.  Walk southward on the sidewalk and smell sulfur in gas venting out of underground passages.  John and Margaret's Yemini-owned apartment, 2005 for 18 months, is half a mile away.  At night, see blue flames of waste carbon monoxide burning at the tops of the tall stacks.

1829  a medical journal advises the old pattern of sleep, first sleep & second sleep, should be replaced by just one sleep period.  http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16964783    In the early 1990s, psychiatrist Thomas Wehr did experiments that show people sleeping 4 hours in the early night, waking for an hour or two, then sleeping another 4 hours.     In 2001, historian Roger Ekirch publishes revealing historical evidence that humans used to sleep in two distinct chunks.  His book:  At Day's Close: Night in Times Past, 2005.

1828   William A.F. Browne and Hewett Cottrell Watson:  the materialist theory of the mind.  During 1800s, intelligentsia in Europe replaces Christianity with materialism, the belief that everything originates in matter and remains matter, and therefore that nothing really matters in the meantime.  See John Stuart Mill 1863.  Rousseau's 1755 Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men set the stage.  Rousseau imagines that primitive men are free, suave, peaceful, solitary except for casual sex, carefree, without language, without love, without habitation, without morals or marriage or even parental responsibility.  (phrases quoted from 10 Books that Screwed Up the World, 2008 Wiker)  He is 100% wrong, read about Iroquois.              1 Corinthians 2:14 The natural man does not receive the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him.  Romans 6:23 The free gift of God is eternal life in Jesus.

    Skeptics in Europe, even from the Renaissance, doubt a Creator.  Some even dismiss mathematical truths, asserting that they are functions of particular languages.  Among these thinkers, there is no confidence in any truth claim;  any ethical system is baseless.  From the 1800s, many argue that morality is a personal choice.  This is advanced in the 1930s by the Vienna Circle.  See in this timeline 2017 May New Oxford Review http://www.newoxfordreview.org/article.jsp?did=0517-gregor

    Following 1798, Romantics such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge advocate the primacy of the individual over the community and foster a belief in the authenticity of individual vision over the conventions and formalities of institutions. For romantics and transcendentalists alike, all institutions — be they religious, social, political, or economic — are suspect as being false, materialistic, and deadening to an individual's pure insight.  This will influence Emerson and Thoreau.

     mid-1800s  Romantics reverse the mechanistic thinking about life since 1650, reject materialsim or mechanization, highlight empathy between humanity and Nature, and hold that a vital force enlivens living things.

1829  completion of 21-volume description of the Great Pyramid of Cheops, Description de l'Egypte ou Recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont ete faites en Egypte pendant l'expedition de l'armee fancaise, published on Napoleon's order, agglomerating work of 2000 painters, typographers, & engravers.  This & Denon's etchings shatter Europe's certitude that barbarism preceded the classical Greeks.  Denon becomes superintendent of the Louvre & escapes execution during French Revolution by good looks & charm.

1830  Sir Humphry Davy discovers that diamond is carbon since high heat (giant solar lens) in pure oxygen results in carbon dioxide

1830  Oersted finds magnetic field around a current-carrying wire.  He sees a compass deflect when current starts up in a nearby wire.

1830  https://probe.org/the-enlightenment-and-belief-in-god/  Geological understanding of the age of the earth throws doubt on reliability of Bible, causing more doubt than the Copernican revolution.  Charles Lyell The Principles of Geology (1830):  age of Earth is hundreds of millions of years.

1831  Quetelet uses statistics to analyze crime rates in France, the first use of statistics in social science.  Physicists look down on statistics, prefer determinism.

1831  John Sinclair, an ancestor of John Engelbrecht's wife, born in Barglass, Scotland in 1814, moves to Ridge Town, Ontario, near Windsor and Detroit.  In Scotland, he was not Presbyterian.  His farm land is leased, and the lease is up for a 99-year renewal.  Presbyterian land owner refuses to lease to him.  He takes his war pension (he had been partially blinded by a sandstorm during war in Africa) and pension to Ontario, buys land, and settles.

1831  Faraday generates current by moving a coil past a magnet, the reverse of what Oersted did the year before.  Faraday thinks in terms of magnetic lines of flux, which he calls lines of force, which are visualized by sprinkling iron filings on paper held above a magnet.  The lines are better visualized in 3-D using a 3-D compass.  But the idea of the magnetic field or electric field is in the future.  See 1846.

1831  Death of Hegel, a powerful influence.  Split between young Hegelians (political and religious left) and right Hegelians.  The latter consider Prussia to have reached a pinnacle of development, though Britain and France have constitutional monarchies.  Young Hegelians champion Reason and Freedom, they hold that religion is irrational.  .  

1832  Faraday finds up to 19mV voltage difference between the banks of the Thames River, when it is salty from tidal inflow.  https://www.reddit.com/r/AskPhysics/comments/2kl7wi/faradays_copper_plates/   Hydrodynamics will be the 20th-century study that explains Faraday's finding.  See 1932 Birkeland.

1833  longest continuously operating coeducational school in the United States is Oberlin College in Oberlin, Ohio, which was established in 1833

1833  Joseph Smith, founder of Latter Day Saint movement, marries a second wife, age 16.  She is 10 years younger than the first wife.  Polygamy is a secret affair for LDS because non-LDS neighbors are outraged by polygamy.  Smith will marry other women who continue to be married to their first husbands, though the LDS practice of "sealing" may mean something other than regular marriage.  In 1844, in Nauvoo, Illinois, LDS will be criticized for polygamy.  Smith will be arrested, but is lynched by a mob.  Smith had married 49 women.  But he may not have had children with women other than the first wife.  See 1847, 1864.      LDS denied Smith's plural marriages for many years.  In 2014, LDS quietly published Plural Marriage in Kirtland and Nauvoo.  The New York Times made a big splash of it on Nov 11, 2014.

1834  Lenz's Law states how conductors moving through magnetism generate voltage

1834  Thinking about organic chemistry is advanced enough that William Prout writes in Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion Considered with Reference to Natural Theology that carbon is the fundamental element for vegetable life, along with hydrogen and oxygen.           By charring organic material in vented metal vessels, chemists noted the resulting black carbon, and they could capture gases escaping and found that carbon dioxide was a constituent.      Also in 1834, Peter Mark Roget in Animal and Vegetable Physiology  Considered with Reference to Natural Theology wrote of the variable proportion of ingredients and of great diversity in modes of combination.        The beginning organic chemistry student (writer John E in 1990 at St. Edward's Univ) is likewise impressed with the "modes of combination," which include hydrogen bonding, sigma bonding, pi bonding, cyclic rings, aromatic rings, polycyclic molecules with overlapping rings (often flat molecules), and heterocyclic, strained molecules with some carbons replaced by oxygen or nitrogen.     This information from Michael Denton's 2020 The Miracle of the Cell, notes of ch. 2.  Denton holds back from being a creationist.  He is an old earther and speaks of evolution, though he surely knows of irreducible complexity.  His emphasis is that chemistry and physics strongly favor life, they are exquisitely tuned for life.  P. 147:  "the obvious challenge it poses to the Darwinian world view."  And indeed materialist, evolution-minded biologists have a world view that purposely excludes a "divine foot in the door."  "Evidence of design in nature and purpose in the universe...irresistible impression that the properties of the atoms have been contrived ."  He speculates that further science will lead most to recognize design, and will be "of far greater intellectual consequence than any other discovery in science."       see other notes of similar nature by searching these web pages for an index term, evoxcross

1835  Scotland Yard's Goddard first uses physical analysis to connect a bullet to the murder weapon

1835  Serial "penny dreadfuls" popular among British, working-class boys;  advances leisure reading and literacy;  alternative to Dickens;  rewrites of Gothic thrillers

1835  Strauss publishes The Life of Jesus:  the conventional interpretation of scripture is not out-and-out lies. They are poetical images (myths) of the divine life which the early Christians longed for.  Apostate Episcople Bishop Spong is a modern example of a Straussian theologian.  See 1768.

1835  British Industrial Revolution is in full swing, based on cheap coal & the highest wages of any country.  Personal income goes to buy better food (beef, beer, tea, sugar, and bread, when Europeans were eating boiled grain because ovens are expensive and burn excessive wood), clothing, & books.  In contrast to Europe, economy based on capitalism.  Imperialism, which expanded British possessions abroad, the Royal Navy, which defeated competing naval and mercantile powers, and the Navigation Acts, which excluded foreigners from the colonial trades.  Machines used in manufacturing happened first in Britain because that is the only place where it was economical:  high wages, cheap coal.  Venture capital financed the building of factories.  Cities grow despite cholera, see 1855.  Navigation at sea becomes accurate & safer using Harrison-style marine chronometers for determination of longitude.

1835  https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-modern-and-classical-liberalism  Classical Liberalism is a response to the old regime of monarchy.

• • Rather than rigid class systems, individuals can pursue their own enterprises and conduct business and trade freely. In other words, Capitalism, [which came from Britain].

  • People no longer want the absolute power of king, they want to govern themselves. In other words, democracy.

  • Overall, it is from the Enlightenment and rational thought. In the U.S., it is demonstrated by separation of church and state, and the perceived equality of all citizens.  Classical Liberalism has values of individualism and self-reliance, [which in the modern world are pretty much conservatism].

Modern Liberalism is a response to problems brought about by Classical Liberalism [when it was practiced in the absence of Christian morals].

• • The power of monarchs was quickly replaced by the power of huge business and corporate elite.  Class systems were still present, just switched around.  [It is said that the new elite is the Washington D.C. political establishment.]  This has led to government regulation of corporations.

  • Pure capitalism also resulted in, through excessive speculation, the Great Depression.  The government in 1913 started moderating the economy to prevent it from happening again [but, from excess debt, the government may yet cause a financial calamity].  http://www.innercitypress.org/reghist.html  Federal regulation starts with Interstate Commercial Commission in 1887, for railroads.  In the 1930s the railroads lobbied for and got government regulation of the trucking industry, “if you regulate us, you should regulate our competition.”  1913 Federal Reserve System to bring stability to the financial system.

  • Modern Liberalism also has social implications.  It has more to do with social equality [in 2000s, equity is equality of outcome] than Classical.  It pushes to give the most people possible access to a high standard of living, [but the means are often counterproductive].  It also has values of sustainability and international peace [and liberation from conventional morals, see 1960s sexual revolution in this time line].

The word liberalism itself comes from the same root as liberty.  It has meanings of openness to change and a lack of restriction.  Over time though, people have changed their ideas of what restricts and what doesn't [so classical liberalism is now more aligned with conservatism].

1830s  Germans going to Texas is publicized in Germany.  Overpopulation in rural Germany is a problem.  Texas, as an independent republic, is a place where German princes can have some power.  Castroville founded 1844 but San Antonio had better economy.  Immigrants are land owners, artisans, some intellectuals.  (Irish and Italians, in contrast, are poor.)  The Llano Valley has "stern, non-drinking Methodist Germans."  Pedernales Valley has "fun-loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics, drinking, dancing."  Guadalupe Valley has atheist Germans whose ancestors were political refugees.  1848:  peasant revolution in Germany, end of serfdom, conservative aristocrats persecute middle-class revolutionaries.  By 1880, a third of San Antonio is German.  By 1890s, Germans also in Houston, Galveston, and immigration declines.

1830s  Continuing the story of Cecilio Valerio, from 1796 May 12 in this time line, Cecilio breeds horses, ranches, and farms near the Driscoll Ranch west of Corpus Christi.    [1836, Texas Independence from Mexico]       About 1870, Duval County has few residents.  There is no electricity to pump up water for irrigation.  Wikipedia:  Then a wave of Anglo immigrants entered the county to raise sheep. Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Irishmen, and Scots.  [Compare to 1860, San Antonio is one-third Germans.]    [1875, Quanah Parker's Comanches surrender and move to Oklahoma reservation, a place counted by Anglos as worthless.  Even so, three years later...]  April 1878, "a large Indian raid carried out by the Kickapoo, Seminole, and Lipan Apache ended up in the deaths of more than 10 people" in Duval and Nueces counties.  Poor Mexicans in Duval County suffer from vengeance carried out by Anglos, for decades.   See 1906 in this time line.

1830s   emergence of the American Transcendentalists.  Transcendentalism and evangelicals branch from Puritans, taking as their common ancestor Calvinism.  Unitarianism (not recognizing the Trinity) is the dominant religion in Boston during the early 1800s, before Catholic Irish immigration during the Irish Potato Famine, 1846. Unitarianism had developed during the late 1700s as a separation from Orthodox Christianity during the First Great Awakening of the 1740s. Both Awakenings uphold divine election, original sin, and emotionalism.  The Unitarians depart from these traditions and also reject the Trinity, and seek voluntary ethical conduct and optimistic rationality.  Unitarianism is a religion for upright, respectable, wealthy Boston citizens, not for the rough jostle of the streets or the backwoods.

    The liberalism Unitarians display in their embrace of Enlightenment philosophy is stabilized by a solid conservatism they retain in matters of social conduct and status. 

    Unitarians capture Harvard with Ware as Hollis Professor of Divinity in 1805 and Kirkland as President in 1810.  Harvard trains Unitarians and the upcoming, revolting transcendentalists.  Transcendentalists seek human perfectibility and countenance mysticism and pantheism.  They value intuition and are inspired by Continental Romantics.  Emerson gives miracle [miracles of Jesus] a different name:  Monster.  Brownson:  "truth lights her torch in the inner temple of every man's soul...It is...universal, in all men, and in every man."      (See Romantics note at 1828...) Ralph Waldo Emerson is influential in the 1840s.  Henry David Thoreau is influential in the 1840s and 1850s, his writings enduring for their environmentalism and fledgling anarchism.  http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma95/finseth/trans.html

Emerson and Thoreau are egoists.  They take up Timothy Leary's advice 120 years before Leary, dropping out of society by tuning into the higher-order spiritualism of the individual soul.  New Oxford Review Jan-Feb 2022 p. 41    Apostate Norman Vincent Peale 1952 The Power of Positive Thinking "When you expect the best, you release a magnetic force in your mind which by law of attraction tends to bring the best to you."  This Law of Attraction comes up again and again;  Pastor Jared Kress at Calvary Hills Baptist in San Antonio deals with it in a 2020 sermon, and it is a topic in Coast to Coast AM with George Noory.

