FYI FOR EXAM PLEASE READ
QUIZLET PRACTICE
CONCEPT MAPS (The Big Picture)
The AP Examination in Psychology is approximately two hours long and includes both a 75-minute multiple-choice section and a 45-minute free-response section. The multiple-choice section accounts for two-thirds of the student's examination grade and the free-response section for the remaining one-third.
Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes
Wilhelm Wundt- founded first research lab in 1879- birth of scientific psychology
Structuralism – studied consciousness- introspection, examining one’s mind and What one is thinking and feeling. Edward Titchener
Functionalism- look at function not structure, stress adaptation to the environment.
William James (Principles of Psychology in 1890) John Dewey
Gestalt psychology – focus on the totality of perception, Max Wertheimer
Psychoanalysis- Sigmund Freud- focus on role of unconscious conflicts, the process of raising these conflicts to a level of awareness is the goal of psychoanalysis
Current Views of Psychology-
Neurobiology- Behavior viewed in terms of biological responses
Behaviorism- Behavior viewed as a product of learned responses.
Humanism- Behavior viewed as a reflection of internal growth. Free will, self-actualization, Carl Rogers, client-centered therapy
Psychodynamic – Behavior viewed as a reflection of unconscious aggressive and sexual impulses
Cognitive Psychology – Behavior viewed as a product of various internal sentences or thoughts.
Sociocultural – Behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
4 goals- describe, understand, predict and control
theory – general framework for scientific study; smaller aspects can be tested
Charles Darwin – theories led to comparative psychology, inspired early functionalists
Wilhelm Wundt- ‘father of psychology’, first scientific lab
Introspection- the process of looking into yourself and describing what is there
Structuralism- the first theoretical school in psychology, stated that all complex substances could be separated and analyzed into component elements
Sigmund Freud- psychodynamic approach, emphasis on the unconscious
William James- wrote ‘Principles of Psychology’, a functionalist , coined the phrase‘stream of consciousness’
Functionalist – asked what the mind does and why, believed that all behavior and mental processes help organisms to adat to a changing environment
John. B. Watson- behaviorist, Little Albert
Gestalt psychology –emphasized the organizational processes in behavior, rather than the content of behavior, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Eclecticism – the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more other systems.
Neurobiological approach (medical)- viewing behavior as the result of nervous system functions and biology
Behavioral approach –view behavior as the product of learning and associations
B. F. Skinner- behaviorist, operant conditioning
Humanistic approach- believe people are basically good and capable of helping themselves.
Carl Rogers- a humanist
Psychoanalysis- a system of viewing the individual as the product of unconscious forces
Cognitive approach- emphasizing how humans use mental processes to handle problems or develop certain personality characteristics
Sociocultural approach – behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures
Placebo – a ‘medicine’ with no active ingredients
Double-blind study- neither participants or researchers know who is in which group
Hypothesis- a statement of the results that the experimenter expects
Subjects- people or animals in the experiment
Independent variable- factor that the experimenter manipulates in a study
Dependent variable- the factor in a study that changes as a result of changes in the IV
Confounding variable- factors that may cause the DV to change other than the IV
Field experiments- research that takes place outside the laboratory
Experimental group- the group that gets the changes in the IV
Control group- this group is for comparison and doesn’t get the changed IV
Survey- method of research using questions on feelings opinions, or behavior patterns
Sample- a group that represents a larger group
Naturalistic observation- research method that involves studying subjects without their being aware that they are being watched
Interview- a research method that involves studying people face to face and asking questions
Case study method- research that collects lengthy, detailed info. About a person’s background, usually for treatment
Cross-sectional method- loks at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span
Longitudinal method- studies the same group of people over a long period of time
Reliability – results of a test or study must be reproducible
Validity – measures what the psychologist wishes to measure
Construct validity – the extent to which a test measures something – a theoretical construct
Criterion-related validity- refers to how effective a test is in predicting an individual’s behavior in other specified situations (ex. SAT)
Informed consent – telling subjects all features of the experiment prior to the study
Inferential statistics – used to measure sampling error, draw conclusions from data, and test hypotheses (ex. T-test, chi-squares, analyses of variance)
Descriptive statistics – answer the question what is the data, include measures of central tendency
Mean- average
Median- middle number
Mode – most frequent number
Variability- how the data spreads across a graph (range, standard deviation, Z-
Correlation – the relationship between two sets of scores, range between +1.00 and –1.00, the closer to 1 the stronger the correlation
Z-score –a way of expressing a score’s distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation
1. The essence of the experimental method is
2. Which of the following is an appropriate use of naturalistic observation?
3. You are at a lecture about the history of psychology and the speaker states that Wilhelm Wundt’s theory of structuralism was the first scientific psychological theory. On what historical fact might the speaker be basing her or his argument?
4. In order to summarize or organize a series of observations in some meaningful way psychologists may develop
5. In the simplest experiment, the two groups of subjects are treated exactly alike except for the __ variable.
6. Sigmund Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind
7. The conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affection the experiment are called
8. In what way might a behaviorist disagree with a cognitive psychologist about the cause of aggression?
9. A researcher wants to determine the effect of sleep deprivation on human problem solving. Subjects in an appropriate control group for such an experiment would be described as having
10. Which type of variable is measured in both the experimental and control groups of an experiment?
11. Dr. Marco explains to a client that his feelings. Of hostility toward a coworker are most likely caused by the way the client interprets the coworker’s actions, and the way he thinks that people should behave at work, Dr. Marco is most likely working from what perspective?
12. In the traditional learning experiment the effect of practice on performance is investigated. Performance is the ___ variable
13. One of the limitations of the survey method is
14. Which of the following is not a goal of psychology?
15. Control is an important goal of psychology. For most psychologists, control means
16. Professor Ma wants to design a project studying emotional response to date rape. He advertises for participants in the school newspaper, informs them about the nature of the study, gets their consent, conducts an interview, and debriefs them about the results when the experiment is over. If you were on the IRB, which ethical consideration would you most likely have the most concern about in Professor Ma’s study?
A.Coercion
B. anonymity
C. Deception
D. clear scientific purpose
E. confounding variables
NOTE: The three parts above are grouped together and called the limbic system because they all deal with aspects of emotion and memory.
What is a neuron?
A neuron is a nerve cell. The brain is made up of about 100 billion neurons.
Neurons are similar to other cells in the body in some ways such as:
However, neurons differ from other cells in the body in some ways such as:
It has been estimated that there are 1 quadrillion synapses in the human brain. That's 1015 or 1,000,000,000,000,000 synapses! This is equal to about a half-billion synapses per cubic millimeter. (Statistic from Changeux, J-P. and Ricoeur, P., What Makes Us Think?, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 78)
How big is the brain? How much does the brain weigh?
The adult human brain weighs between 1300 g and 1400 g (about 3 lbs). A newborn human brain weighs between 350 and 400 g. For comparison:
elephant brain = 6,000 gchimpanzee brain = 420 grhesus monkey brain = 95 gbeagle dog brain = 72 gcat brain = 30 grat brain = 2 g
The picture to the right is a human brain.
(Image provided by Dr. Wally Welker, Univ. of Wisconsin Brain Collection)
Ways of studying the brain
Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized axial tomography, Magnetic resonance imaging, Positron emission tomography, Functional MRI
Neuroanatomy
Neuron – a nerve cell, which transmits electrical and chemical information throughout the body
dendrite- part of the neuron that receives information from the axons of other nerve cells
Axon- part of the neuron that carries messages away from one neuron to the dendrites of another
Cell body, or soma- contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life
Myelin sheath- a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
Terminal buttons- the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters
Vesicles – bubblelike containers of neurotransmitters, located at the end of an axon
Neurotransmitters-– chemicals in the endings of nerve cells that send information across the synapse Acetylcholine – neurotransmitter that regulates basic bodily processes such as movement
Dopamine – a neurotransmitter involved in the control of bodily movements ( involved in Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s)
Endorphins – neurotransmitters that relieve pain and increase our sense of wellbeing
Serotonin- mood control
Synapse- the junction point of two or more neurons; a connection is made by neurotransmitters.
