The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was the dominant intellectual movement of the eighteenth century.

The achievements of the Scientific Revolution had revealed the ability of the human mind to penetrate the secrets of the physical universe. While the makers of the Scientific Revolution had used their intellectual powers to discover the natural laws that governed the operation of the physical universe, the thinkers of the Enlightenment sought through reasoning to discover the natural laws that governed the affairs of human beings and human society. They criticized the existing institutions of absolute monarchy and established church and proposed a broad range of reforms designed to eliminate abuses and to promote individual freedom.

While the Enlightenment was abroad international movement, many of its leading thinkers were French. The Enlightenment thinkers are known collectively as philosophes, the French word for philosopher. The philospohes were not philosophers in the traditional sense. Instead, they were critics of the Old Regime who developed new ideas about government, economics, and religion and advanced proposals for the improvement of the human condition and the reform of society.

The philosophes shared the Enlightenment’s faith in the supremacy of human reason, believing that people, through the use of their reason, could find answers to their questions and solutions to their problems. In particular, reason could be used to reveal the natural laws that regulated human affairs. Once these natural laws were discovered, the institutions of society could be reformed to bring them more in accordance with the natural order.

Modern History Sourcebook: Salon Life

Although the leading figures of the Enlightenment were all men, the social context was the highly-civilized "salon", usually presided over by a women with some independent wealth.

On Julie de Lespinasse

From Memoir of Baron de Grimm

Her circle met daily from five o'clock until nine in the evening. There we were sure to find choice men of all orders in the State, the Church, the Court,-military men, foreigners, and the most distinguished men of letters. Every one agrees that though the name of M. d'Alembert may have drawn them thither, it was she alone who kept them there. Devoted wholly to the care of preserving that society, of which she was the soul and the charm, she subordinated to this purpose all her tastes and all her personal intimacies. She seldom went to the theatre or into the country, and when she did make an exception to this rule it was an event of which all Paris was notified in advance.... Politics, religion, philosophy, anecdotes, news, nothing was excluded from the conversation, and, thanks to her care, the most trivial little narrative gained, as naturally as possible, the place and notice it deserved. News of all kinds was gathered there in its first freshness.

From Memoir of Marmontel

The circle was formed of persons who were not bound together. She had taken them here and there in society, but so well assorted were they that once there they fell into harmony like the strings of an instrument touched by an able hand. Following out that comparison, I may say that she played the instrument with an art that came of genius; she seemed to know what tone each string would yield before she touched it; I mean to say that our minds and our natures were so well known to her that in order to bring them into play she had but to say a word. Nowhere was conversation more lively, more brilliant, or better regulated than at her house. It was a rare phenomenon indeed, the degree of tempered, equable heat which she knew so well how to maintain, sometimes by moderating it, sometimes by quickening it. The continual activity of her soul was communicated to our souls, but measurably; her imagination was the mainspring, her reason the regulator. Remark that the brains she stirred at will were neither feeble nor frivolous: the Coudillacs and Turgots were among them; d'Alembert was like a simple, docile child beside her. Her talent for casting out a thought and giving it for discussion to men of that class, her own talent in discussing it with precision, sometimes with eloquence, her talent for bringing forward new ideas and varying the topic-always with the facility and ease of a fairy, who, with one touch of her wand, can change the scene of her enchantment-these talents, I say, were not those of an ordinary woman. It was not with the follies of fashion and vanity that daily, during four hours of conversation, without languor and without vacuum, she knew how to make herself interesting to a wide circle of strong minds.

From Letter of Julie de Lespinasse to the Comte de Guibert.

I love you too well to impose the least restraint upon myself; I prefer to have to ask your pardon rather than commit no faults. I have no self­love with you; I do not comprehend those rules of conduct that make us so content with self and so cold to those we love. I detest prudence, I even hate (suffer me to say so) those "duties of friendship" which substitute propriety for interest, and circumspection for feeling. How shall I say it? I love the abandonment to impulse, I act from impulse only, and I love to madness that others do the same by me.

Ah! mon Dieu! how far I am from being equal to you! I have not your virtues, I know no duties with my friend; I am closer to the state of nature; savages do not love with more simplicity and good faith.