     Emerson:  "The purpose of life is not to be happy.  It is to be useful, to be honorable, to be compassionate, to have it make some difference that you have lived and lived well."    JE:  Emerson perhaps reacts against Jefferson, "life, liberty, pursuit of happiness."      Feb 9 2025 Pastor Nathan Clardy at Calvary Hills Baptist says Emerson talks of a joyless, worldly concept of life.  Compare to Matthew 5:13-16, so they may see, and praise God.  Christians are to add flavor (saltiness) to living.

1835  Henry & Faraday report more intense sparks when disconnecting a battery from helical & (especially) spiral coils than when the same length of wire, without being coiled, constitutes the conductor.  They are noticing the effect of inductance, which will come to be measured in Henries.  Insulation is from silk & wool, varnish and plastic will happen in the future.  Continuing the practice from condensers (capacitors) earlier, the sensation of shock in the hands & arms (as in frog legs, 1791) is a way to measure the effect;  electric meters such as Poggendorff's (1826) eventually are used to quantify the effect.  Henry's 1835 report does not mention magnetic field, but that is what is causing the voltage generation (change of magnetic field).  Inductance eventually becomes a measurable property of wires & coils, unit of Henry, proportional to turns2.  An inductor opposes change of current;  if an inductor's current is suddenly stopped, there may be enough energy in the magnetic field to cause a spark, which is what the experimenters were observing.      on-line .pdf:  Joseph Henry   Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 5 (1837), pp. 223231

early 1800s   Analysis of [carbonaceous chrondrite] meteorites by Swedish Berzelius during the 1830’s shows the existence of organic compounds in space. Based on that, Arrhenius will suggest that, besides organic products, life itself had originated in space, being transported here by meteorites.  Panspermia is a widely held belief.  See 1837 approx. Darwin in this time line.

1836 April 21  Texas battles for independence from Mexico conclude;  March 6 Battle of Alamo delays Mexican Army & lets Houston consolidate army;  1845 Texas becomes a state of U.S. near the times of statehood for Michigan, Florida, Iowa.     In 1836, there are 30,000 Anglo and Hispanic settlers and 15,000 Plains Indians.  Settlers have single-shot guns but Comanches are more deadly with bow and arrow, shooting from horseback.  Comanche had stolen every horse in New Mexico in the late 1700s.  

From 1836 to 1856, authorities in Durango, Mexico, will count as victims of Comanche 6000 dead, 748 kidnapped, 358 settlements abandoned.  (Wikipedia)

1836  Wantzel proves an angle cannot be trisected using a ruler and compass

1830s   Bernhardi, Hitchcodk, & Agassiz show that ancient glaciers caused certain geographic features such as grooved bedrock

1837  telegraph is first commercial use of electricity.  1876 telephone uses the same wires

The concept of energy is gaining a following.  In contrast, atoms are denied by some up to 1908.

1837 Mohr gives an early  statement of conservation of energy: "besides the 54 known chemical elements there is in the physical world one agent only, and this is called Kraft [energy or work]...motion, chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light and magnetism, and from any one of these forms it can be transformed into any of the others."

1837 approx.  Darwin writes, "Man in his arrogance thinks himself a great work worthy of the interposition of a deity.  More humble and I think truer to consider him created from animals."  See 1859.  Darwin is aware of Pasteur's experiments proving there is no spontaneous generation of life, see 1865 in this time line.  "Spontaneous generation" appears in a Darwin notebook of 1837.  In 1871, Darwin will write to Hooker about inanimate matter in a small, warm water pool arranging itself into evolutionary matter, aided by chemistry and energy.  By the 1990s, the pool of water or mud with a primordial soup of pre-biotic organic chemicals, somehow arranging itself into reproducing life, abiogenesis, is discounted.  The deep-sea, high-pressure black smoker seafloor vents have more credibility.    Find on this page or in this Google site similar paragraphs using search term "evoxcross."    https://answersingenesis.org/origin-of-life/primordial-soup/powerless-primordial-soup-dead-in-water/  scientists have been futile in finding "spontaneous chemical reactions that generate energy-containing molecules [ATP or a precursor]could be harnessed by other non-living molecules in a random, chaotic mixture to organize themselves into increasingly complex, information-carrying, functional, purposeful units."  The argument that the Earth, or the Universe, is so big, and time is so long, that abiogenesis is inevitable is disputed by people who look at the statistics.  There are only 10^80 atoms in all the universe.

     Southern Baptist Convention  namb.net/apologetics seen in 2025  science web page   Darwin breeds pigeons and figures that selection for traits could happen in nature, without a breeder.  But longer experience by breeders will show that breeding for one trait comes up against limits to variability.  Organs and the obvious body parts of a species are established very early in gestation and are expressions of certain genes;  mutation in these genes is fatal;  a new organ caused by a mutation in the early development genes isn't going to work out.  Another source:  breeding for one trait weakens the organism.    Darwin in Origin of Species:  "slight, successive, favorable variations, it can produce no sudden modification."        Six to ten million years to mutate "all the extant phyla of the Kingdom Animalia" doesn't fit with "mutational divergence of individual" genes.

1837 George Henry Bachhoffner and Sturgeon (1837) independently discover that a "divided" iron core of insulated (shellac coated) iron wires reduces power losses in induction coils (reducing eddy current), associated with Foucault's spinning copper disk in a magnetic field in 1851.  Used in x-ray machines, spark-gap radio transmitters, arc lighting.  Use of iron wires is soon replaced by use of flat, stamped, cheap, varnish-coated, steel "laminations" which are easily & uniformly stacked to make a magnetic core for inductors & transformers;  these are used to the present for frequencies through audio, but ferrite cores are lower loss & lighter above 200Hz or 5kHz.

1837  Vermont blacksmith Davenport develops an early electric motor to drive drill press and lathe.  Powered by batteries.  See 1863.

1838  Cournot applies math to economics;  marginalism;  start of neoclassical economics

1838  Shleiden and Schwann propose that all organic tissue, specifically the nervous system, are cells

1838  Bessel determines some star distances based on triangulation, with the Earth's orbital diameter as the baseline.  This only works with nearby stars.

following 1839  The President of the Republic of Texas, Lamar, orders the Texas Rangers to invade comancheria and root out the camps.  Comanche were surprised that Anglos would be so bold.  Apache, victims of Comanche, provide scouts to aid the Rangers.      Along the Comanche Trail, bleached bones of Mexican kidnap victims, the ones too weak to walk, are found in abundance.  The Trail is a mile wide in places.       Search Internet for "Comanche cruelty," it is too disgusting to mention in this time line.  

1840   scientist is a new word, from British Whewell.  Natural philosopher was the previous term.  Whewell was in correspondence with Darwin and Faraday.

1840   indoor plumbing is found only in the homes of the rich and the better hotels

1840   The 1840 Census of the Republic of Texas recorded a total of 339 individuals listed on the Bexar County tax rolls.     The Council House Fight in San Antonio.   Better called the Council House Massacre.  During a truce, after two years of war between settlers and Comanches, delegation of Comanche chiefs during a peace conference in San Antonio is detained.  They respond with knives and are mostly killed by soldiers.  The conference had been to arrange exchange of captives.  Many Anglo and Mexican captives are murdered in revenge by Comanches, including a granddaughter of Daniel Boone.  A lot of material about the Comanche raids is available on-line.  There was brutality on both sides.  When Texas achieves U.S. statehood in 1845, the Indian-frontier forts are built by the Army.  Old Fort Lancaster, in the arid Pecos River valley, offers a look at what went on.  Fort Lancaster was nearly overrun by Indians.  In 2019, John Engelbrecht purchased a reprint of an old book, A Texas Pioneer, by August Santleben, a freighter between San Antonio and Mexico.  (Purchased at Castroville, Landmark Inn State Historical Site.  Santleben's parents immigrated from Germany.)  He prepared for his wagon trips to repel raiders, employed armed escorts, and avoided death.  He came upon plenty of burned wagons;  the details are gruesome.

John Hays (modern Hays County between Austin and Wimberly) joins Texas Rangers and improves morale and discipline.  Paterson Colt five-shot repeating revolver replaces single-shot guns and will be instrumental in overcoming Indians.   Tide turns against Indians at Battle of Bandera Pass, ten miles NW of modern Bandera.  Fifty Texas Rangers with 55 Colts defeats a much larger force of Comanches.

The Great Raid of 1840 is the largest Indian raid on any Anglo city, Comanches seek revenge for the Council House Fight in San Antonio.  Raids occur from Bastrop to San Antonio, culminating in raids of Victoria (600 attackers) and Linnville.   At Linnville, second-largest port in Repubic of Texas,  residents save themselves by taking to boats while 1000 Comanches plunder a fortune ($300,000 at the time) of trade goods from Europe.   The raiders load pack mules and depart.  At Plum Creek, near modern Lockhart, militia and Rangers overtake the Comanches, who abandon the goods and flee.

1840  Alexis de Tocqueville  On Democracy in America   Over the previous 700 years the social and economic conditions of men had become more equal. The aristocracy is gradually disappearing as the modern world experiences the beneficial effects of equality.  

• Granting all men permission to enter the clergy

• economic opportunity resulting from trade and commerce

• the royal sale of titles of nobility as a monarchical fundraising tool

• abolition of primogeniture

    De Tocqueville is against socialism for its extreme appeal to the material passions of man, attack on private property, and opposition to personal liberty and scorn for individual reason.   http://thegreatestbooks.org/nonfiction  list is generated from 107 "best of" book lists from a variety of great sources.

1841  Oberlin College in Ohio grants bachelor degree to a woman, first continuously operating coeducational college in U.S. to do so

1841 (see 1748) Le Verrier studies stability of solar system, having read that Newton realized that each planet attracts all the others, a potential instability, & this might require divine intervention once in a while to maintain the ellipses.  (An "old earth" is a concept given much credence by this date.)  Eventually Halley shows, by analyzing the Chaldean observations transmitted by Ptolemy, that Saturn is moving away from the Sun while Jupiter is moving closer.  Laplace discovers a quasi-resonant term (2 lamba Jupiter-5 lamba Saturn) in their longitudes. This term has an amplitude of 46'50'' in Saturn's longitude, and a period of about 900 years.    Laplace's analysis can be shown with modern matrix algebra & is beyond comprehension except for those with graduate-level math.  Laplace's work develops "secular frequencies of the Solar System."

1841  Feuerbauch and 1912 Ernst Troeltsch conclude that Asian religious traditions, in particular Hinduism and Buddhism were earliest proponents of religious pluralism.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_pluralism    Tenets of pluralism:  I can be saved apart from Jesus (see Acts 4:12), there are many ways to God (see John 14:6), we are all children of God (see Hebrews).

1842   Mexican Army invades San Antonio twice this year

1842  Doppler hires a flatbed railroad car & Vienna Symphony trumpeters to explore the frequency shift of a moving sound.  One trumpeter plays a single note on the moving car & the other matches the apparently raised & lowered sounds as the car approaches & recedes.  See 1921.  The Doppler shift is (barely) noticeable in human voices at walking speed, giving people a sense of relative movement independent of sight.

1843   Emil Du bois-Reymond uses a 24,000 turn wire coil in a galvanometer to see Q, R, S waves in heartbeat.  Developed into ECG (EKG).  His machine did not need an electronic amplifier.

1843   Goodyear finds vulcanization process that makes rubber waterproof & flexible at low temperature

1843   German Marx accepts Hegel & Feuerbach, but is forced to flee from Germany to Paris.  For Marx, the ultimate force is things material;  not even the mind is above the material, & there is no soul, morality, grand plan, or force of God.  Marx goes beyond his German mentors, advocating revolution as necessary to bring about class reform, which deals with the material, the only reality.  To Marx, bourgeois capitalists employ religion to deflect the proletariat from dealing with their material needs.  Marx opposes philosophers, who merely observe, and advocates revolution & the destruction of religion.  In the struggle for a classless society, those who stand in the way must be eliminated.

    Dialectic materialism, DiaMat, is the name for the thinking of Marx.       See in Wikipedia Influences on Karl Marx.  Rousseau is said to be an influencer but Proudhon's What is Property? "convinced the young Marx that private property should be abolished."  Kant, and Hegel's development of Kant, are greater influencers of Marx.

1844  Robert Chambers paves the way for Darwin (see 1859) with a bestseller, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which makes evolution appear normal and acts as a lightning rod to deflect any real chance of combustion by the time the Origin is published.    Vestiges deals with stellar evolution & progressive transmutation of species in an accessible narrative which ties together numerous scientific theories of the age      See 1794, 1843 (Marx), 1859.    Find on this page or in this Google site similar paragraphs using search term "evoxcross."

1845  Wilson invents the sewing machine

1845  British Joule writes On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, introduces the first and second laws of thermodynamics (heat or energy [later molecular vibrations] moves from hot toward cold).  His father owns a brewery with a deep cellar, and the son will use that cellar, with a stable temperature, to convert work to a temperature rise in water.  His measurements become so precise that he demands from physicists a more accurate value for the acceleration of gravity.  He uses the most accurate thermometers.