Peripheral nervous system- - all other nerves
Somatic nervous system- controls voluntary movements
Autonomic nervous system- controls involuntary movements
Sympathetic nervous system- speeds things up- prepares body for fight or flight Parasympathetic nervous system-- brings the body back to normal
Cerebral cortex- covers the lower brain and controls mental processes such as thought
Frontal lobes-– contains the motor strip and frontal association area
Frontal association area – plays an important part in integrating personality and in forming complex thoughts
Motor strip- band running down the side of the frontal lobe that controls all bodily movements
Parietal lobes -– area that contains the sensory strip
Sensory strip- band running down the side of he parietal lobe that registers and provides all sensation
Occipital lobes- area that interprets visual information
Temporal lobes- area responsible for hearing and some speech functions
Lobe- major division of the brain
Hemispheres- one-half of the two halves of the brain; controls the opposite side of the body
Pituitary gland – the master gland of the body that activates other glands and controls the growth hormone
Growth hormone – hormone that regulates the growth process
Thyroid gland – controls and regulates the speed of bodily processes called metabolism
Metabolism – the speed at which the body operates of the speed at which it uses up energy
Adrenal glands – glands that release the hormone that causes excitement in order to prepare the body for an emergency
Adrenaline – chemical that prepares the body for emergency activity by increasing blood pressure, breathing rate, and energy level
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR QUIZ
1. Blindness could result from damage to which cortex and lobe of the brain?
2. Paralysis of the left arm might be explained by a problem in the
3. Deafness can result from damage to the inner ear or damage to what area of the brain?
4. According to the theory of evolution, why might we call some parts of the brain the old brain and some parts the new brain?
5. Which chemicals pass across the synaptic gap and increase the possibility the next neuron in the chain will fire?
6. You eat some bad sushi and feel that you are slowly losing control over your muscles. The bacteria you ingested from the bad sushi most likely interferes with the use of
7. The three major categories researchers use to organize the entire brain are the
8. A spinal reflex differs from a normal sensory and motor reaction in that
9. Antidepressant drugs like Prozac are often used to treat mood disorders. According to what you know about their function, which neurotransmitter system do these types of drugs try to affect?
10. Which sentence most closely describes neural transmission?
11. Dr. Dahab, a brain researcher, is investigating the connection between certain environmental stimuli and brain processes. Which types of brain scans is he most likely to use?
12. Split-brain patients are unable to
13. When brain researchers refer to brain plasticity , they are talking about
14. Mr. Spam is a 39-year-old male who has been brought into your neurology clinic by his wife. She has become increasingly alarmed by her husband’s behavior over the last four months. You recommend a CAT scan to look for tumors in the brain. Which two parts of the brain would you predict are being affected by the tumors? List of symptoms: vastly increased appetite, body temperature fluctuations, decreased sexual desire, jerky movements, poor balance when walking and standing, inability to throw objects, and exaggerated efforts to coordinate movements in a task
A. motor cortex and emotion cortex
B. motor cortex and hypothalamus
C. hypothalamus and cerebellum
D. cerebellum and medulla
E. thalamus and motor cortex
15. In most people, which one of the following is a specific function of the left hemisphere that is typically not controlled by the right hemisphere?
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation -Experience of sensory stimulation, the activation or our senses
Perception -Process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information
ENERGY SENSES
Vision is the dominant sense in human beings. Sighted people use vision to gather information abot their environment more than any other sense. The process of vision involves several steps.
Step 1: Gathering light
Step 2: Within the eye
Cornea -The transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye
Pupil -small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye.
Iris -colored part of the eye.
Lens -transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina
Retina -lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light
Step 3: Transduction
Transduction –process by which sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses
Receptor cell -Specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy.
Rods -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness.
Cones -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision
Fovea -Area of the retina that is the center of the visual field
Optic nerve - The bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain.
Blind spot - Place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors Optic chiasm -Point near the base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain
Step 4: In the Brain
Theories or color vision-
Trichromatic theory -Theory of color vision that holds that all color perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina
Opponent-process theory - Theory of color vision that holds that three sets of color receptors respond in an either/or fashion to determine the color you experience
Colorblindness -Partial or total inability to perceive hues.
Trichromats -People who have normal color vision
Monochromats -People who are totally color blind
Dichromats - People who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue
The ears contain structures for both the sense of hearing and the sense of balance. The eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve made up of the auditory and vestibular nerves) carries nerve impulses for both hearing and balance from the ear to the brain.
Amplitude – the height of the wave , determines the loudness of the sound, measured in decibels
Frequency - The number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of pitch
Hertz (Hz) - Cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of waves
Pitch - Auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone Decibel -The magnitude of a wave; in sound the primary determinant of loudness of sounds
Parts of the ear-
Ear canal – also called the auditory canal
Eardrum-
Hammer, anvil, stirrup - The three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear
Oval window - Membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea
Round window - Membrane between the middle ear and inner ear that equalizes pressure in the inner ear.
Cochlea - Part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate.
Basilar membrane -Vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound
Organ of Corti -Structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptors cells for hearing
Auditory nerve -The bundle of neurons that carries signals from each ear to the brain
PITCH THEORIES- As with color vision, two different theories describe the two processes involved in hearing pitch: place theory and frequency theory.
Place theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest vibration of the basilar membrane Frequency theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the frequency wigh which hair cells in the cochlea fire
DEAFNESS
People can lose all or some of their ability to hear because of loud noises, infections, head injuries, brain damage and genetic diseases. Hearing loss is common in older people. There are several types of hearing loss:
TOUCH
When our skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature, our sense of touch is activated by this energy.
Gate control theory - Theory that a ‘neurological gate in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain
CHEMICAL SENSES
TASTE (GUSTATION)
Taste buds
Papillae-
Humans sense four different tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter
All other tastes come from a combination of these four basic tastes. Actually, a fifth basic taste called "Umami" has recently been discovered. Umami is a taste that occurs when foods with glutamate (like MSG) are eaten. Different parts of the tongue can detect all types of tastes. Morever, the simple tongue "taste map" that is found in many textbooks has been criticized for several reasons.
The actual organ of taste is called the "taste bud". Each taste bud (and there about about 10,000 taste buds in humans) is made up of many (between 50-150) receptor cells. Receptor cells live for only 1 to 2 weeks and then are replaced by new receptor cells. Each receptor in a taste bud responds best to one of the basic tastes. A receptor can respond to the other tastes, but it responds strongest to a particular taste.
I
SMELL (OLFACTION)
The Nose Knows
The smells of a rose, perfume, freshly baked bread and cookies...these smells are all made possible because of your nose and brain. The sense of smell, called olfaction, involves the detection and perception of chemicals floating in the air. Chemical molecules enter the nose and dissolve in mucous within a membrane called the olfactory epithelium. In humans, the olfactory epithelium is located about 7 cm up and into the nose from the nostrils.
Olfactory epithelium - Nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive to odors
Pheromone - Chemical that communicates information to other organisms through smell
VESTIBULAR SENSE – tells us about how our body is oriented in space.
Semicircular canals - Structure in the inner ear particularly sensitive to body roataion.