The world, misfortunes, evils, nothing has corrupted my heart. I shall never be on my guard against you; l shall never suspect you. You say that you have friendship for me; you are virtuous; what can l fear? I will let you see the trouble, the agitation of my soul, and I shall not blush to seem to you weak and inconsistent. I have already told that I do not seek to please you; I do not wish to usurp your esteem. I prefer to deserve your indulgence-in short, I want to love you with all my heart and to place in you a confidence without reserve....

From Letters of Julie de Lespinasse, Katherine P. Wormley, trans. (Boston: Hardy, Pratt and Co., 1903), p9,. 34-35, 75.

On Madame Geoffrin

Madame Geoffrin was married to a rich man. His money seems to have been the main benefit she found in the marriage. She used it to help her philosophe friends.

From Memoir of d'Alembert

Much has been said respecting Madame Geoffrin's goodness, to what a point it was active, restless, obstinate. But it has not­been added, and which reflects the greatest honour upon her, that, as she advanced in years, this habit constantly increased. For the misfortune of society, it too often happens that age and experience produce a directly contrary effect, even in very virtuous characters, if virtue be not in them a powerful sentiment indeed, and of no common stamp. The more disposed they have been at first to feel kindness towards their fellow creatures, the more, finding daily their ingratitude, do they repent of having served them, and even consider it almost as a reproach to themselves to have loved them. Madame Geoffrin had learnt, from a more reflected study of mankind, from taking a view of them more enlightened by reason and justice, that they are more weak and vain than wicked; that we ought to compassionate their weakness, and bear with their vanity, that they may bear with ours....

The passion of giving, which was an absolute necessity to her seemed born with her, and tormented her, if l may say so, even from her earliest years. While yet a child, if she saw from the window any poor creature asking alms, she would throw whatever she could lay her hands upon to them; her bread, her linen, and even her clothes. She was often scolded for this intemperanceof charity, sometimes even punished, but nothing could alter the disposition, she would do the same the very next day....

Always occupied with those whom she loved, always anxious about them, she even anticipated every thing which might interrupt their happiness. A young man, [note: yhis young man was d'Alembert himself] for whom she interested herself very much, who had till that moment been wholly absorbed in his studies, was suddenly seized with an unfortunate passion, which rendered study, and even life itself insupportable to him. She succeeded in curing him. Some time after she observed that the same young man, mentioned to her, with great interest, an amiable woman with whom he had recently become acquainted. Madame Geoffrin, who knew the lady, went to her. "I am come," she said, "to intreat a favour of you. Do not evince too much friendship for * * * * or too much desire to see him, he will be soon in love with you, he will be unhappy, and I shall be no less so to see him suffer; nay, you yourself will be a sufferer, from consciousness, of the sufferings you occasion him." This woman, who was truly amiable, promised what Madame Geoffrin desired, and kept her word.

As she had always among the circle of her society persons of the highest rank and birth, as she appeared even to seek an acquaintance with them, it was supposed that this flattered her vanity. But here a very erroneous opinion was formed of her; she was in no respect the dupe of such prejudices, but she thought that by managing the humours of these people, she could render them useful to her friends. "You think," said she, to one of the latter, for whom she had a particular regard, "that it is for my own sake I frequent ministers and great people. Undeceive yourself,-it is for the sake of you, and those like you who may have occasion for them...."

From Memoir of Baron de Grimm

Whether from malice or inattention, one who was in the habit of lending books to the husband of Madame Geoffrin, sent him several times in succession the first volume of the Travels of Father Labbat. M. Geoffrin with all the composure possible, always read the book over again without perceiving the mistake. "How do you like these Travels, Sir?"-"They are very interesting, but the author seems to me somewhat given to repetition."-He read Bayle's Dictionary with great attention, following the line with his finger along the two columns. "What an excellent work, he said, if it were only a little less abstruse."-"You were at the play this evening, M. Geoffrin, said one, pray what was the performance?"-"I really cannot say, I was in a great hurry to get in and had no time to look at the bill."- However deficient the poor man was, he was permitted to sit down to dinner, at the end of the table, upon condition that he never attempted to join in conversation. A foreigner who was very assiduous in his visits to Madame Geoffrin, one day, not seeing him as usual at table, enquired after him: "What have you done, Madam, with the poor man whom | I always used to see here, and who never spoke a word?"-"Oh, that was my husbandl-he is dead."