1845  Semmelweis in Austria institutes hand-washing in chlorine solution for med students going from autopsy to maternity, reducing infection & thus death rate among mothers.  Leading doctors are offended  by his hygiene protocol but have to agree that fewer patients die from sepsis.

1845  Faraday discovers magnetic-optical coupling in "silico borate of lead" glass, using polarized light--the magneto-optical effect, the Faraday effect or Faraday rotation.  He had to test hundreds of materials before finding the effect.

1846  Faraday speculates that light is a wave propagating along lines of force, see 1831

1846  Galle in Berlin discovers Neptune which had been predicted by Le Verrier;  crowning moment of Newtonian theory

1846  Donner Party gets stuck in snow in the Sierra Nevada during a winter.  Some survive by cannibalism.  See 1850 Death Valley.

1847  Joule measures temperature increase of water at bottom of Swiss waterfall...but the measurement was found to be invalid due to evaporative cooling

1847  Led by Brigham young, Latter Day Saints reach the future Salt Lake City & have freedom to farm & practice polygamy.  See 1833, 1864.     Young marries 55 wives.  With 16 of them, he has 56 children.  

1847  some of 1 million Irish fleeing starvation in Ireland arrive in Boston & NYC.  Britain blamed for letting farms be owned by nonresident Englishmen.  Refugees arrive in Canadian timber ships, many die enroute.

1847  In this year, traveler Josiah Gregg finds a great area from New Mexico to Durango, Mexico depopulated due to Comanche depredations, except for defensible towns. 

1848  Gage, a railroad worker, survives an accident; frontal lobe of his brain is pierced by an iron rod. Experiences profound mood and behavior changes.

1848  Spiritualism starts in New York state.  It is hoax that runs more than 140 years.  The Fox sisters, aged 11 and 15, claim they hear mysterious "rappings" on their bedroom walls.  They claim to communicate with the spirit of a man who was deceased in the house, years earlier.  Newspapers spread the sensation and the phenomenon  spreads in the U.S.  Terms:  channel, medium.  Spiritualism is mainly among women.   Women claim a high ground in religion and this aids the political voice of women.  The vote for women is advanced.  Religious News Service:  "a radical break from traditional religious and political authority."  Photographers use long exposures to produce images of "spirits."  In 1851, a relative of the Fox sisters repudiates Spiritualism.  By 1888, Margaret returns to Catholicism and publicly repudiates Spiritualism in New York City.  "I am here tonight as one of the founders of Spiritualism to denounce it...superstition...blasphemy."  But the hoax continues;  in 1989, C.E.M. Hansel:  "The Fox sisters are still discussed in the parapsychological literature without mention of their trickery."

around 1848   Dostoevsky:  "If there is no God, everything is permitted."

1848  Marx & Engels publish Das Kapital ; "The Communists disdain to conceal their views & aims.  They openly declare...forceful overthrow of all existing conditions."  Religion is the "opiate of the people." Austin's Topical History of Christianity p. 422 "His thesis was simple:  take away the social conditions that produce illusions about another world, and the religious need for such otherworldly illusions will wither away."  See 1838, 1870s.

    Dialectical materialism is from militant materialists in opposition to pro-theistic alternatives.  Only violent revolution can bring about the shift from private ownership to socialism and communism which Marx and Engels envision.

    Auguste Comte and Karl Marx produce an environment that nourishes Darwin's speculations, and he more than returns the favor to these intellectual benefactors by providing them with a totally materialistic origins story.  New Oxford Review May 2014  Page 38 Terry Scambray reviews Paul Johnson's Darwin: Portrait of a Genius.  See 1859.

        Comte is deemed to be the father of the secular religion of the West, by way of his positivism.  (New Oxford Review June 2020 p. 37)  Daniel Mahoney says positivists ignore "why" questions (Why are humans rational but animals are not?  Why are people born male and female?)  Positivists like the "how" questions.  (How can we educate away homophobic bigotry?)  Positivism of Locke and Hobbs breaks from orthodoxy.  Even so, Comte recognizes that men have a religious nature.  He sets up Man as the measure of all things.  See in this time line 1814 positivists and determinists, those who are positive that the direction of the world can be traced into the future if we can state an initial condition and account for all forces.

1848  Karl Marx was "a dictator of any organization of which he was a part...put his stamp down hard on...communism in Europe."  Benjamin Wiker 10 Books That Screwed Up the World p. 59

    Quoted from http://www.mmisi.org/ma/24_04/panichas.pdf      The Autobiography of Karl Schurz, an abridgment in one volume by Wayne Andrews (New York, 1961), p. 20:

    I have never seen a man whose bearing was so provoking and intolerable. To no opinion, which differed from his, he accorded the honor of even a condescending consideration. Everyone who contradicted him he treated with abject contempt [see red section below about psychopathy];  every argument that he did not like he answered either with biting scorn at the unfathomable ignorance that had prompted it, or with opprobrious aspersions upon the motives of him who had advanced it.  I remember most distinctly the cutting disdain [see red section below about psychopathy] with which he pronounced the word “bourgeois”; and as a “bourgeois,” that is as a detestable example of the deepest mental and moral degeneracy he denounced everyone that dared to oppose his opinion.    See more Marx at 1843.

    Manifesto of the Communist Party by Marx and Engels:     "The bourgeois claptrap about the family and education, about the hallowed correlation of parents and child, becomes all the more disgusting..."

    Marx is a nasty debater, and advocates violence against capitalists and bourgeois, because he 

• is sure he is right

• is sure there is no God recording his sins

• is sure no one has any existence beyond the grave

• agrees with Machiavelli that suffering is temporary and suffering by some (or even by many) will serve the good of all future beneficiaries of communism

• urges the world onward to resolve the conflict between proletariat (downtrodden workers) and capitalists/greedy supervisors, which he is sure will be worldwide communism, a withering away of government as enlightened workers cooperate in classless utopia

• believes that people are sometime soon perfectible

https://www.sott.net/article/281383-Was-Karl-Marx-a-full-blown-psychopath gives insight to these sociopathic characteristics of Marx.

08 Mar 2012     Psychopathic...absence of emotional connection - no sympathy, no empathy, no conscience, no remorse, no guilt.   Marx was the original hippie, dirty, smelly, and shiftless...incapable of holding a steady job...low-paying work as a journalist, supplemented by inheritances...wife was totally loyal to him, but they lived in extreme poverty and several of their children died of malnutrition and illness.   Many traits associated with psychopathy.  [Modern despots are largely a] network of fellow psychopaths, the most influential being Vladimir Lenin...revolutionaries and criminal psychopaths: Stalin, Mao Tse-Tung, Kim Il-Sung, Pol Pot, Fidel Castro.  Political and military psychopaths unanimously morph into violent criminal psychopaths when they gain sufficient power.   His followers, the ones that rose to power, leave a history of destruction, disaster, and death.  Soft Marxist Social-Democratic Europe is failing now, and the hybrid Chinese bubble is threatening collapse.  If the Soviets and other Marxist regimes ever had a real interest in Marxist philosophy, it was soon abandoned in favor of brute power for the elite nomenclatura.      A commenter writes:   [the writer has] a blind, unthinking hatred for Marx and Marxism, typical of poorly educated...A poor effort, driven by malice.       JE looked up this info while hearing Ross Rosenberg on Coast to Coast AM, 2AM CST Feb 22.

The case of Karl Marx, or perhaps Rousseau (Samuel Johnson said of Rousseau, "I think him one of the worst of men; a rascal, who ought to be hunted out of society.  Edmund Burke:  Rousseau's egoistic philosophy and his personal vanity, saying Rousseau "entertained no principle... but vanity. With this vice he was possessed to a degree little short of madness."  J.S. Maloy states that "the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century had tried to instantiate."), invites a comparison to 2 Peter chapter 2.   introduce destructive heresies, even denying the sovereign Lord who bought them...Many will follow their depraved conduct...Bold and arrogant, they are not afraid to heap abuse on celestial beings.  These people blaspheme in matters they do not understand.  With eyes full of adultery, they never stop sinning.  (Sounds more like Rousseau than Marx.)   They mouth empty, boastful words.  

Search Internet for 'Karl Marx was terrible person.'  He had a wife and children, yes.  But his household was a dirty mess, and he overlooked hygiene.  Broken furniture.  The long-time maid received what she needed to live, but Marx never paid her a salary.  The maid was Marx's concubine, with the knowledge and in the household of Marx's wife.  The child of Marx and the maid was passed off as a child of Engels.  Tabletmag.com  his writing was full of puerile vehemence.  Merciless deriding of opponents.  Mudslinging abounds.  https://www.sociologygroup.com/karlmarx-history-works/    In Cologne, his excessive and unreserved criticism ... invited the disapproval of the authorities...vehement journalism...on trial for arousing and supporting revolts...the entire theoretical alignment and standpoint of Marx is based on Hegel.  Hegel claimed a ‘perfect’ or ideal state of society can be attained.  With a change in our perception and understanding, the reality around us changes as well.  Feuerbach asserted that it is humans who create God.  Marx followed this idea.  John Maynard Keynes was thoroughly condemning of Marx’s theories...‘Capital’ as “an obsolete economic textbook which I know to be not only scientifically erroneous but without interest or application for the modern world.”  Bertrand Russell...called Marx “muddle-headed” whose theories were “almost entirely inspired by hatred.”  Marx was also an atheist from a very young age.  Marx's general idea:  no ‘Saviour’ will arrive, instead workers must organize revolution.

1849   Hippolyte Fizeau finds speed of light by toothed wheel over distance of 5 miles     315000 kilometers per second.  The next advance is 1862.

1800s sometime   Wikipedia but where?      the quantum world      Degrees of freedom are "frozen out."  "Decrease of heat capacity when things get really cold was among the first signs to physicists of the 19th century that classical physics was incorrect."  Equipartition did not predict black-body radiation, the ultraviolet catastrophe.  Max Planck.

1849  Lt. Col. Eggleston, chief topographical engineer in the Dept. of Texas, commands 20 men who seek routes from San Antonio to the forts protecting against Indian raiders.  They camp for four months beside what will become known as Government Canyon Creek in the modern west Bexar County.  When Government Canyon State Natural Area is established, hikers on the Joe Johnson Route will hike along this creek and see dinosaur tracks below the 45-foot cliff and the Zizelman House.  This creek is a tributary to the larger Culebra Creek which will provide water to the future Kallison Ranch.  The future Thompson home, 2018, is on the south bank of Culebra Creek, and behind the home are two large rock gates of the Kallison ranch, one facing the creek and the other facing upland pasture.  

1850   Men (Jayhawkers) seeking California and the gold rush (49'ers) try to cross Death Valley in the winter.  Only one or two die.  One of the survivors looks back eastward into the valley from the heights of the cool Panamint Mountains and declares, "Goodbye, Death Valley," giving the place its name.    See 1846 Donner Party.

    The other two ways to get to the gold fields of California are hiking across malarial Panama and taking the long ship voyage around the south end of South America.  None of the three ways is safe.

    John and Margaret spend one night in Death Valley on April 13 2010, coming back from the month-long California road trip.  John wanted to go to the isolated Ubehebe Crater steam-explosion pits, which erupted 800 to 7000 years ago.  But the road was being rebuilt and we had to go to Scotty's Castle instead.  Leaving Death Valley by the south route, we spent the night in tiny Shoshone, population 31, but it has a little motel and maybe two restaurants.  A reviewer:  "walking around the little town, you expect John Wayne to come around any corner."

1851  Foucault, a Paris amateur engineer & expert builder, uses his symmetric, 2-meter pendulum to observe the rotation of the earth below the pendulum, the first clear evidence that the earth spins on its axis;  steel wire, 5kg brass bob.  Academics sneer at his lack of credentials but public is delighted by demo in Pantheon.  The fact that the earth rotates had been long accepted, see Copernicus 1514 & Kepler 1609, but this was proof.

1851  Foucault in Paris invents the gyroscope, with gimbals so it points in a constant direction;  it indicates rotation of the earth as Foucault's pendulum did, but not as dramatically;  an early application is guidance for torpedoes

1851  Railroads start dispatching trains by telegraph, allowing use of single railway lines rather than two, one-way lines

1851  Great Exhibition in London is site of the Crystal Palace.  Window glass becomes affordable for residences.

1851  Queen Victoria is fascinated by stereo views of famous world sites when she uses a stereoscope at the World's Fair in London.  Stereoscopes come into use worldwide.

1852  St. Mary's Institute founded in San Antonio.  This city led in trade and was on one of the Spanish royal roads, El Camino Real.  By 1860, San Antonio population is 8235.

1852  Everest shown to be a high mountain by the British India Survey, based on triangulation from lowlands

1853  Otis uses a safety brake in an elevator.  Publicity gives customers enough confidence to use elevators, which had been used for freight alone.

1854  British Lord Kelvin and German von Helmholtz find that the sun couldn't last longer than 20 to 100 million years.  But geology says the earth is 10 to 100 times as old as that.  If the sun is coal or another flammable, it would shine only 1000 years.

1854  Danish Kierkegaard, the father of existentialism, criticizes gate-keepers of Danish institutional Christianity:  bishops, pastors, and theology professors. Kierkegaard wonders:  if Jesus were to walk into a church today, would he recognize it as consistent with the New Testament?  Consumerism, triumphalism, ideological colonialism, and nationalism crowd out faith that is continually seeking the Spirit.  http://qideas.org/articles/the-cure-for-christendom/    Kierkegaard criticizes the view that baptism confers Christianity.  He advocates the leap of faith and debates Hegel's ideas of perfection and rationality, see 1807 in this time line.  Kierkegaard is viewed by contemporaries as an eccentric but will be much respected after WWI destroys the liberal European idea of perfectibility. 