Vestibular sacs - Sacs in the inner ear that are responsible for sensing gravitation and forward, backward, and vertical movement
KINESTHETIC SENSES -Senses of forces and movement of muscles
Stretch receptors -Receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction
Golgi tendon organs -Receptors that sense movement of the tendons, which connect muscle to bone.
PERCEPTION
Absolute threshold -The least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation 50 percent of the time
Subliminal- stimuli below our absolute threshold
Difference threshold -The smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time
just-noticeable difference – the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change
Weber’s Law -The principle that the just noticeable difference for any given sense is a constant proportion of the stimulation being judged.
PERCEPTUAL THEORIES
Psychologists use several theories to describe how we perceive the world.
Signal detection theory- investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world.
Response criteria
False positive
Top-Down Processing – we perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense
Schemata
Perceptual set
Backmasking
Bottom-up Processing, also called feature analysis – we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Closure
CONSTANCY- Tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation
Size constancy - Perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed
Shape constancy - Tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from
Brightness constancy - Perception of brightness as the same, even though the amount of light reaching the retina changes
DEPTH CUES
Visual cliff experiment-
Monocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of one eye
interposition - Monocular distance cue in which one object, by partly blocking a second object, is perceived as being closer.
Linear perspective - Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon
Relative size-
Texture gradient-
Shadowing-
Binocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of both eyes
Retinal disparity - Binocular distance cue based on the difference between the images
Convergence- cast on the two retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object
Stereoscopic vision - Combination of two retinal images to give a three-dimensional perceptual experience.
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION QUIZ
1. Our sense of smell may be a powerful trigger for memories because
2. The cochlea is responsible for
3. In a perception research lab, you are asked to describe the shape of the top of a box as the box is slowly rotated. Which concept are the researchers most likely investigating?
4. The blind spot in our eye results from
5. Smell and taste are called _______ because
6. What is the principal difference between amplitude and frequency in the context of sound waves ?
7. Weber’s law determines
8. Gate control theory refers to
9. If you had sight in only one eye, which of the following depth cues could you NOT use?
10. Which of the following sentences best describes the relationship between sensation and perception?
11. What function does the retina serve?
12. Color blindness and color afterimages are best explained by what theory of color vision?
A..trichromatic theory
B. Visible hue theory
C. Opponent-process theory
D. Dichromatic theory
E. Binocular disparity theory
13. You are shown a picture of your grandfather’s face, but the eyes and mouth are blocked out. You still recognize it as a picture of your grandfather. Which type of processing best explains this example of perception?
14. What behavior would be difficult without our vestibular sense ?
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
We spend about 8 hours/day, 56 hours/week, 224 hours/month and 2,688 hours/year doing it...that's right...SLEEPING. One third of our lives we are apparently doing nothing. But is sleep really doing nothing? It looks like it...a person's eyes are closed; muscles are relaxed; breathing is regular; there is no response to sound or light. However, if you take a look at what is happening inside the brain, you will find quite a different situation - the brain is very active.
Scientists can record brain activity by attaching electrodes to the scalp and then connecting these electrodes to a machine called an electroencephalograph. The encephalogram (or EEG) is the record of brain activity recorded with this machine. The wavy lines of the EEG are what most people know as "brain waves".
Consciousness is our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment
Conscious level The information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of. Nonconscious level Body processes controlled by your mind that we are not usually aware of
Preconscious level Information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently Thinking about but you could be.
Subconscious level Information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior.
Unconscious level. Psychoanalytic psychologists believe some evens and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into the unconscious mind. Many psychologists object to this concept as difficult or impossible to prove.
Mere-exposure effect - prefer stimuli we have seen before over novel stimuli
Priming - respond more quickly and/or accurately to questions they have seen before
Blind sight - person being blind being able to grasp an object they cannot see
SLEEP CYCLE Great information found at: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/sleep.html
Circadian rhythm
Sleep stages
REM rapid eye movement
SLEEP DISORDERS
Insomnia- problems of getting to or staying asleep, effects up to 10% of the population
Narcolepsy- extreme sleepiness - sleep attacks Go to http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/narco.html
Sleep apnea- stop breathing during sleep
Night terrors- usually ocur in children are dreams outside of REM, during stage 4 sleep
Somnambulism- sleep walking
DREAM THEORIES
Freudian Theory - believes that dreams reveal information in the unconscious mind
Manifest content- literal content
Latent content - deeper meaning
Activation-synthesis theory - dreams are nothing more than the brains interpretation of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep
Information-processing theory - dreams may be a way to integrate the information processed during the day into our memories
HYPNOSIS
Posthypnotic amnesia - forget events that occurred during hypnosis
Posthypnotic suggestibility -
Role theory - says hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness, points out that some people are more easily hypnotized than others.
State theory - hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
Dissociation theory - Hilgard studied, it causes to divide our consciousness voluntarily - the experiment that demonstrated the hidden observer effect
DRUGS For information on specific drugs go to: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/introb.heml#drug
Blood-brain barrier -
Tolerance
Withdrawal
agonist-
antagonist
Consciousness- the awareness or, or the possibility of knowing, what is happening inside or outside the organism
Subconscious – consciousness just below our present awareness
Unconscious – thoughts or desires about which we can have no direct knowledge
Chronobiology – the study of forces that control the body at different times of the day, month, or year
Construct – a concept requiring a belief in something that cannot be seen or touched but that seems to exist
Biological clocks – internal chemical units that control regular cycles in parts of the body
Free-running cycles – cycles set up by biological clocks that are under their own control, ignoring the environment
Entrainment – the process of altering the free-running cycle to fit a different rhythm
Circadian rhythm – sequences of behavioral changes that occur every 24 hours
Twilight state – relaxed state just before we fall asleep
REM sleep – rapid eye movement sleep when we dream
Beta waves - rapid brain waves; appear when a person is awake
Alpha waves – stage 1, fairly relaxed brain waves occurring just before going to sleep; relaxed
Delta waves – slow, lazy, deep-sleep brain waves.
NREM sleep – non-rapid eye movement sleep/ sleep involving partial thoughts, images,or stories, poor organization
Nightmare – frightening dream during REM
REM rebound – increase in the number of dreams after being deprived of them
Incubus attack – also called a night terror, a horrible dream occurring during NREM when the body is not prepared for it
Insomnia – the inability to get enough sleep
Narcolepsy - disorder in which a person falls instantly into sleep no matter what is going on in the environment
Sleep apnea – breathing stops while someone is asleep
Hypnosis – a state of relaxation in which attention is focused on certain objects, acts, or feelings.
Meditation – a form of self-control in which the outside world is cut off from consciousness
Altered state of consciousness – mental state that differs noticeably from normal waking consciousness
Psychoactive drugs – chemical substances that change moods and perceptions
Dreams – vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep
Substance abuse – a pattern of drug use that diminishes the user’s ability to fulfill responsibilities at home, work or school, that results in repeated use of a drug in dangerous situations, legal problems
Substance dependence – a pattern of compulsive drug taking that often results in
tolerance and or withdrawal
Tolerance – phenomenon whereby higher doses of a drug are required to produce its original effects or to prevent withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal symptoms – unpleasant physical or psychological effects that follow the discontinuance of a dependence-producing substance.