From Baron de Grimm, Historical and Literary Memoirs and Anecdotes, (London: Henry Colburn, 1815), Vol. 3, pp. 400-405, 52­53.

The Enlightenment Salon - April 12th

We will have a salon (APRIL 12th), attended by some of the greatest minds of the Enlightenment era.

Option #1 - You will be assigned one Enlightenment figure and write a 3-5 page biography about that person. Your paper must be typed and double-spaced. You must cite your paper using the MLA method of documentation. You must consult a minimum of 3 books to get a well-rounded view of your person. Additionally, internet sites are permissible but only those that are of high quality – stay away from Wikipedia. You are required to consult AND cite any books, pamphlets, or letters that were written by the figure you are studying. Remember primary sources are usually the best method for deciphering the point of view of your figure.

Option #2 – Create a Letter of Introduction and Resume - You will identify a specific university department and program that best matches your personality. You must consult a minimum of 3 books to get a well-rounded view of your person. Additionally, internet sites are permissible but only those that are of high quality – stay away from Wikipedia. You are required to consult AND cite any books, pamphlets, or letters that were written by the figure you are studying. Remember primary sources are usually the best method for deciphering the point of view of your figure.

Know your person well, from the moment you walk into the room you will be portraying them in class in a salon setting discussing topics that were pertinent to that time.

You will 'mingle' with the other great minds before the salon officially begins and will hand out your 'business card' to at least six people (one handed to me). Each business card should include a brief quote that captures the essence of your person's beliefs.

Part of the Salon is writing a journal reflecting on their experience, in character, relating with whom you have conversed, topic of your conversation, etc.. (due the following class meeting)

To prepare for our discussion

Take two to three pages of notes pertaining to your person's life and his/her criticism of society, government, religion, etc. You should also investigate his/her major written works, and any other pertinent information of significant interest. Use your notes to show me you understand your figure's ideas. In other words, don't just repeat word for word what the sources say, put it in your own words. If there is an idea or a phrase that you don't understand, don't just copy it down; think about it until you understand it.

The notes may be either typed or hand-written. You may either write up the notes for each of your sources individually (in which case, just put the bibliographical information about each source at the top of each section of notes), or you may group all your notes by theme or idea (in which case, stick in citations, and include the bibliographical information at the end of your notes, in a "Works Cited."

You will turn in the notes after the salon, so be sure you have your name on the notes, as well as a bibliography.

The Salon

Feel free to dress up, bring props, etc.!! We will discuss a number of controversial subjects from the Enlightenment era, including (but not necessarily limited to) government, religion, education, male-female relations, and social classes. To participate effectively in this discussion you should understand your figure's positions on these issues and be able to speak about them AS IF you were that person. Know what your person said, and be able to extrapolate from what he said to fill in any gaps.

In class, consider it a conversation. You should converse with the other participants, just as if you were conversing with people around the lunch table, or on the couches. The best performances will show a combination of naturalness in presentation and good knowledge of the person's views.

Questions to consider when doing your research

1. What are your views on government?

2. What are your views on society (e.g., class structure) and economics?

3. What are your views on human nature?

4. What do you think about organized religion?

5. If you think change is necessary, how should it take place?

6. What important contributions have you made to literature, the arts, the sciences, or philosophy?

7. What is your most significant contribution to the Enlightenment?

8. Do you think men and women are equal?

9. Do you have any important views on education?

10. Do you know anybody else at the salon?

Remember to keep it civil--or as civil as a conversation between such volatile people could be--don't go all Dr. Phil or Jerry Springer on us. If you must insult someone, insult them in an intellectual way--satire or sarcasm!--, not in a juvenile way. Keep it clean--but feel free to use humor appropriately. It will keep us entertained, but don't let the humor distract from the content.

I will be looking for the following during the Salon:

• Ability to stay in character & correct use of character’s point of view

• Use of relevant information

• Use of actual quotes from your character

• Contributing to the discussion in a positive manner by building off of other’s ideas

• Ability to allow others to speak & not dominate the conversation

What is the biggest mistake that you made? How did it negatively impact you, your time in power, or your country? Could you have fixed it—or was it inevitable?

Of all of your goals, what has been your MOST IMPORTANT goal, in your opinion? Why? Were you able to achieve it?

What positive things have you contributed to your country?