1855  Snow in London maps Soho cholera deaths, finds excess from Broad St. pump, leads to shut-down of that pump, which reduces the cholera epidemic

1855  birth of Annabelle Sinclair Ramsey, descended from Sinclairs (see 1734, 1774, 1814).  She is born at Georgian Bay, Ontario, the large bay east of Lake Huron.

1855 approx. Ernst Haeckel, the main evolutionist in Germany during his time, is one of the first scientists to propose a model for the development of multicellular organisms from unicellular ancestors.  He proposes that the development of an animal's embryo reflects its evolution.  Haeckel publishes drawings of embryos that support his view, such as a human embryo maturing through fish and reptile stages.  The modern term for the model is recapitulation.  New Oxford Review March 2012 p. 43:  "Haeckel finally admitted it was all a fraud, 'confessing that his embryo drawings were fakes.'"  But recapitulation gained a life of it's own.  It was used in 1981 to support abortion on demand, by a geneticist before the U.S. Congress.     See evolution trail at 1794, 1844, 1848, 1859.   Find on this page or in this Google site similar paragraphs using search term "evoxcross."

1855  Opium, morphine, and later heroin are used in England without restriction until the 1870s, though addiction is known of.  Upper classes use opioids routinely but lower classes are criticized for opioid use.  Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup for children contains morphine.  Jessica Rae Henderson thesis:  Thomas De Quincy and Samuel Taylor Coleridge...their representation of the drug as somehow enlightening and a source of poetic inspiration.  High-society women carry syringes and opioids when they go to opera.

1855  Palmieri in Italy designs a mercury seismometer that records time progression of earth movement

1855  bars of aluminium exhibited alongside French crown jewels at the Exposition Universelle;  the aluminum does not corrode as silver corrodes from SO2 in the air.  Efficient mass production by electrolysis is in the future.

1855  Napoleon III razes large parts of Paris to build wide boulevards, improve traffic flow, and expand sewers.  It is the end of the awful stench in Paris from sewage and leather tanning.  Sewage had been so much a part of life that the glittering Versailles Palace, with inadequate facilities, reeked of waste from around 1700.  Courtiers would duck behind columns and relieve themselves.  

1856  Perkin in London happens upon synthesis of Tyrian purple while trying to synthesize quinine;  start of synthetic dye industry

1856  Russian emperor embarrassed by loss in Crimean war.  Russia’s leaders reform, toward a market economy, away from lingering serfdom.  See 1600.

1856  Bessemer uses oxygen in an air blast to convert pig iron to steel for railroad rails, lowering cost & increasing capacity.  Steel-rail life is 10 years, up from 2 years for iron rails.

mid 1800s  temperature is defined as speed of motion of atoms (of gas, liquid, or solid).  Kinetic Theory of Gases

mid 1800s  Chemists attribute chemical reactions to atoms while physicists conceive of atoms as being colliding, rebounding, hard balls obeying Newton's laws of motion.  Chemists and physicists are at odds with each other, isolate themselves from each other as far as atoms go, slowing the progress of both fields.

mid 1800s   With advanced weighing, gas density measuring, and other analytical techniques, chemists agree that carbon has four bonds and decide that some carbon compounds can be explained with double bonds between carbon atoms.  The simplest is ethene with four hydrogen;  with single bonding, it is ethane with six hydrogen.

1856  Mendell begins his heredity discoveries with peas--recessive trait can nevertheless be passed on and expressed in future generations--but his work not appreciated until 1902.  Darwin never learned about genetics.

1857  Butterfield Overland Mail takes passengers by stagecoach between St. Louis and San Francisco in 23 days.  The route is the safer, southern route through Little Rock, El Paso, and Los Angeles.  See 1861 telegraph.        John and Margaret will visit Anza-Borego State Park, a large area with interesting metamorphic rocks, in 2010 and come across a stagecoach stop.  West of Anza-Borrego is the Palomar Observatory, orange groves, and the city of Oceanside.

1857  The infamous Mountain Meadows Massacre.  Around 120 non-Mormons in a wagon train are massacred by Latter Day Saints.  They were from Arkansas and intended to settle in California.  Utah is a territory, not a state, until 1896.  Far off in Washington, D.C., the federal government hears plenty about LDS polygamy and takes various actions against it.

1857  Ives tries to sail up the Colorado River in the future Arizona in a steamship, to find what is there.  Maps show a blank, the Great Unknown.  Indians living there had tried to keep white men out.  Ives judges the area to be without value.  See Powell 1869.

1857  Clausius writes a paper on the Kinetic Theory, repeating Joule's calculation of average molecular speed (around 460 meters per second for room temperature oxygen molecules), faster than the speed of sound.  He introduces mean free path in STP air, about 109 nm for H2, which leads to the rate of collisions of gas molecules, about 15 x 109 per second.

1858  The Great Stink in London, interrupting Parliament and the courts, results from the new, flush toilet and 200,000 cesspits.  Human waste, slaughterhouse effluent, and industrial waste channeled to the Thames is, with dilution, lifted by waterwheels into the drinking-water system.

1858  Couper publishes the first paper showing a bond between atoms as a short line.  It is soon proposed that each element has characteristic number of bonds in particular directions, especially carbon, allowing organic chemistry to flourish

1858  Möbius invents the Mobius strip or band; a 3-D flat band with one side.  School students are delighted by cutting a Mobius strip down the middle;  make one cut or two parallel cuts.

1858  Arthur Cayley publishes A Memoir on the Theory of Matrices. Addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, and matrix multiplication, but not multiplicative commutation. Simultaneous equation solving had been done with matrices by Chinese since about third century B.C., see this timeline.

1859  Riemann hypothesis.  The number & distribution of prime numbers.  Subject for A Beautiful Mind & NUMB3RS, also novel Life After Genius.  http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RiemannHypothesis.html

    He writes On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude.  Riemann is a math genius but dies at age 40 from tuberculosis, 1866.  His use of imaginary numbers (complex numbers) with the zeta function leads Riemann to say that zeros of the zeta function are all on the critical line, with real value positive one half.  As of 2016, this has not been conclusively proven.  In 1903, 15 zeros were confirmed by J. P. Gram, by 2005 Wediniwski confirms this for the first 100 billion zeros.  The values of prime numbers are related to the zeta function zeros in a non-trivial way, search for Riemann Hypothesis Saylor Academy.        Riemann, as most physicists, dislikes action at a distance and provides math that later supports electric and magnetic fields.

http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/zeta_tables/zeros5

sample of zeros near 1022:   

1/2 + i * 1,370,919,909,931,995,308,226.68016095

1/2 + i * 1,370,919,909,931,995,308,226.77659152

1/2 + i * 1,370,919,909,931,995,308226.94593324.

These are spaced only .1 or .2 apart.  Around i * 1000, zeros are spaced about 1 apart. 

The first zeros are widely spaced at 1/2 + i * 14.13472514, 21.02203963, 25.01085758, 30.42487612.

(There is an inverse relation between the spacing of the zeta zeros and the spacing of the primes.)

http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/HowTheZerosOfTheZetaFunctionPredictTheDistributionOfPrimes/   is a little more concrete about how the zeta function relates to prime numbers.

http://empslocal.ex.ac.uk/people/staff/mrwatkin/zeta/encoding1.htm     gets closer to being intelligible, look 2/3 down the web page to see the animation.

See 2003 Derbyshire

https://medium.com/cantors-paradise/the-riemann-hypothesis-explained-fa01c1f75d3f

    Riemann's paper is only 8 pages. New and previously unknown discoveries about the distribution of the primes and is to this day considered to be one of the

most important papers in number theory.  Riemann's zeta function appears in unexpected places.  In Wikipedia under Bose Einstein Condensate, the critical temperature is (particle density/zeta function of 3/2)2/3 * 2pi h2/(mass per boson * Boltzman constant)    h=Planck constant

1859 Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.  It is known by modern biologists to be largely wrong but breaks ground for a natural, rather than God-directed, creation, & was popular with atheists (see 1790).  Darwin does not know modern genetics, see 1856. 

    See 1794, 1837, 1844, 1848, 1855, 1873, 1883, 1896 (eugenics).      Darwin borrows from Patrick Matthew and Edward Blythe, but neither man voices

any claims. Darwin remembers persecution of Joseph Priestly (see 1794) & manipulates the public perception of Origins so as to avoid similar persecution.

    Father Stanley L. Jaki writes in modern times, "The publication in full of Darwin's early notebooks forces one to conclude in writing his autobiography Darwin consciously lied when he claimed that he had slowly, unconsciously slipped into agnosticism.  He tried to protect his own family as well as the Victorian public from the shock of discovering that his notebooks resounded with militant materialism."  In supporting his materialistic presuppositions, Darwin's target was man's mind which had to be conquered in order to dethrone man and place him on the level of a mere animal caught in a purposeless flux.     

1859  Richard Carrington in England observes a violent and rapid eruption near a sunspot.  17 hours later a large magnetic storm begins on earth.  Unequaled since.  The Carrington Event is increasingly showing up in PBS Nova and all over as media becomes more interested in space weather since 2005.     https://spaceweather.com/

1859 Taylor finds the British inch is equal to the inch used by the builders of the Great Pyramid of Cheops, to an accuracy of 1 part in 1000

1859  first oil well in Titusville, Pennsylvania allows kerosene to replace whale oil and animal fat in lamps

1860  Kirchhoff and Stewart define the spectrum of black-body radiation

1859 & 1860  Public reaction in Britain to Darwin's On the Origin of Species is virulent and attracts many to read the book.  Wikipedia has a whole web page on 'Reactions to On the Origin of Species.'  Church of England against, 'liberal Anglicans' pro.  "Religious controversy was soon diverted by...higher criticism."  Thomas Huxley strongly supports Darwin, he is "Darwin's bulldog."  Huxley:  a pivot in struggle between religion and science, and he goes on to campaign against clerical control of education.  (See in this time line 1967 Land O'Lakes Conference where Catholic universities in the U.S. rebel against Roman Catholic control.  In 2025, Southern Methodist University is rebelling against control by Texas United Methodist Church, SMU going the pro-LGBT route while UMC still has a majority holding back from out-and-out LGBT advocacy.  A court case in Texas Supreme Court.      While orthodox Methodists abandon UMC and go with Global Methodist Church.)  Huxley even advocates for the "ape origin on man."  (HowStuffWorks:  "Humans and modern apes...evolved from a now-extinct common ancestor," the 'missing link' or 'last common ancestor' which may never be found.)      

     Darwin "had no intention to write atheistically," he writes.  "There seems to me too much misery in the world," evidence he says that a loving God would not create all species including disgusting species.  (Darwin is repulsed by parasites.)  This remains in 2025 as a leading complaint of atheists.  And the first response from orthodox Christians is that man's sin pollutes the good Creation.  

     evoxcross

1860  beginning of discovery of numerous elements by spectroscopy

1860s  Drummond's "limelight," a brilliant, focused spotlight, is in widespread use;  jets of hydrogen & oxygen burn a block of calcium oxide;  before, stage illumination from footlights which were often candles or lamps

1860s   Jules Verne novels play on peoples' imagination.  See 1895.

1860s  Robert Ingersoll is a popular lecturer debunking religion.  He advances atheism among intellectuals.     http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/29/robert-ingersoll-americas-most-famous-forgotten-atheist_n_3353868.html  "He was a leader in criticizing organized religion and he advocated for Darwin, evolution and science,” Lowe said. “The freethought community is always looking for a model to put up as an admired free thinker...still applicable to issues we are still navigating.”   Find on this page or in this Google site similar paragraphs using search term "evoxcross."

    The Day is Now Far Spent Roman Catholic Cardinal Robert Sarah a Black African from sub-Sahara Guinea in conversation with French Nicolas Diat Ignatius Press 2019 page155, paraphrasing:  Atheists in the world view of the Enlightenment can read in the Bible that people are created and are individually dependent on the Creator.  These atheists insist on freeing themselves from the Creator.  They want no part of being dependent or indebted or accountable.  They prefer to be products of randomness "thrown into the world by blind evolution."  "Cold solitude gains ground with every passing day."   page 242  Cardinal Sarah, a Black man, will be able to appreciate the finest fruits of Western colonization of his native Guinea.  "The cultural, moral, and religious values that the French gave to my country were a great treasure...The missionaries from France brought me the true God"...But recent Westerners coming to Africa bring "venom" as they try to drown the family-based cultures.  Page 261   The "Western philanthropic foundations...know better than we do the best policies...decrease the African birthrate and develop economies in the service of Western multinationals."

1860  Maxwell derives the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, the statistical range of gas velocities.  Also used math to show that viscosity is independent of density, contradicting experiments & threatening the kinetic theory, but he repeated the experiments & found they had been done wrong.

1861  household ice box invented, eventually mule-towed ice wagon stops at homes, ice man delivers ice according to placard in window.  Mules learn route, need no driver. 

1861  Maxwell uses statistics to prove the rings of Saturn are dust, not solid rings nor fluid

1861  Telegraph line from Carson City, NV through Salt Lake City to Omaha, ties into existing lines and allows transcontinental telegrams.  The new line is galvanized steel, stronger than copper.  Pony Express is discontinued 18 months after it began, horseback riders had changed horses at 157 posts and taken 11 days to bridge the telegraph gap between St. Joseph, Missouri and Carson City.  Telegraph serves the interests of monopolies in late 1800s.

1862  Largest flood in recorded history of California.  Weeks of continuous rain and snow.  (This may be what is called Atmospheric River in weather reports since 2023.)  In California, 120 inches of water in 43 days.  Search for Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, AMO.  The North Pacific oscillation is La Nina, El Nino.

1862  Léon Foucault and others find speed of light by rotating mirror.           His mirror turned out to be an 8-sided prism, rotated by a high-speed motor.  Light path one-way, in one of the experiments, was about 7 miles.      298000±500 meters per second.  The next advance is 1907.