Drugs – know the effects – opiates, stimulants, amphetamines, cocaine, depressants, hallucinogens, alcohol, LSD, barbiturates, marijuana
CONSCIOUSNESS QUIZ
1. Agonists are psychoactive drugs that
2. In comparison with older people, babies
3. Which of the following is the best analogy for how psychologists view consciousness?
4. During the normal night’s sleep, how many times do we pass through the different stages of sleep?
5. Which of the following is evidence supporting the role theory of hypnosis?
6. Activation-synthesis theory tries to explain
7. Hilgard’s experiment that demonstrated the presence of a hidden observer is evidence for which theory?
8. Which of the following two sleep disorders occur most commonly?
9. Marijuana falls under what category of psychoactive drug?
10. Night terrors and somnambulism usually occur during which stage of sleep?
11. Which neurotransmitter is affected by opiates?
12. In the context of this unit, the term tolerance refers to
13. The information processing theory says that dreams
14. Which level of consciousness controls involuntary body processes?
15. Professor Bohike shows a group of participants a set of geometric shapes for a short period of time. Later, Professor Bohike shows the same group a larger set of shapes that includes the first set of geometric shapes randomly distributed among the other new images. When asked which shapes they prefer, the participants choose shapes from the first group more often than the new images, even though they cannot remember which images they had seen previously. This experiment demonstrates which concept?
16. Mr. Spam is a 39-year-old male who has been brought into your neurology clinic by his wife. She has become increasingly alarmed by her husband’s behavior over the last four months. You recommend a CAT scan to look for tumors in the brain. Which two parts of the brain would you predict are being affected by the tumors?
List of symptoms: vastly increased appetite, body temperature fluctuations, decreased sexual desire, jerky movements, poor balance when walking and standing, inability to throw objects, and exaggerated efforts to coordinate movements in a task
A. motor cortex and emotion cortex
B. motor cortex and hypothalamus
C. hypothalamus and cerebellum
D. cerebellum and medulla
E. thalamus and motor cortex
LEARNING
Learning- a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – learning based on association of stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
Acquisition phase
Delayed conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Backward conditioning
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
First-order conditioning
Second-order conditioning
Learned taste aversions
Salient
Contiguity model – the Pavlovian model, the more times two things are paired, the
greater the learning that will take place
Contingency model- Rescorla – rests of cognitive view of classical conditioning, If A is
contingent on B and vice versa then one predicts the other, learning more powerful.
OPERANT CONDITIONING – kind of learning based on the association of consequences with one’s behavior .
Edward Thorndike
Law of effect
Instrumental learning
B.F. Skinner
Skinner box
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Omission training
Punishment
Escape learning
Avoidance learning
Shaping
Chaining
Primary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers
Premack principle – the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation
Instinctive drift
Reinforcement schedules differ in two ways:
· What determines when reinforcement is delivered – the number of responses made (ratio)or the passage of time (interval)
· The pattern of reinforcement – either constant (fixed) or changing (variable)
Observational learning –
· also known as modeling
· was studied by Albert Bandura in formulating his social-learning theory
· A significant body of research indicates that children learn violent behaviors from watching violent television programs and violent adult models
Latent learning
· studied by Edward Tolman
· is hidden learning
· experiment with maze running rats, ones that didn’t initially get a reward didn’t seem to learn, but when they started being rewarded their performance changed drastically
Abstract learning
· involves understanding concepts such as tree or same
· Skinner box pigeons picking out certain shapes
Insight learning
· Wolfgang Kohler did studies with chimpanzees
· Insight learning occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
· Chimps using boxes to reach banana
What Is Learning?
* Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Learning resulting from conditioning depends on reinforcement. Reinforcement increases the probability that a particular response will occur.
How does classical conditioning occur?
Does Conditioning affect emotions?
How does operant conditioning occur?
Are there different kinds of operant reinforcement?
How are we influenced by patterns of reward?
What does punishment do to behavior?
What is cognitive learning?
Does learning occur by imitation?
How does conditioning apply to practical problems?
How does biology influence learning?
Quiz – Conditioning/Learning
1. Just before something scary happens in a horror film, they often play scary sounding music. When I hear the music, I tense up in anticipation of the scary event. In this situation, the music serves as a
2. Try as you might, you are unable to teach your dog to do a somersault. He will roll around on the ground, but he refuses to execute the gymnastic move you desire because of
3. Which of the following is an example of a generalized reinforcer?
4. In teaching your cat to jump through a hoop, which reinforcement schedule would facilitate the most rapid learning?
5. The classical conditioning training procedure in which the US is presented first is known as
6. Tina likes to play with slugs, but she can find them by the shed only after it rains. On what kind of reinforcement schedule is Tina’s slug hunting?
7. Just before the doors of the elevator close, Lola, a coworker you despise, enters the elevator. You immediately leave, mumbling about having forgotten something. Exiting the elevator is an example of
8. Which researcher studied latent learning?
9. Many psychologists believe that children of parents who beat them are likely to beat their own children. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is
10. When Tito was young, his parents decided to give him a quarter every day he made his bed. Tito started to make his siblings’ beds also and help with other chores. Behaviorists would say that Tito was experiencing
11. A rat evidencing abstract learning might learn
12. With which statement would B.F. Skinner most likely agree?
13. Before his parents will read him a bedtime story, Charley has to brush his teeth, put on his pajamas, kiss his grandmother goodnight, and put away his toys. This example illustrates
14. Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement?
15. Lily keeps poking Jared in Mr. Clayton’s third-grade class. Mr. Clayton tells Jared to ignore Lily. Mr. Clayton is hoping that ignoring Lily’s behavior will
MEMORY
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time
Several different models, or explanations, of how memory works have emerged from memory research. Two of the most important models: the three-box/information processing model and the levels of processing model. Neither model is perfect.
Three Box model proposes the three stages that information passes through before it is stored:
Sensory memory
- split-second holding tank
- the information your senses are processing right now is held in sensory memory
- less than a second
- George Sperling did experiments, showed iconic memory – a split-second perfect photograph of a scene
- Other experiments indicate echoic memory – split-second memory for sounds
- Most of the information in sensory memory is not encoded
- Selective attention determines which sensory messages get encoded
Short-term/Working Memory
- memories we are currently working with
- temporary, they usually fade in 10 to 30 seconds
- capacity is limited on average to around seven items
- Events are encoded as visual codes, acoustic codes, or semantic codes
- Capacity can be expanded through chunking
- Mnemonic devices- memory aids, really examples of chunking
- Rehearsal or simple repetition can hold information in short-term memory
Long-term Memory
- permanent storage
- capacity is unlimited
- memories can decay or fade
- stored in three different formats
Episodic memory – memories of specific events stored in a sequential series of events
Semantic memory – general knowledge of the world stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially
Procedural Memory – memories of skills and how to perform them, These are sequential but might be very complicated to describe in words.
Memories can also be implicit or explicit
Explicit – also called declarative – conscious memories of facts or events
Implicit – also called nondeclarative- unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
LEVELS OF PROCESSING MODEL
This theory explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the memory was processed or thought about. Memories are neither short- nor long-term. They are deeply (or elaboratively) processed or shallowly (or maintenance) processed.
According to the levels of processing theory, we remember things we spend more cognitive time and energy processing. This theory explains why we remember stories better than a simple recitation of events and why, in general, we remember questions better than statements.
RETRIEVAL
- getting information
- two different kinds: recognition and recall
There are several factors that influence why we can retrieve some memories and why we forget others.
- Primacy effect – more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list
- Recency effect- ability ot recall the items at the end of a list
- Context - semantic network theory
- Flashbulb memories
- Mood-congruent memory- ability to recall a memory is increased when current mood matches mood when stored
- State-dependent memory-
Constructive Memory – false memories, leading questions can easily influence us.
FORGETTING
One cause is decay, because we do not use a memory or connection to a memory for a long time. Relearning effect indicates that it isn’t entirely gone
Another factor is interference, two types
- Retroactive interference – learning new information interferes with the recall of older information
- Proactive interference – older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently
How memories are physically stored in the brain.