What did your people think of you? Do you think that their perception of you is fair?

What is your legacy—in what modern institutions or ideas might we find your ideas in action?

What—or who—inspired your ideas?

In your opinion, what is the ideal form of government? Can it be achieved? How?

Complete this sentence: In a perfect world…

What rights do people who “break the law” have? What types of actions should be punished? Why? What types of punishments are effective, in your opinion?

What role do women play in society? Explain.

Imagine your tombstone. You need to select a quote to put on that tombstone. What quote—by you or about you—best summarizes you, your character, your rule, or your ideas? Why?

If a modern day person were to create a Facebook group about you, what would it look like? What type of person might join the group? Would it be favorable or unfavorable toward you? What would the group’s name be?

NAME DATES COUNTRY PROFESSION

No more than 2 Composers

1. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 1756 - 1791 Austria Composer

2. Scarlatti, Giuseppe 1685 - 1757 Naples Composer

3. Bach, JS 1685 – 1750 Germany Composer

4. Haydn, Franz Joseph 1732 – 1809 Austria Composer

5. Vivaldi, Antonio 1678 – 1741 Venice Composer

6. Handel, George Frederic 1685 – 1759 England Composer

7. Telemann, Georg Philipp 1681 - 1767 Germany Composer

No more than 2 artists

1. Fragonard, Jean Honoré 1732 – 1806 France Artist

2. Houdon, Jean Antoine 1741 – 1828 France Sculptor

3. Piranesi, Giovanni Battista 1720 – 1778 Italy Architect/Engraver

4. Lebrun, Elizabeth 1755-1842 England Artist

No more than 2 Salonnières

1. Du Deffand, Marie 1697 – 1780 France salonnière

2. De la Platière, Jeanne 1754 - 1793 France salonnière

3. Geoffrin, Marie-Therese 1699 – 1777 France salonnière

4. Lespinasse, Julie 1732 – 1776 France salonnière

5. Necker, Suzanne 1739 – 1794 Switzerland salonnière

6. De Scudéry, Madeleine 1607 - 1701 France salonnière

1. Condorcet, Jean Antoine 1743 – 1794 France Philosopher

2. Hume, David 1711 – 1776 Scotland Philosopher

3. Kant, Immanuel 1724 – 1794 Germany Philosopher

4. Rousseau, Jean Jacques 1712 – 1778 Switzerland Philosopher

5. Voltaire 1694 – 1778 France Philosopher

6. Wollstonecraft, Mary 1759 - 1797 England Philosopher

7. Locke, John 1632 - 1704 England Philosopher

8. Diderot, Denis 1713 – 1784 France Philosopher

9. Montesquieu 1689 - 1755 France Philosopher

10. Beccaria, Cesare 1738 – 1794 Italy Philosopher

11. Pascal, Blaise 1623 - 1662 France Philosopher

12. Dumarsais, César 1676 – 1756 France Philosopher

13. Genovesi, Antonio 1712 – 1769 France Philosopher/Economist

14. Helvétius, Claude 1715 – 1771 France Philosopher

1. D’Alembert, Jean 1717 – 1783 France Mathematician

2. Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent 1743 – 1794 France Chemist

3. Leibnitz, Gottfried 1646 - 1716 Germany Mathematician

4. Berkeley, George 1685 - 1753 England Mathematician/Philosopher

5. Buffon, George Louis 1725 – 1773 France Naturalist/Mathematician

6. Holbach, Paul-Henri 1723 - 1789 Germany Scientist

7. Du Chatelet, Emilie 1706 - 1749 France Mathematician/Scientist

1. Adams, John 1735 – 1826 American Statesman

2. Franklin, Benjamin 1706 – 1790 American Statesman

3. Jefferson, Thomas 1743 – 1826 American Statesman

1. Turgot, Anne-Robert 1727 – 1781 France Economist

2. Smith, Adam 1723 – 1790 Scotland Economist

1. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 1749 – 1832 Germany Writer

2. Gibbon, Edward 1737 – 1794 England Historian

3. Swift, Jonathan 1667 - 1745 England Writer

4. Paine, Thomas 1737 – 1809 England Writer

5. Macaulay, Catherine 1731 – 1791 England Historian

6. De Beaumer, Mme __ - 1766 France Editor

7. Astell, Mary 1666 – 1731 England Writer