1862  Broca determines the location of the speech center of the brain

1862  Russian Turgenev coins "nihilism" in Fathers and Sons

1863 Jan 1  Pres. Lincoln declares Emancipation Proclamation as a war-powers measure, but it applies only to states in rebellion.  Congress doesn't have the votes to apply it to the loyal states.  Few people in 1970-2020 know this qualification and how many people in the North opposed abolition of slavery.  See 1864.

1863  Wiener proposes that Brownian motion is from the statistically varying numbers of molecules impacting the sides of particles but has no math explanation

1863  Huggins proposes that distant stars are made of the same elements that we deal with on Earth.  At this time, 32 elements had not yet been discovered on Earth, so it is not far fetched to have thought that stars would have entirely different composition.

1863  Italian Pacinottti produces a workable electric generator with commutator bars.  By 1875, some French lighthouses have arc lamps supplied by Gramme's generator.

1863  Atheist John Stuart Mill publishes Utilitarianism.  This word is like "the Greatest Happiness Principle," but Mills intends that people's happiness is to be judged by reformers such as himself.  Mills is convinced there is no intrinsically wrong action;  those who experience all actions, including actions counted by most as immoral, can best judge for everyone what gives the most happiness.  "Which is the best worth having of two pleasures...those who are qualified by knowledge of both, or, if they differ, that of the majority among them, must be admitted as final."  Mills intends that authoritarians judge for society, and he intends that "the whole sentient creation," including the pleasure experienced by animals, should figure in the mix.  Benjamin Wiker, 10 Books That Screwed Up the World 2008:  "In modern politics, we call this liberalism:  the...bureaucrats in Washington acting in the role of John Stuart Mill telling everyone else what to do."

1864  Artemis Ward visits Salt Lake City and talks to Latter Day Saints.  "I saw his [Brigham Young's] mother-in-law while I was there. I can't exactly tell you how many there is of her--but it's a good deal. It strikes me that one mother-in-law is about enough to have in a family--unless you're very fond of excitement."

1864  13th Amendment, abolishing slavery, fails in a U.S. Senate vote, only four Democrats voting for it.  Republican Pres. Lincoln then applies political pressure to get it passed.  See 1863.

1865  first ascent of Matterhorn      http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/switzerland/zermatt/articles/The-first-ascent-of-the-Matterhorn/      Hadow slipped, knocking the guide off his feet and pulling Hudson and Lord Francis Douglas from their holds. Old Peter hugged a rock and held fast, but the rope, a light sash cord, broke below him.  “For a few seconds we saw our unfortunate companions sliding on their backs, and spreading out their hands, endeavoring to save themselves.  They passed from our sight uninjured, disappeared one by one, and fell from precipice to precipice on to the glacier below, a distance of nearly 4,000 ft in height.”      The bodies are broken into little pieces by multiple impacts.  Before this, there had been few climbers in the Alps who died.  Europe is shocked by the deaths.         In the coming assaults in the Himalayas, "alpinists" will climb, and will find that methods used in the Alps are inadequate for Himalayas.  Alpinist refers to the European Alps.

1865  steel rails for railroad in U.S.  They are made by hot rolling in long rolling mills, cheaply once the enormous equipment is in place.  One length of rail could be made half a mile long, and sometimes such lengths are transported by rail in cradles on linked rail cars;  rails are not as stiff as you might think.

1865  Fort Sam Houston established at San Antonio.  The same year, Juneteenth, announcement of end of slavery in Texas.

1865  Clausius introduces entropy, an energy measured in joules.  College students by and large do not understand entropy, an understanding develops over long usage.

1865  Loschmidt estimates the average diameter of air molecules

1865  Pasteur's work ends the idea of spontaneous generation of microorganisms, which had been thought for 2000 years to come from non-living matter

1860s mid      British Maxwell and Thomson:  coherent system of units with base units and derived units.  This will become the modern SI system with seven base units:  second, meter, kilogram, ampere, Kelvin (temperature), mole (counting atoms and molecules), candela (luminosity, light).  Note that the volt, a common term used by consumers, is a derived unit, not a base unit.

1865  Kekule proposes six-atom ring structure of benzene (aromatic ring).  It had been known that odoriferous, reactive, volatile aromatics had an excess of carbons (and a minimum of six carbons) compared to the fatty alkanes (aliphatics such as wax, soap, glycerin, oil, detergent, alcohol).  In 1890, he describes his vision of the ring:  "There I sat, trying to work on my textbook but it did not go very well;  my mind was elsewhere.  I turned the chair toward the fireplace and dozed off.  Again the atoms danced before my eyes.  This time, the smaller groups remained modestly in the background.  My inner eye, sharpened by similar visions I had had before, now distinguished bigger forms of manifold configurations.  Long rows, more densely joined;  everything in movement, contorting and turning like snakes.  And behold, what was that?  One of the snakes took hold of its own tail and whirled derisively before my eyes.  I woke up as though I had been struck by lightning;  again I spent the rest of the night working out the consequences of the hypothesis."

1865 Dec 18  proclamation by U.S. Sec. of State that 13th Amendment, ending slavery, is ratified by 27 of the 36 states

1866  Maxwell publishes theory of electric and magnetic waves, the first unified theory of physics according to IEEE Spectrum Dec 2014 p. 36.  Before Heaviside simplifies to four equations, Maxwell uses 20 equations.  Due to the complexity & some counter-intuitive concepts, Maxwell's theory takes decades to gain acceptance.  This is 31 yrs before the electron is proposed.  Light, infrared, gamma, etc. are suspected by Faraday of being electromagnetic from about 1846, others think they are explained by Maxwell's equations.  Displacement current, most conveniently visualized in capacitors including vacuum capacitors, is part of Maxwell's equations but is accepted by few and rejected by Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson);  it does not involve charge flow but develops magnetic field.  Maxwell uses what are later called permittivity and permeability of space to calculate speed of electromagnetic radiation;  value is close to estimate of speed of light, & he thinks light must be electromagnetic.      A modern equation used by engineers:  speed of electromagnetic propagation along twisted pair of wires or coax = 1/sq root of LC , L being measured in nanohenries per inch, C picofarads per inch, which are measurable by common electronic instruments;  physicists before 1900 routinely use such knowledge.

1867  Kulik produces factors of all numbers up to 100,330,200.  He uses especially prime numbers up to 10,016 or so.

1867  DNA first identified as a molecule by Miescher

1867  spread of cholera definitely identified as water-borne, not airborne, in last great outbreak in London

1867  The Swede Nobel produces dynamite (high explosives, HE) and blasting caps.  Used in war, the expectation will be that HE makes war too destructive for wars to continue, but future wars will use machine guns, poison gas by the thousands of tons, and atomic bombs.

1867  Monier patents steel-reinforced concrete, combining concrete for compression strength & steel for tensile strength.  Exhibits at Paris Exposition & advocates for railway ties, pipes, bridges.

1867  paper making from wood pulp overtakes paper making from linen (flax) & cotton

1867 August Santleben, immigrant from Hanover, Germany, teams with Adolph Muenzenberger to form A. Santleben and Company, the first stage company between the U.S. and Mexico, crossing at Eagle Pass. Monterey is the destination. The company operates for two years, ceasing when favorable relations at the custom houses end. Santleben takes care to provide arms in the stage for passengers and armed escorts. He knows many men who run wagons on the route, who die from Indians. Book by Santleben A Texas Pioneer, Early Staging and Overland Freighting Days on the Frontiers of Texas and Mexico, published by The Neale Publishing Company in 1910, the 2016 edition is apparently a page-by-page copy of an original. (See The Neale Publishing Company in Wikipedia, another title was Recollections of a California Pioneer, in 1917, which is 1917-1849=68 yrs, maybe this California pioneer was in on the California Gold Rush.) Mexicans are generally hostile to Americans due to American aggression (city of Chihuahua occupied by U.S. troops from 1846-1848), but Santleben operates by good ethics all his life and knows Mexicans and has their respect.

     After the stage line, Santleben does big-time wagon freighting to Chihuahua until 1875 when the railroad extends to Chihuahua. (The modern railroads to Chihuahua are from El Paso and Presidio) Chihuahua has lots of mining, and new mining equipment increases the number of profitable mines.

1868  world’s first commercial ice plant opens in New Orleans, a place that really needs cold beer in hot weather

1868  Janssen and Lockyer find spectral line in sunlight due to no known element on earth.  This will be proved to be helium.  See 1891.

1869  U.S. Transcontinental Railroad complete, telegraph wires along the route (see 1837)

1869  Geologist John Wesley Powell has his first expedition into the Grand Canyon.  See 1857 Ives.   Powell employs mountain men and trappers.  He builds custom boats.  Powell calls the deep canyon "our granite prison."  The modern Highway 12 in Utah follows Powell's route in his second expedition.

1869  Suez Canal opens, dug by French at sea level.  The Egyptian company with partial interest in the canal sells out to  Britain in 1882.

1869  Pope Pius IX reinforces a ban on abortion, see 1679

1869  Mendeleyev proposes the periodic table

1870  Castrato made illegal in Italy

1870  Astronomer Janssen escapes Paris during Franco-Prussian war in a hot-air balloon, to get to an eclipse in Algeria.

1871  Gramme makes first useful electric motor

1871  Meissel uses a novel means of counting all primes up to 100,000,000.  His 1885 use of the technique to count primes to 1,000,000,000 is off by 56 primes.

1871  Darwin on evolution--Darwin didn't propose in published books that life could arise from nonliving chemistry, but he wrote to Hooker on Feb 1 1871:   But if...we could conceive in some warm little pond with all sort of ammonia and phosphoric salts,—light, heat, electricity present, that a protein compound was chemically formed, ready to undergo still more complex changes, at the present [in our modern world] such matter would be instantly devoured, or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed. Letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primordial_soup    Other, bolder people took the idea of life coming from non-life and ran with it.    Find on this page or in this Google site similar paragraphs using search term "evoxcross."

1872  Maxwell publishes Theory of Heat, about thermodynamics.  It includes the famous Maxwell's Demon.  See 1929.

1872  U.S. economy takes over lead from Britain as measured by PPP, after Civil War, fueled by industry & immigration from Europe

1872  Aaron Montgomery Ward of Chicago starts the first U.S. mail-order business (includes delivery by train), eliminating the local middleman & lowering prices;  by 1892, catalog is 540 pages.

1873  Golgi develops the black reaction, staining neurons with silver nitrate and potassium dichromate.  It stains only some neurons, distinguishing neural circuits within the tangle of neurons.  Various stains are used to distinguish cellular parts, otherwise they are transparent.

1873  One of several runs on banks, the Panic of 1873.  The FDIC is far in the future;  depositors lose some or all of their deposits.  In Brownwood, Texas, one banker is eventually able to return lost deposits.  He does so  at his own expense, as an honor to his depositors.

1873  Maxwell proposes electromagnetic fields.  He follows Newton in thinking mechanistically of hard atoms colliding in a void.  Atoms "out of which [the sun and the planets] are built...remain unbroken and unworn."  Planck thinks such atoms violate the second law of thermodynamics and thinks thermodynamics is more the foundation than atoms.  In fact, he and many Germans doubt atoms.  1894 Cecil at Oxford "atoms...whether it is a movement, or a thing, or a vortex, or a point having inertia...questions remain surrounded by a darkness."  Physicists debate whether atoms are real or just a concept to explain phenomena.  Thomson in 1897 starts to dissect the atom when he finds electrons.

about 1873      Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-developer with Darwin of  natural selection, disagrees with Darwin about the purposes of evolution.  Darwin believes there is no purpose and evolution is not centered on Man.  Wallace believes something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" interceded in history.  (Wikipedia)  1) creation of life from inorganic matter. 2)  consciousness in the higher animals. 3) higher mental faculties in humankind. He believes the reason for existence of the universe is the human spirit.     See 1859.   Find on this page or in this Google site similar paragraphs using search term "evoxcross."

1874  van't Hoff and Le Bel publish independently;  molecules are often three-dimensional, they are not limited to the 2-D shapes chemists had been drawing.  Application to methane, the carbon is at the center of four hydrogens which form a 3-D pyramid of a base and three sides.  The angles between any two hydrogens, with the carbon as vertex, are identical, 109.5 degrees.  The predicted two isomers of two-chlorine, two-hydrogen methane are one and the same, but seen with the artificial limitation of 2-D with 90-degree angles, the chlorines can either be adjacent or alternated with the hydrogens.  But with the pyramid structure, the chlorines are always adjacent.

1874  The year that Christ returned to earth, though invisibly, as taught by Charles Taze Russell.  Jehovah's Witnesses believe governments and social systems are part of the satanic order.  "Jehovah...no God of three persons."  Jesus was Michael the Archangel before he was created as Jesus.  Good works are required.  Before the Final Judgment, most people will have a chance to accept Jehovah, and those rejecting Jehovah will the annihilated.  There is no eternal hell of punishment.

1874 Carpetbaggers, Republicans from the North, cease control of Texas politics. Their rule started in 1867.

1874 Tx Gov. Coke creates two branches of Texas Rangers. 1) Frontier Battalion 2) Special Force under Captain McNelly to tame the Nueces Strip, south of the Nueces River and on to the Rio Grande, where livestock thievery, Anglo and Mexican bandits, and hostile Indian tribes are beating back the civilized frontier. In only a few battles by McNelly's Rangers, including with Mexican General Cortina, considerable order comes about. Book by UT Press 1962 Taming the Nueces Strip, the Story of McNelly's Rangers, purchased by JE at King Ranch gift store west of Kingsville, July 2022. The Rangers employ many violent men who have criminal records in other states. McNelly obeys international law for the most part, rarely invading Mexico. McNelly brought Anglo King Fisher under control; Fisher became a law-abiding rancher but died in an ambush by Anglos.