- the hippocampus is important in encoding new memories. Damage can cause anterograde amnesia (can’t encode any new memories)
- long-term potentiation- studies of neurons indicate that they can strengthen connections between each other through repeated firings, this might be related to the connections we make in our long-term memory
Learning - the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior
Conditioning- the acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli
Classical or Pavlovian conditioning - type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, neutral stimulus
Operant or instrumental conditioning - type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards to avoid punishments
Unconditioned stimulus US - stimulus that invariably causes an organism to respond in a specific way
Unconditioned response (UR) -response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs
Conditioned stimulus - originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an organism when presented alone
Conditioned response - after conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus is presented
Desensitization therapy - conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation
Taste aversion - conditioned avoidance of poisonous food
Operant behavior - behavior designed to operate on the environment in a way that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant
Reinforcer - a stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Punisher - a stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Law of effect - Thorndike’s theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be ‘stamped in’ as learned behavior
Positive reinforcer - Any event whose presence increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur
Negative reinforcer - Any event whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur
Avoidance training - Learning a desirable behavior to prevent an unpleasant condition such as punishment from occurring
Response acquisition - ‘building phase’ of the conditioning during which the likelihood or strength of the desired response increases
Intermittent pairing - pairing the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the learning trials
Skinner box - box that is often used in operant conditioning of animals. It limits the available responses and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur
Shaping - reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior
Extinction - decrease in the strength or frequency of a learned response due to failure to continue pairing the US and CS or the withholding of reinforcement
Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time
Stimulus generalization - transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimuli
Stimulus discrimination - learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli
Response generalization - giving a response that is somewhat different from the response originally learned to that stimulus
Primary reinforcer - reinforcer that is rewarding in itself, such as food, water, and sex
Secondary reinforcer - reinforcer whose value is learned through association with other primary or secondary reinforcers
Contingency - a reliable ‘if-then’ relationship between two events such as a CS and US
Blocking - prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously
Schedule of reinforcement - in partial reinforcement, the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered
Fixed-interval schedule - reinforcement schedule that calls for reinforcement of a correct response after a fixed length of time
Variable-interval schedule - reinforcement schedule in which a correct response is reinforced after varying lengths of time after the last reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule - reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed number of correct responses
Variable-ratio schedule - reinforcement schedule in which a varying number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented
Cognitive learning - learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable
Latent learning -learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change
Cognitive map - a learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change
Learning set - ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved
Social learning theory - view of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn by observing a model or receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner
Observational learning - learning by observing other people’s behavior
Vicarious reinforcement/punishment - performance of behaviors learned through observation that is modified by watching others who are reinforced or punished for their behavior
Token economy – a behavioral technique in which rewards for desired acts are accumulated through tokens, which represent a form of money
Cognitive map – a mental image of where one is located in space
Cognitive approach – a way of learning based on abstract mental processes and previous knowledge
Learning curve – a gradual upward slope representing increased retention of material as the result of learning
State-dependent learning- the fact that material learned in one chemical state is best reproduced when the same state occurs again
Transfer of training- a learning process in which learning is moved from one task to another based on similarities between the tasks
Positive transfer – a transfer of learning that results from similarities between two tasks
Negative transfer – an interference with learning due to differences between two otherwise similar tasks
Information processing – the methods by which we take in, analyze, store, and retrieve material
Schema – an organized and systematic approach to answering questions or solving problems
Elaboration – the process of attaching a maximum number of associations to a basic concept or other material to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easily
Mnemonic devices – unusual associations made to material to aid memory
Principle learning – a method of learning in which an overall view (principle) of the material to be learned is developed so that the material is better organized
Chunking – putting things into clusters or ‘chunks’ so that items learned are in groups, rather than separate
Forgetting – an increase in errors when trying to bring material back from memory
Overlearning – the process of learning something beyond one perfect recitation so that the forgetting curve will have no effect; the development of perfect retention.
Forgetting curve – graphic representation of speed and amount of forgetting that occurs
Recall – the ability to bring back and integrate many specific learned details
Recognition – the ability to pick the correct object or event from a list of choices
Interference theory – the belief that we forget because new and old material conflict with one another
Amnesia – the blocking of older memories and/or the loss of new ones
Short-term memory – the memory system that retains information for a few seconds to a few minutes
Long-term memory – the memory system that retains information for hours, days, weeks, months, decades
Sensory memory system – direct receivers of information from the environment – for example, iconic, acoustic
Iconic memory – a very brief visual memory that can be sent to the STM
Acoustic memory – a very brief sound memory that can be sent to the STM
Eidetic imagery – an iconic memory lasting a minute or so that keeps images ‘in front of the person’ so objects can be counted or analyzed, also called ‘photographic memory’
COGNITION
LANGUAGE
Language is intimately connected to cognition
Elements
-phonemes
-morphemes
-syntax
Language Acquisition-
First stage – babbling
- babbling appears to be innate
- babies in this stage are capable of producing any phoneme from any language
- babbling progresses into utterances of words as babies imitate the words they hear caregivers say
Second stage – telegraphic speech
- combine words into simple commands
- begin to learn grammar and syntax rules during this stage
Controversy in language acquisition
-Behaviorists believe it is learned through operant conditioning and shaping
-Noam Chomsky – nativist theory of language acquisition, says humans are born with a language acquisition device which allows them to learn language rapidly. There may be a critical period for learning language.
-Most psychologists now agree that there is some combination of the two
Language and Cognition
Benjamin Whorf, linguistic relativity hypothesis – the language we use might control, and in some ways limit, our thinking
THINKING AND CREATIVITY
Schemata – cognitive rules we use to interpret the world
Concepts- similar to schemats, rules that allow us to categorize and think about the objects, people, and ideas we encounter
Prototypes – the most typical example of a particular concept
Images – mental pictures
Problem Solving
Algorithms – try every possible solution,, an algorithm is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or foolproof method, may be impractical
Heuristics –a rule of thumb,it limits the possible combinations drastically
Availability heuristic- judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially.
Representativeness heuristic – judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.
Use of the heuristics can lead to specific problems in judgments. Overconfidence, belief bias, belief perseverance
Impediments to Problem Solving-
- rigidity (mental set) tendency to fall into established thought patterns
- functional fixedness – the inability to see a new use for an object
- not breaking the problem into parts
- confirmation bias – we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs
- Framing – the way a problem is presented
Creativity
- little correlation between intelligence and creativity
- difficult to define, originality, appropriateness, novel, somehow fits the situation
- convergent thinking- thinking pointed toward one solution
- divergent thinking- thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question - divergent thinking is more closely associated with creativity.
COGNITION QUIZ
1. Mr. Krohn, a carpenter is frustrated because he misplaced his hammer and needs to pound in the last nail in the bookcase he is building. He overlooks the fact that he could use the tennis trophy sitting above the workbench to pound in the nail. Which concept best explains why Mr. Krohn overlooked the trophy?
2. Phonemes and morphemes refer to
3. Which example would be better explained by the levels of processing model than the information-processing model?
4. Contrary to what Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis originally predicted, what effect does recent research indicate language has on the way we think?
5. Which of the following is an example of the use of the representativeness heuristic?
6. Which of the following is the most complete list of elements in the three-box/information processing model?
7. Which of the following is an effective method for testing whether a memory is actually true or whether it is a constructed memory?