1875 Joule updates his thermodynamics textbook from 1845 & includes ten equations of thermodynamics

1875  17 countries sign at the Meter Convention

1875   Theosophical Society founded by Russian Helena Blavatsky, Henry Olcott, and Irish William Quan Judge, on the west side of Manhattan.  Theosophy had few members but widespread [negative] influence even to the present.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)  Theosophy shakes up religious thinking at a time of upheaval in science:  1867 dynamite, 1868 commercial ice, 1869 Transcontinental Railroad, 1869 Suez Canal, 1869 Mendeleyev's periodic table, 1872 U.S. economy surpasses Britain, 1873 Golgi's neuron stain, 1873 Maxwell's electromagnetism, Maxwell & van der Waals (molecules are the basis of solids, liquids, and gases), Socialism in Europe, Spencer's Social Darwinism, 1879 Mary Baker Eddy's Christian Science, 1880 Petrie measures the Great Pyramid, 1881 carbon-arc lamp, 1882 Dolbear's wireless telegraphy, 1883 Tesla's and Westinghouse's AC triumphs over Edison's DC, 1883 modern eugenics, 1887 Helm's The Doctrine of Energy which is anti-atom, 1887 Michelson and Morly:  there is no ether.

    Theosophy muddies up spiritual thinking and challenges orthodox Christianity.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)   Theosophy brings in Hindu thinking and reincarnation.  Occult, karma, secret societies, feminism, evolution,  free will, inevitability of progress, Thomas Edison, William Crookes, Ascended Masters (in the 1970s, a radio station in Austin has Sunday-evening bizarre spiritual programs;  one is about the Ascended Masters).  Later, influences the New Age.       Wikipedia     Theosophical Society was at a time of upheaval, as mentioned above.  Also:  anticlericalism, anti-institution, eclecticism, liberalism, individual effort.  Occult (Freemasons, Rosicrucians)  Authority of science.  Attention given to Buddhism, Hinduism.

    These are bizarre imaginings.  In the future, http://yoga.org.nz/submissions/philosophy/thoughtenergy.htm    Your thoughts are the currencies with which you exchange energy with the universe.  The purpose of the universe is the One Cosmic Mind experiencing itself.  Cognitive Reframing.  New Thought movement from Quimby.  Napoleon Hill, Norman Vincent Peale.   Law of Attraction.  In 2019, John and Margaret drive up behind the car of a pre-med woman student who is trying to access the gate of apartments.  She accidentally backs into the Engelbrecht vehicle.  She later gives us cookies, a thank-you for our forgiving attitude.  When John tries to tell her about praying to God, she lights up and says, "Oh, like sending out greetings to the universe."  Her dad is a Presbyterian deacon.  She has no idea of what John is talking about.

1875  Steinway's pianos have cast-iron frame to bear total tension of 20 tons, double escapement, strong, round tone;  able to endure pianist Liszt without breaking.

1875  The last Comanche, just 1500 in number, surrender to the U.S. Army and end up in poverty on reservations.

1875  Zizelman family operates bakery in San Antonio.  Where Frost Bank headquarters is in modern San Antonio.

1876  Thomas finds that limestone can reduce phosphorus in steel, decreasing brittleness

1876  Western Union, the famous telegraph company, declines to buy all of Alexander Graham Bell's telephone patents.  Other companies roll out the telephone system and make the profits.

1870s  Maxwell & van der Waals propose that molecules are the basis of solids, liquids, and gases, despite the disparate properties

1870s  Socialism intrudes into economics in Europe, against capitalism & individualism that British tend toward

1870s  Social Darwinism is advanced by Herbert Spencer, though he didn't use the term.  Society is a social organism that evolves from a simpler state to a more complex one, according to the universal law of evolution.  Spencer brings out the phrase, "survival of the fittest."  Various social Darwinists advise capitalism, eugenics, racism, imperialism, fascism, Nazism.

1876  Briggs is made Professor of Hebrew at Union Theological Seminary, makes the first salvo of Higher Criticism within American Presbyterianism.   Widespread outrage.  See 1891.

1876  meiosis, sexual reproduction through a very complex cellular process, discovered by Oscar Hertwig.  Evolutionists try to imagine how it could evolve, and have no solution.  Intelligent-design advocates say it was designed;  quit worrying about it and appreciate the elegant design.

1876  Koch & Petri, building on work of Pasteur, prove anthrax is from a bacterium.  They prove the germ theory over miasma & contagion theories.  They use agar & stains.  They find bacteria for tuberculosis in 1882, cholera in 1883.  Others find bacteria for typhus, typhoid, and plague by 1894.

1876  Lucas develops clever test to determine if Mersenne numbers are prime.  He proves that 2127-1 = 170141183460469231731687303715884105727 is prime.

1877   in Constantinople during a lunar eclipse, many guns are shot at the moon

1877  Alfred Apps winds 280 miles of wire into the largest induction coil, producing 42 inch spark, about a million volts. Powered by 30 quart-size batteries.

1878  Barbed-wire fencing comes to Texas, following demonstration by Gates in San Antonio, where orders are taken at the Menger Hotel.  It is needed to segregate cattle for breeding.  "Taming the West."  It keeps livestock out of cropland.  It is opposed by open-range ranchers, who employ cowboys to flush cattle out of scrubland.  Barbed wire is cheap and durable compared the the Eastern fencing and walls made of wood and stone.  1885  The Big Die-Up, cattle could not migrate to warmer, scrub-shielded southern range because they were penned up by barbed wire.  Up to 3/4 of catte die in blizzards.  Fence Cutting Wars in Texas end with 1884 Texas law making fence cutting a felony.  The cattle drives to the rail heads in Kansas end when the railroads extend their lines to the cattle-raising areas.  (Chicago was always an important place for slaughtering.)  In a two-year period, fertile parts of the Plains are fenced.  Cowboys and herds will become a favorite of Hollywood producers.

1879  Mary Baker Eddy introduces Christian Science.  It has long been thought of as a cult but is being marketed (2000s) along New Age lines.

1879  at time of death of Maxwell, the only empirical evidence that light is electromagnetic waves is equivalence of speeds.  See 1888.

1880   San Antonio Zizelman purchases 160 acres on Culebra Creek (or is it Government Canyon Creek?)  in far-west (modern) Bexar County, in Government Canyon.  Builds a tall limestone-block house but may not have lived there.  Continues bakery in San Antonio.  

1880  Langley measures the infrared component of sunlight with the first bolometer.  1919 infrared-sensitive photographic emulsions.

1880  Kelvin proposes -460 degrees F as being absolute zero.   Modern value is -459.67 degrees F.

1880  Petrie measures the Great Pyramid of Cheops with special instruments, finds accuracy of masonry of Descending Passage to be .02" in 150 ft. (1 part in 90,000) Finds that the line of fine craftsmen who started building the pyramid held sway only through the first half of construction, then the quality of the work declined.

1881  electric, carbon-arc lamps are installed on locomotives and are replacing Drummond lamps in theaters;  multi-kilowatt power supplied by early, high-power dynamos.  The carbon (graphite) burns up, the rods have to be advanced by a mechanism.

1881  Czar Alexander II is murdered;  pogroms, often perpetrated by mobs, drive 2 to 3.5 million Jews from Russia (largely eastern Europe) to just the U.S. from 1882 to 1920.  Jewish defense leagues include Hovevei Zion.  Zionism looks toward a modern state of Israel in Ottoman territory.  Simon Schama in two-DVD The Story of the Jews (c)2013 BBC, episode four, states that the Jewish persecutions of this time are comparable to the Holocaust perpetrated by Nazis in WWII.

1881  Z. N. "Wildcat" Morrell writes in Flowers and Fruits in the Wilderness (third ed. revised, Commercial Printing Co. St. Louis, 1872), at p. 233, "1881 stands without a parallel in my recollection for sad events throughout the civilized world...Beneath the power of the spirit of communism, nihilism, and mobocracy, that conceives and organizes in secret and at night...the nations of earth have trembled...the news of these sad events, flashed over the [telegraph] wires."  Morrell founded the first missionary Baptist church in Texas at Washington-on-the-Brazos in 1837.

1882  Dolbear seeks patent for wireless telegraphy (radio).  Early wireless telegraph transmitters were similar to Hertz's equipment.  Later antenna work develops radio antennas that can beam the radio waves.

1882  Serbian Tesla has an inspiration for a brushless induction motor, using two-phase AC rather than DC.  He builds a model.  He is working at the Edison company in Paris.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor indicates that Italian Ferraris is also making induction motors.  The induction motor makes use of Lenz's Law, 1834.  The rotors of induction motors "slip," they run about 4% slower than the stator field rotates.  But they need no graphite brushes, run quietly, and need almost no maintenance.

1882 The rough and corrupt Roy Bean establishes a tent saloon near the Pecos River, near the Mexican Border, 120 miles from the nearest court in arid Fort Stockton, and gets himself appointed as Justice of the Peace.  He calls himself the "Only Law West of the Pecos."  Wikipedia.        The permanent, wood-frame saloon is a tourist attraction by the 1960s.

1883  John Montgomery glider flies near San Diego, first controlled, heavier-than-air flight.  Published in 1894 Progress in Flying Machines, read by Wright brothers who flew in 1903.    

1883  Tesla and Westinghouse develop AC generation and distribution, displacing Edison's DC in The Battle of the Currents.  Westinghouse gets the revenue from electricity distribution, not Edison.

1883  Galton, half cousin of Darwin, founds modern eugenics.

1883  Krakatoa volcano collapses into undersea caldera.  36,000 dead, mostly from tsunami.  11 cubic miles of debris into the air.  World temperatures drop a degree for up to five yrs.

1884  modern steam turbine developed by Parsons

1884  Heaviside wonders whether current in a wire carries the energy, or is it that the energy is in the electromagnetic field?  A related idea:  what comes first when a wire shorts out a battery, the current or the electric field?  Answer:  the electric field brings about the current flow.

1884  At the first technical meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, British Preece questions American Houston on Houston's assertion that electricity flows in one direction rather than another.  This is in reference to current flow through partial vacuum in Edison's three-wire lamp, called eventually the filament and plate, usable as a rectifying diode if the vacuum is adequate.  Evidence of electrons grows, see 1899 and 1910.

1884  International Meridian Conference in Washington D.C. establishes the Greenwich, Britain meridian for longitude.  Later, time zones grow from the Greenwich Meridian.  There is a structure or medallion in Greenwich which marks the zero-degree longitude.

1884  Tesla emigrates to America with a letter of recommendation to Edison, gains an audience with Edison in NYC the day of his arrival, and is hired.  He works for six months but finds Edison committed to the lucrative DC electric system in Manhattan and dismissive of AC.  Tesla quits at Edison and looks for other AC opportunities.  Tesla is more a creator and showman than a businessman.  He burns through savings while living for decades at the Waldorf Astoria.

1885  Lithuanian Emma Goldman enters U.S. at age 16 and lives with a sister in New York State but ends up in New York City.  At the radical Sachs' Cafe, she is attracted to the anti-authoritarian political philosophy of anarchism.  (Anarchism literally means against hierarchy.  It is practically associated with violence in the service of bringing about change, anti-religion, etc.)  She trains in oration and becomes known as the most dangerous woman in America.  Subject of PBS American Experience May 21 2019.  See notes later in this time line, 1893.

1880s  telegraph multiplexing by frequency multiplexing requires filters beyond what can be designed at the time;  the frequency domain is not understood    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogue_filter

1885  Daimler builds first gasoline engine with carburetor.  Gasoline production in refineries starts ramping up.

1885  The toroidal transformer (doughnut core) is an improvement for power transformers.  1886 Stanley (the Stanley Transformer Company is important for 100 years) and others modify the toroidal core to be cheap, stamped, varnished E and I shapes that are easily slid into prewound copper coils.  The varnished stampings quell eddy current as a side effect, and a final varnish dip reduces hum by locking the magnetic core into the copper coils.

1886 Hall in U.S. & Heroult in France invent electrolysis process to get aluminum from aluminum oxide (alumina) but cost of electricity is too high until 1930's WPA hydropower dams.  Aluminum had previously been higher priced than gold, see 1855.  Process is at 950 deg. C, coke & petroleum pitch -> carbon electrodes which electrolyze to carbon dioxide.  Cryolite, sodium aluminum fluoride, is a flux & insulator in the process.  4 volts but 150,000 amps.  1888:  Hall opens first U.S. production plant in Pittsburgh, see 1903.

1886  There are 136 U.S. public water supplies, many of them treating water to prevent disease and supplying water to fight fires.  Slow sand filtration and rapid filtration with chemical coagulation.  See 1858 Great Stink, 1867.

1887  Austrian Bayer:  bauxite ore + sodium hydroxide -> alum. hydroxide, crystallized then calcined to alum. oxide; temperatures & rates must be carefully controlled

1887  German physicist Georg Helm writes The Doctrine of Energy which leads Ostwald & Mach to deny atoms until 1909

1887  Svante Arrhenius is the first to define acids and bases, but it is sensible only in water solutions.  See 1923.

1887  Hertz finds that UV stimulates easier sparking between electrodes with a radio-frequency voltage.  1905 Einstein publishes an explanation of the photoelectric effect.

1887  Michelson and Morely are surprised to find there is no ether, using interferometry.  Prevailing theories held that ether or aether forms an absolute reference frame with respect to the stars, and they expected to find the earth, orbiting the sun, moving through the ether.  The ether idea finally goes away when Einstein proposes relativity.     John Brashear's company built the interferometer for  Michelson and Morely.  It appears to be based on a stone slab of many tons.       This work paved the way for Einstein’s relativity theory. They also built the spectrograph used at Lowell Observatory used to detect the first galactic redshifts.  John Brashear was a mechanical and optics genius who did important work at Allegheny Observatory.  PBS T.V. program May 10 2016.  With his wife, started making precision instruments by making telescope lenses and mirrors in their workshop, being inspired while a child by seeing Saturn.  Their first lens was dropped and broke after two years of grinding.  Their first mirror, about 6" diameter, broke due to excess heat during grinding.  These amateurs learned their art from books.