8. One of the ways memories are physically stored in the brain is by what process?
9. According to the nativist theory, language is acquired
10. According to the three-box/information-processing model, stimuli from our outside environment is first stored in
11. Which of the following is the best example of the use of the availability heuristic?
12. Which sentence most accurately describes sensory memory?
13. Recall is a more difficult process than recognition because
14. Which of the following would be the best piece of evidence for the nativist theory of language acquisition?
15. A friend mentions to you that she heard humans never forget anything; we remember everything that ever happens to us. What concept from memory research most directly contradicts this belief?
DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
Major issues, methods, prenatal development, infancy
I. Development involves the processes and stages of growth from conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive, and social behaviors.
II. Major issues
A. Nature versus nurture-are we more affected by heredity or environment?
B. Continuity versus discontinuity-is developmental change gradual, or do we progress through distinct stages?
A. Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in time.
B. Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many years.
C. In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are studied periodically.
D. Historical research revolves around the particular historical circumstances of an era
IV. Prenatal development
A. Physical development
1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development
2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development
B. Genetics
1. Genotype refers to the total genetic composition of a person.
2. Phenotype refers to the observable features of the person
C. Teratogens are disease agents, drugs, and other environmental agents that can cause birth defects during the prenatal period
A. Physical development
1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during any other postnatal period.
2. Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and replace reflexes.
B. Social development
1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort. 2. Attachment style
a. Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact, and interaction with the caregiver after separation.
b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation.
3. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at about 18 months.
C. Cognitive development
1. Infants show a preference for face-like patterns
2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the time they are able to crawl.
I. Childhood
A.Physical development
1.more extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain
2 . Growth rate continues to decline
B. Social development
1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity.
2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin to become more important.
C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in the areas of
1. Leaming
2.Language .
3. Thinking skills
II. Adolescence
A. Physical/ sexual development-puberty
B. Social development
1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.
2.Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more intimate
C.. Cognitive development
1. Capability for logical, hypothetical, and introspective thinking develops
2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes develops-metacognition .
D. Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy, and
eating disorders.
Adult and later years
I. Adulthood
A. Physical changes
1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1% a year) decline.
2. Women undergo menopause, with its hormonal and reproductive changes.
B. Social changes center around such issues as:
1. Mate selection
2. Parenting
3. Career selection
C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines and others not.
1. Reaction time appears to decline.
2. Some adults show a decline in memory.
II. Later years
1. Characteristics
a. Cognitive structures or schema are the means by which humans acquire and apply knowledge about their world.
b. Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain new information.
c. Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the face of
2. Developmental achievements
object perman.ence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when --hidden from view.
B. Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years
1. Characteristics
a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced.
b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.
c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action.
B. Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years
1. Characteristics
a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced.
b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.
c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action.
a. Symbolic representation and language
b. Readiness for operational thought
1. Characteristics
a. Use of simple logic
b. Use of simple mental manipulations
2. Developmental achievements
b. Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations can be undone.
c. CIass inclusion is the ability to understand the hierarchical nature of classification groups.;
1. Characteristics.
a. Hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
b. Propositional logic
3. Not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability.
2.The nature of Piaget's tasks may have underestimated cognitive skills of children.
A. Preconventional level
2. Stage 2, characterized by a desire to further one's own interests
B. Conventional level
1. Stage 3, characterized by living up to the expectations of others
2. Stage 4, characterized by a sense of conscience and "doing one's duty"
C. Postconventional level
1. Stage 5, characterized by an understanding that values and rules are relative but generally need to be upheld
2. Stage 6, characterized by universal ethical principles
D. Critique of Kohlberg
1. Development may be more gradual and less sequential than Kohlberg's stages imply.
2. Gilligan and others have criticized the theory for undervaluing traditional female traits, which focus on interpersonal issues.
I. Background
B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt -toddlers
C. Iniative versus guilt -young children
D. Industry versus inferiority -older children
E. Identity versus role confusion -adolescents
F. Intimacy versus isolation -young adults
G. Generativity versus stagnation -adults
H. Ego integrity versus despai r-elderly
A. There is no agreed-upon set of measures for the various stages.
B. The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist.
A. Physical changes
1, There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities
2.Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may develop.
1. Retirement
2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack of mobility and declining health C. Cognitive declines are likely to continue. .
Piaget and Kohlberg
I. Piaget's theory of cognitive development
A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months
1- newly realized complexities in the environment.
a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as they gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexively.
2. Developmental achievements
C. Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence
a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease because of a change in form.
D. Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood
2.Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual tasks.
E. Critique of Piaget
1. Development may be more gradual than Piaget's stages imply.
II. Kohlberg's theory of moral development
1. Stage 1, characterized by avoidance of punishment
Erikson's psychosocial theory of development
A. Erikson was trained in the Freudian tradition, and the first four stages borrow from Freud's psychosexual stages.
B. The developmental task of each stage involves resolving the tension between two opposite outcomes.
II. The stages
A Trust versus mistrust -infants
III. Critique of Erikson
C. The theory may not reflect differences in personality development between men and women.
DEVELOPMENT
Developmental Psychology- Study of the changes that occur in people from birth through
old age.
Cross sectional study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining groups
of subjects who are of different ages.
Cohort- Group of people born during the same period in historical time
Longitudinal study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining the same
group of subjects two or more times, as they grow older.
Biographical or retrospective study- Method of studying developmental changes by
reconstructing subject’s past through interviews and investigating the effects of events that occurred in the past on current behaviors.
Prenatal- Development from conception to birth
Embryo-Developing human between 2 weeks and 3 months after conception
Fetus- Developing human between 3 months after conception and birth
Placenta- Organ by which an embryo or fetus is attached to its mother’s uterus and that
nourishes it during prenatal development.
Critical period- Time when certain internal and external influences have a major effect on
development; at other periods, the same influences will have little or no effect
Neonate - Newborn baby
Rooting reflex- Reflex that causes a newborn to turn its head toward something touching
its cheek and to grope around with its mouth
Swallowing reflex- Reflex that enables the newborn baby to swallow liquids without choking
Grasping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to close their fists around anything
that is put in their hands
Stepping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to make little stepping motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface
temperament- Term used by psychologists to describe the physical/emotional
characteristics of the newborn child and young infant; also referred to as personality
Maturation- Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function
of the passage of time
Developmental norms-Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestones
Sensorimotor stage- In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development between birth and 2 years of age, in which the indiv. Develops object permanence and acquires the ability to form mental representations
Object permanence -The concept that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight
Mental representation- Mental image or symbol used to think about or remember an object, a person, or an event
Preoperational stage- In Piaget’s theory the stage of cognitive devel. Between 2 and 7, in which the individual becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe remember and reason
Egocentric- Unable to see things from another’s point of view
Formal operations- In Piaget’s theory, the state between 11 and 15, in which the indiv.becomes capable of abstract thought
Holophrase- One-word sentences, commonly used by children under 2
Language acquisition device- An internal mechanism for processing speech that is ‘wired In to’ all humans
Imprinting- Form of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals’ the newborn animal has a tendency to follow the first moving thing it sees after it is born or hatched
Attachment- Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort
Autonomy- Sense of independence; desire not to be controlled by others
Socialization- Process by which children learn the behaviors and attitudes appropriate to their family and their culture
solitary play- A child engaged in some activity alone; the earliest form of play
Parallel play- Two children playing side by side at the same activities, paying little or no Attention to each other; the earliest kind of social interaction between toddlers
Cooperative play- Two or more children engaged in play that requires interaction
Sex role awareness- A little girl’s knowledge that she is a girl and a little boy’s knowledge that he is a boy
Gender constancy- The realization by a child that gender cannot be changed
Sex role awareness- Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each gender
Sex-typed behavior- Socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys and girls
Puberty- Onset of sexual maturation, with accompanying physical development
Menarche- First menstrual period
Imaginary audience- Elkind’s term for adolescents; delusion that they are constantly being observed by others
Personal fable- Elkind’s term for adolescents; delusion that they are unique, very important and invulnerable
Identity formation- Erikson’s term for the development of a stable sense of self necessity
to make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself
Identity crisis- Period of intense self-examination and decision making’ part of the process of identity formation
Peer group- A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one another
emotional and social support
Clique- Group of adolescents with similar interests and strong mutual attachment
Anorexia nervosa- A serious eating disorder that is associated with an intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image
Bulimia- An eating disorder characterized by binges of eating followed by self induced vomiting
midlife crisis- A time when adults discover they no longer feel fulfilled in their jobs or personal lives and attempt to make a decisive shift in career or lifestyle
Midlife transition- According to Levinson, a process whereby adults assess the past and
formulate new goals for the future
Menopause- Time in a woman’s life when menstruation ceases
Alzheimer’s disease- A disorder common in late adulthood that is characterized by progressive losses in memory and changes in personality. It is believed to be caused by a deterioration of the brain’s structure and function.