1887  "The Down Grade Controversy" foreshadows 1899 apostolic letter in this time line.  Spurgeon.  Threat of Modernism.  

1887 Tesla patents certain points of the induction motor, a motor without graphite brushes.  It is the principal motor in use thereafter, requiring only bearing lubrication.

1888  Tesla presents A New System for Alternating Current Motors and Transformers to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.  He demonstrates a half-horsepower motor.  Westinghouse licenses Tesla's patents, buys a U.S. option for Ferraris' design, and wins the bidding for power generation at Niagra, which includes a distribution grid reaching 300 times further than one Edison DC plant can reach.  The price for copper plummets when AC wins, as high-voltage AC needs a tenth the copper.  (The high voltage is created with the step-up transformer which uses lots of steel, but steel is much cheaper than copper.)  The early Westinghouse equipment creates rotating magnetic field using two phase.  Three phase is later shown to be more efficient and has less pulsation of torque.  During a temporary financial pinch, Westinghouse asks Tesla to forego his royalty, and Tesla agrees.  He later regrets that.

1888  Lodge recognizes electrical resonance in high voltage capacitor discharge circuit and tunes wire lengths to make large sparks.  He observes ionized air glowing at intervals along the wires;  this is standing waves, found in the 1930s to be an impediment to transmitted power in shortwave broadcasting.  Coincides with Hertz's publication of "On electrodynamic waves in air and their reflection."  Hertz goes on from reflection to demonstrate electromagnetic waves being refracted, diffracted, and polarized, all light-like behavior.  He uses a meter-long prism of asphalt to show refraction, and a large sheet of zinc to show electromagnetic standing waves from reflection;  he measures wavelength from the standing waves.  The long-demonstrated standing waves in ropes and organ pipes aided recognition of electromagnetic waves.

1880s  Rhodes The Making of the Atomic Bomb p. 55   "vitalism vs. mechanism...the world has purpose or...the world operates automatically and by chance"     scientific materialism

1888  Nietzche contributes to nihilism, Nazism, anti-moral thinking, and atheism.  Nietzche says Christianity is "the one immortal blemish of mankind," identifying Christian morality with "slave morality."  Nietzche extolls the Ubermensch, the "superman," a mentally perfected and powerful man who pursues success apart from scruples.  "Great suffering...only this discipline has created all enhancements of man so far."  "One morality for all is detrimental for the higher man."  "They are a modest and thoroughly mediocre type of man, these utilitarian Englishmen."  (John Stuart Mill, see 1863)     "The essential characteristic of a good and healthy aristocracy...accepts with a good conscience the sacrifice of untold human beings who, for its sake, must be reduced and lowered to incomplete human beings, to slaves."     10 Books That Screwed Up the World p. 108:  Darwin focused on survival and Nietzche focused on the fittest.  Christian charity has worked "to preserve all that was sick and that suffered--which means...to worsen the European race."  "Men not noble enough...with their 'equal before God'...a smaller, almost ridiculous type, a herd animal, something eager to please, sickly, and mediocre has been bred, the European of today." 

    10 Books That Screwed Up the World p. 108:  "Christianity in its original form was transformed into liberal Christianity [see 1800 Schleiermacher, theological liberalism], and finally into godless utilitarian liberalism [John Stuart Mill, see 1863]...the absolute demands, the passionate desire to suffer with and for Christ, the difficult virtues, the awe before the divine...degraded through liberal Christianity and then through godless utilitarian liberalism into a kind of charity of softness that demanded nothing while it provided for every earthly comfort."

    Nietzche Beyond Good and Evil section 208 proposes that Russia could catalyze a return to greatness in Europe:  such "an increase in the menace of Russia that Europe would have to resolve to become menacing, too, namely, to acquire one will by means of a new caste that would rule Europe... to cast its goals millennia hence [sounds like the Thousand Year Reich]...the compulsion to large-scale politics." 

    A letter by Nietzche:  "a destructive blow against Christianity...the old god is abolished, and I myself will henceforth rule the world"...signed Nietzsche Caesar.

    Nietzche:  the Gospels, Paul, martyrs, priests, the crusades—all contribute to Christianity, a religion for weak and unhealthy people, whose general historical effect has been to undermine the healthy qualities of the more noble cultures.

    http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/#NietInflUpon20thCentThou

    The priesthood: priests are weak people who shepherd even weaker people as a way to experience power for themselves. There is no absolute, “God’s eye” standpoint from which one can survey everything that is.  In The Antichrist, Curse on Christianity Nietzsche expresses his disgust over the way noble values in Roman Society were corrupted by the rise of Christianity.  

    John Engelbrecht's comment:  If Nietzche had retained sanity to old age rather than becoming insane at age 44, what further bad ideas would he have propagated? 

    "Christianity has not yet fully recovered...from the devastating blows" of Nietzche, p. 382 in Austin's Topical History of Christianity, as many people have harmed the modern world by propagating his ideas.  Nietzche is crucial to Sigmund Freud’s development of psychoanalysis.  He aids 

• Carl Jung

• Martin Heidegger

• the freethinking newspaperman H.L. Mencken

• Jean-Paul Sartre (nihilism downgrading morals)

• George Bernard Shaw

• Paul Tillich, Alfred Adler (self-actualization)

• "human potential movement" and humanistic psychology (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May)

• Ayn Rand, the "God is dead" philosophers of the 1960s.

    Read this part of 1 Thessalonians ch. 4 and consider what Nitzche would say about it.  Then consider what Christians think about it, and what Nietzche gave up in his ruthless drive to control himself and rise above all others.

    Now about brotherly love we do not need to write to you for you yourselves have been taught by God to love each other.  And in fact you do love all the brothers throughout Macedonia.  Yet we urge you, brothers, to do so more and more.  Make it your ambition to lead a quiet life, to mind your own business, and to work with your hands just as we told you, that your daily life may win the respect of outsiders and so you will not be dependent on anybody. 

    Brothers, we do not want you to be ignorant about those who fall asleep, or who grieve like the rest of men who have no hope. For the Lord himself will come down from heaven with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first.  After that, we who are still alive and left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air.  And so we will be with the Lord forever.  Therefore encourage each other with these words.

    Now, brothers, about times and dates we do not need to write to you, for you know very well that the day of the Lord will come like a thief in the night.  While people are saying, "peace and safety," destruction will come on them suddenly, as labor pains on a pregnant woman, and they will not escape.  But you, brothers, are not in darkness so that this day should surprise you like a thief.  You are all sons of the light and sons of the day.  We do not belong to the night or the darkness.  So then, let us not be like others, who are asleep, but let us be alert and self-controlled.  For those who sleep, sleep at night, and those who get drunk, get drunk at night.  But since we belong to the day, let us be self-controlled, putting on faith and love as a breastplate, and the hope of salvation as a helmet.  For God did not appoint us to suffer wrath but to receive salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ.  Therefore encourage one another and build each other up, just as in fact you were doing.

    Now we ask you, brothers, to respect those who work hard among you, who are over you in the Lord and who admonish you.  Hold them in the highest regard in love because of their work.  Live in peace with each other.  And we urge you, brothers, warn those who are idle.  Help the weak, be patient with everyone.  Make sure that nobody pays back wrong for wrong, but always try to be kind to each other and to everyone else.  Be joyful always, pray continually, give thanks in all circumstances, for this is God's will for you in Jesus Christ.  Do not put out the Spirit's fire.  Do not treat prophecies with contempt.  Test everything.  Hold onto the good.  Avoid [Nietzche, ] every kind of evil.  May God himself, the God of peace, sanctify you through and through.

    Nietzche might approve of "self-controlled" and having the more able be over the less able.      Nietzche's most remembered work is Beyond Good and Evil.

1888  Atlanta pharmacist bottles the first Coca-Cola, including some cocaine, but it is sold initially as mouthwash & gargle.  By 1903, the cocaine is dropped & the label says "cocaine removed."

1888  National Geographic Society is founded.  Magazine subscription greatly increases after 1899 when photography added.  Great journeys of exploration are chronicled:  both poles, Everest and K2, the upper Amazon tributaries and never-before-seen tribes, Earth-orbital space and the Moon.

1889  Ruud of Norway invents the automatic storage water heater

1889  glass bottle with sterilized milk for consumers starts up;  bottles are returned to milk plant, cleaned, and refilled.  Milk delivery to the doorstep in recycled glass bottles persists in Austin until 1980s.  One of the bottling plants was on 1st Street.

1889   the meter is defined by a platinum-irridium bar at 0 degrees C, relative uncertainty of 10−7, 100 times better than 1799. Next determination is 1927.

1890  German metallurgist Martens finds a crystalline explanation for hard (martensite) steel by etching steel & examining under microscope.  Hardened steel (red hot, then quenched in forced water or oil) is a network of interlinked, sharp crystals.

1890 Sachse proposes the half-chair conformation of cyclohexane as an alternative conformation to chair and boat.  The various conformations put carbons at the no-strain angle of 109.5° or other, strained, angles.  Such thinking eventually is supported by infrared spectroscopy to study the energy changes.  Application is made to interstellar organic compounds which emit or absorb infrared, after 1964.

1890   birth of Jessie Flora Ramsey Murray at Mahomet, Texas, in Burnet County  (see Annabelle Sinclair Ramsey 1855)

1890   Nathan Kallison and brother Jacob, Jewish, flee persecution in Russia (pogroms for centuries) and emigrate to U.S., initially in New York City.  Nathan will eventually do ranching west of San Antonio.  The Kallison Ranch and Valley Ranch subdivisions of about 2016 will be built on the ranch land, and Government Canyon State Natural Area will incorporate more of the historic ranch.   See several references up to 1899.      They live in Chicago, where their older cousin, Joseph, lives.  Nathan works as a harness maker.  He attends the Jewish Training School in order to learn English and American history.

1890  Herman Hollerith's electric, punch-card machines analyze census data 10x faster than hand tabulation;  founded progenitor of IBM

1890  Burnham & Root build first sizable steel-framed building, in Chicago

1890  Important math advances can no longer be made by isolated mathematicians.  Collegial work is necessary.  Derbyshire, 2003, Prime Obsession.

1890   Henri Poincare finds sensitive dependence on initial conditions for the three-body problem and speculates there could be sensitivity in weather.

1890   Swedish Rydberg generalizes Balmer's formula, for many line spectra of atoms.  See 1913 Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant. 

1891   Briggs at Union Theological Seminary spells out implications of higher criticism.  Moses did not write the first five Old Testament books, Ezra did not write Ezra, David wrote few of the Psalms, the Old Testament shows man in a lower state of moral development, scriptures are riddled with error.  The doctrine of scriptural inerrancy taught at Princeton Theological Seminary "is a ghost of modern evangelicalism to frighten children."  Wikipedia, Fundamentalist-Modernist controversy.  See Briggs in this time line at 1876.

1891  Trans Siberian Railway construction starts;  vital in WWI when U-boats stop most Atlantic shipping, also WWII

1891  Helium is discovered in pockets within uranium ore, a product of slow, radioactive decay.  Helium is later found in some methane wells, up to 8%.

1891  Tesla invents the Tesla coil.  It uses a spark gap at 10kV to stimulate a ringing, RF magnetic field that is increased in voltage by a tall, air-core transformer to around 1MV.  AC, not DC.  The resonant frequencies of the primary and secondary must be tuned to the same frequency.  In Science Fairs of the 1960s, showy, noisy, and frightening Tesla coils are popular, but they are build-to-a-recipe, not really science.  After the year 2000, MOSFETs and IGBTs replace the spark gap and give quieter operation, and can be modulated so the sparking plays music.  RFI is a concern.  In 1902, Tesla's grandiose plans for power-at-a-distance and long-distance telegraph, using a 200-foot tower on Long Island, get initial backing by J.P. Morgan but not enough to complete the project.  It will be demolished during WWI.  

1892  Michelson finds some spectral lines to be doublets.  Later found to be from electric and magnetic fields by Stark and Zeeman.

1892  Russian Dmitri Iwanowsk studying mosaic tobacco disease finds the agent causing the disease is small enough to pass though ceramic filters that trap all bacteria. The beginning of virology.

1892  In the next five years, the Mexican boll weevil will invade U.S. cotton and reduce yield by 50%.  Farmers at Enterprise, Alabama find other crops, and find higher profits.  6,000,000 Black farm workers are thrown out of work.  The Great Migration to Detroit auto plants and other industry.

1892  Toothpaste graduates from jars to metal squeeze tubes, lead lined with tin.  Packaging advances to aluminum-plastic during WWII when lead and tin are needed in the miliary, then all-plastic in 1990s when plastics that adequately exclude air are developed.

1893   Nathan Kallison opens his own harness shop

1893   Anarchist Emma Goldman arrested for inciting to riot.  Ten months in prison.  See 1893, 1901.

1893  Brilliant mathematician Steinmetz writes a paper backing up Kennelly on the utility of the complex plane (real + i imaginary) to represent inductive and capacitive reactance in electrical transmission using the new AC high voltage.  See 1883.  The math is more straightforward than conventional vectors.  The complex plane gradually comes into use in engineering schools and is routine by the time John Engelbrecht is at UT Austin taking electrical engineering, 1969.  Steinmetz did awesome work at GE.

1894  Kallison brothers bring their mother, Dina, to Chicago

1894  Spanish Cajal lectures in the Croonian Lectures about cortical pyramidal neurons.  Cajal asserts that new synapses develop and are the reason that there is learning and memory.   Plasticity is the term for the nervous system adapting to stimulus and improving with experience.  Cajal improved Golgi's neuron stain and traced many neuron circuits in the brain and spinal cord.  He published the Neuron Doctrine, opposing reticularism.

1895   Brown's theory of lunar motion accounts for hundreds of terms and predicts lunar position to 200 meters accuracy

1895   Russian Popov detects radio waves from lightning

1895  Albert Einstein as an adolescent studies Judaism.  "Through the reading of popular scientific books I soon reached the conviction that much of the stories in the Bible could not be true...youth is intentionally being deceived by the state through lies."  But in 1921, Einstein visits America and finds Jews with a healthy national feeling, not yet destroyed by assimilation.  Rhodes The Making of the Atomic Bomb p. 174       John E:  Einstein discounts the supernatural, common since 1768, see 1768 in this time line;  1859 Darwin  1888 Nietzche and other free thinkers create an atmosphere hostile to orthodox Christianity which persists to the present, but evangelicals make a comeback at the time of Billy Graham.

1895  textile owner Lowell builds Lowell Observatory to look at Mars that had been at opposition in 1894, imagines water canals, seasons (based on the real seasonal variations of polar carbon-dioxide icecap & dust storms), civilization on Mars, writes books, fires imagination of people.  See 1896 Tesla.

Magenta is psychology topics.

1895 Cattell promotes psychology as science

1890s  rock bolts (anchor bolts) in use in mining to stabilize roofs of excavations

1890s  Methodists in Germany turn away from Christian orthodoxy.  This, in turn, steers American Methodists away from orthodoxy in the early 1900s.  Book by Heidinger, "revision, defection, and even denial of her Wesleyan doctrinal heritage."  Social Gospel.  These are the roots of Methodist decline through the next 110 years, culminating in the departure of orthodox, largely African, Global Methodist Church from U.S. United Methodist Church in 2024.  

No miracles, 

no supernatural, 

Jesus a moral exemplar, 

people are not generally sinful, 

innate goodness, 

atonement not needed.  

Relaxed membership standards 

[JE:  the three SBC Baptist churches we have been in recently all screen for prospective members being born again, Detroit Friendship Baptist newer pastor rebuilt the membership by careful screening after a major membership loss in 1990s].  Loosed from creedalism.  Modernist leader Borden Parker Bowne (died 1910), though Wikipedia says he was a "critic of mechanistic determinism, positivism, and naturalism," but he was for "personalism" around 1882.  UAT-rep.routledge.com on personalism:  "Knowledge comes only through personal experience...our minds are nevertheless independent of God’s."  Faith vs. reason/logic, and Bowne never reconciled the division.  "Life is deeper than logic."     Bowne will influence Martin Luther King Jr.  "Leadership was reluctant to take any definitive action" when orthodox laypeople conflicted with modernist leaders.  

     Personalism sounds like secular humanism.  Check that out on-line on redkiwiappl.com, humanism vs personalism.  (But I don't find Internet leads for personalism vs freethought.)  Personalism is served well by social media, the unique experiences of individuals.  Personalism, a worldview valuing personal relationships, downgrading Christian Church.  Individual freedoms (sounds like sexual liberty) over collective interests, sounds like Antifa.    Humanism, good without a god, no divine being directs the cosmos, our fate is solely in our own hands.  Agency of humans.  Reason and science to understand the world, getting beyond 2000-year-old morality.  Some Internet sources say humanism is growing, some regret that it is shrinking.  Amsterdam Declaration 2022:  solutions lie in human reason and action.

1896  Tesla develops and patents fluorescent lighting, X-ray equipment, resonance ideas (Tesla coil, the noisy and scary favorite in science fairs in the 1950s and 1960s), and arc lamps.  He stages elaborate high-voltage demonstrations and wins public acclaim exceeding that of Edison, but Tesla's extravagant claims for long-distance power delivery and communication cannot be realized with $150,000 of backing from J.P. Morgan, and Tesla's popularity fades when Marconi beats him to transatlantic communication.  It doesn't help that Tesla claims to receive electrical messages from Martians, see 1895 textile owner Lowell...

1896  Kallison family is naturalized as American citizens

1896  Goddard at age 16 builds an aluminum balloon to be filled with hydrogen but it does not have lift.  Reads The War of the Worlds (see 1898).  Travel to another planet or moon becomes his goal.  He lives to 1945.     1969:  first two men on the Moon.

1896 The Prime Number Theorem (PNT) is proved independently by Hadamard and Poussin.  The theorem is that the prime counting function pi(n), the number of primes below the integer n, is close to being equal to the logarithmic integral, the integral from 2 to n of 1/the natural log of x.  There is no closed-form formula, but there is an infinite sum that approaches the logarithmic integral, though convergence is still not "complete" past 10370.      http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeNumberTheorem.html#eqn4

    The PNT is not the same as the Riemann Hypothesis, which can predict large primes through a lot of math, but possibly less math than Eratosthenes' Sieve. 

    Riemann's work (1859 and following) aids Hadarmard and Poussin.      The logarithmic integral Li(x) is a better estimate of the prime counting function than N/Log(N).  The proof of PNT is an important step toward proving the Riemann Hypothesis but by 2016 the RH is not yet proved.

1896 Roentgen publishes X-ray photo of bones in his hand.  X-rays are proposed to be electromagnetic rays more energetic than ultraviolet light.  Many early X-ray investigators burned up their hands while making movies of their hand bones in action, and had to have amputations.  Edison swore off X-rays when his assistant was burned.  X-rays and gamma rays produce no sensation.

1896  Becquerel discovers another ray coming from uranium, exposing photographic plates

1896  Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex  “At some future period...the civilized race will almost certainly exterminate, and replace, the savage races throughout the world."  This is eugenics.

1897  Ross finds the parasite of human malaria within a species of mosquito, culminating work by physicians since 1880s

1897  J. J. Thomson finds that cathode rays are not electromagnetic radiation but instead are a part of atoms.  He calls them corpuscles, eventually called electrons.  This goes against the idea that an atom is indivisible.  The plum pudding model of the atom follows.  Electrons are thought to be the reason for chemistry.

1898  Loeffler and Frosch follow Iwanowsk (see 1892), identify foot and mouth disease agent as smaller than bacteria.  Doctors resist the idea that human disease is from such agents.

1898   Rutherford discriminates between alpha and beta particles, two of the three ways that radioactive atoms decay.  It is the nuclei, neutrons and protons, that decay.     The third type of nuclear decay is gamma rays, electromagnetic radiation rather than particles.       Alpha particle is a helium nucleus, two proton, two neutron.  Beta particle is an electron at high speed (nearly speed of light) and megavolts of energy.

1898   Armour and Company, meat packer in Chicago, cans rotten beef with a layer of boric acid and sells it to the U.S. Army for the Spanish-American War.  It sickens and kills soldiers.  Scandal.  Muckrakers.

1898   H.G. Wells publishes The War of the Worlds, building on Percival Lowell's books (see 1895)

1898   Nathan Kallison considers moving to Albuquerque, New Mexico, or Arizona, but decides on San Antonio

1899 Jan 4   Punch Magazine has a joke, "everything that can be invented has been invented."  An urban legend attributes this to Charles Duell, Commissioner of US patent office in 1899.   Sass traces the false attribution to a 1981  book, The Book of Facts and Fallacies by Morgan & Langford.

 1899 & thereabouts   Freud invents psychoanalysis;  it is thereafter debunked when other ways of thinking come about.  Crews book about 2017, Freud the making of an illusion, documents the deception that Freud's followers put up with.

1899  The Interpretation of Dreams Sigmund Freud   Theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and discusses what would later become the theory of the Oedipus complex.  "Insight such as this falls to one's lot but once in a lifetime."  Hans Eysenck argues in Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (1985) that the dreams Freud cites do not really support his theories, and that Freud's examples actually disprove his dream theory. http://thegreatestbooks.org/nonfiction  list is generated from 107 "best of" book lists from a variety of great sources.

1899  Grayson makes a ruling engine to produce diffraction gratings of 120,000 lines per inch for use with spectroscopy

1899  German Lenard finds the photoelectric effect of electron emission from metals in vacuum.  1905 Einstein explains it in terms of quanta.  Lenard will come to be jealous of the Jew, Einstein.  Lenard will be a scientist leading Nazi persecution of Jews.

1899  Shipboard wireless telegraph allows ships in trouble to summon assistance and warn of hazards

1899  During the infancy of nuclear science, Chamberlain, geologist, agrees with biologists and geologists that the earth is old.  He tells physicists (who think the Earth is not old) that atoms have "locked up in them energies of the first order" that keep the Earth's interior hot.  He also speculates that the center of the Sun has conditions that release so much energy, and over a  very long time, that the Sun is also old.  

1899  Lebedev in Moscow succeeds in measuring the pressure exerted by visible light (which Kelvin had doubted, in fact Kelvin doubted much of Maxwell's theory) on absorbing or reflecting (2x the effect) surfaces, where others couldn't attain enough vacuum to avoid the masking effect of random gas variations.  He employs special materials & eqpt made in Germany.  Lebedev's paper is on the Internet, translated to English.  After succeeding one triumph with another, the radiation pressure on gas molecules, Lebedev & many professors at Moscow Univ. resign in 1911 due to police intervention during student riots, impoverishing Moscow U.

1899  Nathan Kallison, the patriarch of the Jewish immigrant family, opens a leather shop at 124 S. Flores St., downtown San Antonio.  He Soared With Eagles, a 2011 book written by Morris’ son Jack Kallison that chronicled the Kallison family’s contributions to San Antonio’s landscape.  https://therivardreport.com/local-landmark-kallison-cowboy-is-gone-but-not-forever/             See 1890, 1908.

1899, related to the following        New Oxford Review Ap 2022 p. 10  Modernism gives rise to "solipsism, extreme skepticism, and narcissistic anthropocentrism" affecting "every once respectable discipline from epistemology to moral philosophy...[taking culture into] hedonism."

1899 apostolic letter, Testem Benevolentiae Nostrae, by Pope Leo XIII warns of a U.S. heresy: Christianity is a philosophy evolving over time; truth is relative; individual conscience establishes faith and morals. Spreads through Europe.  1907 encyclical, Pascendi Dominici Gregis, from Pope Pius X:  warning that the heresy holds that religion is a subjective "sentiment" from a person's perceived need for a god, which he creates and "knows" only through subjective experience.  Pius X calls it modernism.  Enlightenment thinking, rethink scripture, revise what Jesus did and who he is, revise dogma;  started by Abbe Alfred Loisy, Father George Tyrrell, and Baron Friedrich von Hugel.        New Oxford Review June 2010 p. 20  Later problems for orthodoxy springing from modernism:  

• free the laity from "patriarchy"

• introduce democracy by including laity in bishop selection and open thinking toward women bishops and active h        

• replace teaching authority of Pope/bishops by dissenting professors               

Modernism is coming largely from within Roman Catholicism as liberals become seminary and university professors.   Errors follow:  

• Jesus not divine

• Scripture not inspired nor true

• "faith" has no place in man's search for knowledge  

      See 1835, 1912, 1967.  See 1963 Pope Paul VI, where a pope is recognized to be a modernist, probably the first modern h      pope, also 2003 more and more charges, 2013 March New Oxford Review, 2015 New Oxford Review, 2018 Aug 14, 2017 http://www.slate, 2018 November.              Through this time line, note many occasions of the hierarchical Catholic Church causing problems.  Protestant, non-hierarchical churches often run off the rails, but orthodox Christians are free to seek protestant congregations that continue in reformed theology.   Pius X acted:  censoring, prodding bishops, oath for clergy and professors, excommunication, and this was somewhat effective until Vatican Council II, but afterward the floodgates of heresy open.  "The Anglican Communion [Anglican church or Church of England, and Episcopalians] had no such champion."

New Oxford Review June 2010 p. 20  When the red influences in the preceding paragraph prevail, "what would such a church look like?  The answer is plain to see:" ... the Church of England and the American Episcopal Church.  The Anglican Communion has disintegrated.  Orthodox Anglicans can take advantage of Pope Benedict XVI's Anglicanorum Coetibus to find a home.  The Anglican crises "lie in the very errors and trends that Pius X condemned."

New Oxford Review Ap 2022 p. 10  Modernism gives rise to "solipsism, extreme skepticism, and narcissistic anthropocentrism" affecting "every once- respectable discipline from epistemology to moral philosophy...[taking culture into] hedonism."  

New Oxford Review June 2010 p. 21  Lamentabili Sane and Pascendi Dominici Gregis:  

• the historical Jesus is distinguished from the Jesus of faith

• the four Gospels developed over centuries and now contain but a hint of the real doctrine of Christ

• the resurrection was spiritual, not factual

• faith is feeling

• every religion is true (PDG #14)

• Church authority must go from apostolic to mass consensus (PDG #27)

• religious experience is on an equal footing with revelation PDG #8)

• doctrine must adapt to the times

• Modern faith must harmonize with science by becoming non-dogmatic (LS #65)

    The Day is Now Far Spent Roman Catholic Cardinal Robert Sarah, a Black African from sub-Sahara Guinea, in conversation with French Nicolas Diat Ignatius Press 2019 page 26   "Faith was sufficient light for societies in antiquity.  But for modern times, the era of science and technology, faith is [made out by the doubters to be] an illusory light that would prevent man from cultivating the boldness of knowledge.  [Doubters say faith] would even be a restriction on his freedom and would keep man in ignorance and fear."  But I say that "to believe means to entrust oneself to God and to his merciful love, a love that...forgives, sustains and orients life."  "Some people today [2019] would like to reduce faith to a subjective, private experience" and banish faith from the public sphere.  (This is advocated by Freedom from Religion Foundation)

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