DEVELOPMENT QUIZ
1. Some researchers consider developmental psychology an applied research topic because
2. You read in your philosophy class textbook that humans are born “Tabula Rasa” or “blank slates.” As a student of psychology, which of the following responses would you have?
3. Which of the following statements is most true about how a newborn’s senses function?
4. Most prenatal influences on humans are genetic or hormonal in origin except for
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Darwin’s theory of natural selection caused many psychologists to try and explain all human behaviors through instincts, most agree that our behavior is motivated by other biological and psychological factors.
Drive reduction theory – behavior is motivated by biological needs. A need is one of our requirements for survival, a drive is our impulse to act in a way that satisfies this need
Homeostasis- balanced internal state
Drives are primary and secondary-
Primary- biological needs like thirst and hunger
Secondary – learned drives like money
Drive reduction theory cannot explain all our motivations.
Arousal Theory- states that we seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal, most of us perform best with an optimum level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dobson law –high level of arousal may cause us to perform well at easy tasks but poorly on difficult tasks.
Incentive Theory – sometimes behavior is pulled by a desire, incentives are stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow pointed out that not all needs are created equal
Hunger Motivation – Why do we become hungry
Biological Basis – There are several biological factors
- Stomach sensation of being full
- Hypothalamus, specifically the lateral and ventomedial parts if destroyed or stimulated determine hunger
- Set-point theory, says hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight
Psychological factors
- external cues, attractiveness or availability of food
Garcia effect, learned taste aversions -
Culture and background
Eating Disorders – different cultures have drastically different rates of eating disorders, rates are highest in the U.S. The three most common are:
Bulimia – Bulimics eat large amounts of food in a short period of time and then get rid of the food by vomiting, excessive exercise, or the use of laxatives. (Binge then Purge) Bulimics are obsessed with food and their weight, the majority of bulimics are women
Anorexia Nervosa - Anorexics starve themselves to below 85 percent of their normal body weight and refuse to eat due to their obsession with weight, the vast majority are women
Obesity – People with diagnosed obesity are severely overweight, often over 100 pounds, and the excess weight threatens their health. Obese people typically have unhealthy eating habits rather than the food obsessions of the other two disorders. Some people may also be genetically predisposed to obesity
Social Motivation –
Achievement Motivation – Humans seem to be motivated to figure out our world
and master skills, sometimes regardless of the benefits of the skills or knowledge. Studies involve looking at differences in how people set and meet personal goals and go about acquiring new knowledge or skills.
Extrinsic/Intrinsic Motivation-
Intrinsic motivators are rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction
Knowing what type of motivation an individual responds best to can give managers insight into what strategies will be most effective. Extrinsic motivators are effective for a short period of time but studies show that if we want a behavior to continue, intrinsic motivation is most effective.
Management Theory – studies of management styles show two basic attitudes that affect how managers do their jobs:
Theory X – managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment
Theory Y – managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
THEORIES ABOUT EMOTION –
James-Lange – They theorized that we feel emotion because of biological changes, physiological change causes emotion
Cannon-Bard – They doubted this order, they demonstrated that similar physiological changes correspond with drastically different emotional states. Biological change and the cognitive awareness of the emotional state occur simultaneously
Two Factor Theory – Stanley Schacter explains emotional experiences in a more complete way than either previous. He pointed out that both our physical responses and our cognitive labels combine to cause any particular emotional response. Emotion depends on the interaction between two factors, biology and cognition.
STRESS – stress and emotion are intimately connected concepts. The term stress can refer to either certain life events (stressors) or how we react to these changes in the environment (stress reactions)
Measuring stress – Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe designed one of the first instruments to measure stress. Their social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) measured stress using life-change units (LCUs). Any major life change increases the score on the SRRS, a person who scored very high on the SRRS is more likely to have stress-related diseases than a person with a low score.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Hans Seyle describes the general response in humans and animals to stressful events. There are three stages:
Alarm reaction – Heart rate increases, blood is diverted away from other body functions to muscles needed to react. The organism readies itself to meet the challenge through activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
Resistance – The body remains physiologically ready. Hormones are released to maintain this state of readiness. If the resistance stage lasts too long, te body can deplete its resources.
Exhaustion – The parasympathetic nervous system returns our physiological state to normal. We can be more vulnerable to disease in this stage especially if our resources were depleted by an extended resistance stage.
Various studies show that a perceived lack of control over events exacerbates the harmful effects of stress, control over events tends to lessen stress.
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION QUIZ
1. How would drive reduction theory explain a person accepting a new hob with a higher salary but that requires more work and responsibility?
2. Which aspects of hunger are controlled by the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus?
3. All of the following are identified by researchers as important factors in the causes of eating disorders EXCEPT
4. Research is dispelling many popular myths about the so-called causes of homosexuality, all of the following are factors research has eliminated as possible causes EXCEPT
5. What is the principle difference between how achievement motivation theory and arousal theory explain human motivation?
6. Which of the following are reasons why intrinsic motivation might be more advantageous than extrinsic motivation?
7. Which sentence most closely describes the difference between theory X and theory Y types of management?
8. What does Schacter’s two-factor theory state about the relationship between emotion and physiological reaction?
9. Excessive time spent in the resistance phase of Seyle’s general adaptation syndrome can contribute to
10. Perceived control over a stressful event results in
11.The balanced physiological state we are driven to attain by satisfying our needs is called
A. equilibrium
B. homeostasis
C. self-actualization
D. primary satisfaction
E. secondary satisfaction
12. The Garcia effect describes
13. Which of the following factor does research indicate may influence sexual orientation?
14. Seyle’s general adaptation syndrome describes
A. how the central nervous system processes emotions.
B. The effect of low levels of arousal on emotion.
C. Our reactions to stress.
D. Our reactions to the different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
E. The sexual response cycle in humans
15. A high score on Holmes and Rahe’s social readjustment rating scale correlates with
PERSONALITY
Personality is the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person.
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Sigmund Freud- personality was essentially set in early childhood, psychosexual stages
Three parts to personality- id, ego, superego
Id contains instincts and energy. Two types of instincts:
Eros- life instinct; often evidenced as a desire for sex
Thanatos – the death instinct;; seen in aggression
Defense Mechanisms-
Carl Jung- proposed unconscious consists of two different parts
Personal unconscious- similar to Freud’s idea, contains painful memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront, complexes
Collective unconscious- passed down through the species, explains certain similarities we see between all cultures, contains archetypes (universal concepts we all share
Shadow- the evil side of personality
Persona- people’s creation of a public image
Alfred Adler – ego psychologist, downplayed the importance of the unconscious, Thought people are motivated by the fear of failure, inferiority; and the desire to achieve, superiority. Also known for his work on the importance of birth order.
TRAIT THEORIES
Trait theorists believe we can describe people’s personalities by specifying their main characteristics or trait
Nomothetic approach. Theorists that believe that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalities
Hans Eyesenck- believed could classify all people along introversion-extraversion scale and a stable-unstable scale
Raymond Cattell- 16PF (personality factor) 16 basic traits in all people in varying degrees
A number of contemporary trait theorists believe that personality can be described using the big five personality traits- extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, emotional stability
The number of traits is derived from factor analysis- a statistical technique that allows researchers to use correlations between traits.
Idiographic theorists- argue that each person should be seen in terms of the few traits that best characterize their uniqueness
Gordon Allport- created a measure to identify each person’s ‘central traits’
TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Intelligence is often defined as a measure of general mental ability. Of the standardized intelligence tests, those developed by David Wechsler are among those most widely used. Wechsler defined intelligence as “the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.” While psychologists generally agree with this definition, they don’t agree on the operational definition of intelligence (that is, a statement of the procedures to be used to precisely define the variable to be measured) or how to accomplish its measurement.
Test Construction- To be useful must use established criteria of standardization, reliability, and validity
· Standardization – process of making uniform and objective both testing procedures and scoring procedures in order to obtain meaningful scores.
· Reliability – refers to the consistency of results. Different types:
- test and retest reliability – comparison of original test scores with retest scores
- alternate form reliability – comparison of scores obtained on alternate forms of a test
- split-half reliability – comparison of scores obtained on two halves of tests
· Validity – refers to the extent that a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Types include:
- content validity – the extent to which a test reflects a sample of the behavior to be measured
- predictive validity – the extent to which a test can predict a person’s behavior in another situation
- face validity – how appropriate a test ‘appears’ to be, just from the way the items read
- construct validity – how well a test assesses the construct for which it was designed
- concurrent validity – how well the results of a test agree with those of a new test or a different form of the test measuring for the same construct
Measures of Intelligence. Several individual tests have been used to test intelligence.
· The Binet-Simon intelligence scale, Developed by Frenchmean Alfred Binet, was administered to children to evaluate their performance (mental age) at a given chronological age, this measure called a mental quotient, was used to evaluate a child’s learning potential.
· Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised the Binet scale, called the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, it introduced the concept of intelligence quotient
· David Wechsler developed the WAIS and the WISC, the revised forms of these tests are still widely used. They contain two subscales, verbal and performance.
Tests of aptitude and achievement. Group tests, like the SAT measure aptitude, or the capacity to learn and achievement, what has been learned.
Ranges of intelligence scores. The two extremes of levels of intellectual functioning are known as developmentally disabled and gifted.
· Those identified as mentally retarded or developmentally disabled have IQ scores of 70 or below. Mild (50-70), moderate (35-50), severe (20-35), profound (below 20). Causes include Down syndrome, a genetic disorder; phenylketonuria, a metabolic disorder; and developmental disability due to anoxia (lack of oxygen) during gestation.
· The gifted usually fall within the upper 2% to 3% of the IQ score distribution (between 130 and 145). Louis Terman’s study of the gifted found they possess high IQ but also superior potential in any of six areas; general intelligence, specific aptitudes, creativity, leadership, performing arts, and athletics.
Other concepts of intelligence-
· Spearman’s two-factor theory. Charles Spearman believed intelligence was made up of two components; a g-factor (general intelligence) and s-factors (a collection of specific cognitive intellectual skills)
· Thurstone’s primary mental abilities. L.L. Thurstone proposed seven categories of primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, number, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, inductive reasoning or general reasoning. Each ability could be measured separately and the sum composes intelligence.
· Guilford’s three-dimensional model. Proposed three dimensions of mental ability:
- operations- the act of thinking
- contents – the terms used in thinking
- products of thinking – ideas
Each dimension is subdivided and the combinations can lead to over 100 separate factors.
· Fluid and crystallized intelligence. Raymond Cattell and John Horn suggested that the g-factor should be divided into:
- Fluid intelligence- reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing. Involves such skills as those requiring spatial and visual imagery and is generally believed to be much less affected by experience and education than crystallized intelligence.
- Crystallized intelligence – concerns the application of knowledge to problem solving. Includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal and numerical skills and is generally believed to be affected by experience and education.
· Vernon’s hierarchical model. Suggests that intelligence consists of factors and skills arranged hierarchically. The cognitive factor, at the top, is composed of two skills, verbal/academic and practical/mechanical
· Sternberg’s triarchic theory. Concerned with how intelligence is used, theory deals with:
- componential intelligence, includes components essential to acquisition of knowledge and use of problem-solving strategies
- experiential intelligence, reflected in creatively dealing with new situations and combining different experiences in insightful ways
- contextual intelligence, reflected in the management of day-to-day affairs
· Gardner’s seven intelligences, Howard Gardner divided intelligence into seven abilities:
- linguistic ability
- logical-mathematical
- spatial ability
- musical ability
- bodily-kinesthetic ability
- interpersonal ability
- intrapersonal ability
ABNORMAL
Defining abnormal behavior is difficult. It generally has the following characteristics.
- it is maladaptive and/or disturbing to the individual
- it is disturbing to others
- it is atypical, not shared by many members of the population
- it is irrational
Different schools of thought have different perspectives on the causes of disorders
Perspective Cause of disorder
Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic Internal, unconscious conflicts
Humanistic Failure to strive toward one’s potential or being out of touch with one’s feelings
Behavioral Reinforcement history, the environment
Cognitive Irrational, dysfunctional thoughts or ways of thinking
Sociocultural Dysfunctional society
Biomedical Organic problems, biochemical imbalances genetic predispositions
CATEGORIES OF DISORDERS
Anxiety Disorders – share the common symptom of anxiety
- phobia
- generalized anxiety disorder, often referred to as GAD (previously called anxiety state)
- obsessive-compulsive disorder
- posttraumatic stress disorder- involves flashbacks or nightmares following a person’s involvement in or observation of an extremely troubling even
Somatoform Disorders- when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom
- hypochondriasis
- conversion disorder
Dissociative Disorders
- psychogenic amnesia
- fugue
- multiple personality disorder
Mood or Affective Disorders- involves extreme or inappropriate emotions
- Major depression also known as unipolar depression- the most common mood disorder. Key factor is the length of the depressive episode. Other symptoms- loss of appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities, feelings of worthlessness
- Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – experience depression only in certain parts of the year, winter, treated with light therapy
- Bipolar disorder, also know as manic depression- involves both depressed and manic episodes
Theories on causes
- Aaron Beck, cognitive theorist says comes from unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world, and their futures- cognitive triad. Also attributional theory applies
- Has been found to correlate with feelings of learned helplessness
- Evidence suggests a biological component- low levels of serotonin
Schizophrenic Disorders – fundamental symptom is disordered, distorted thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/or hallucinations. There are four kinds
- Disorganized schizophrenia- evidence odd uses of language, make up their own words (neologisms), make clang associations, inappropriate affect or flat affect
- Paranoid schizophrenia- delusions of persecution
- Catatonic schizophrenia- engage in odd movements, stupor, move jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason, waxy flexibility. Increasingly rare
- Undifferentiated schizophrenia- exhibit disordered thinking but no symptoms of one of the other types of schizophrenia
Causes- most popular ideas is biological, dopamine hypothesis, people with schizophrenia have high dopamine levels. Also, enlarged ventricles and brain asymmetries, also seems to be genetic predisposition
Schizophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses. About 1 of every 100 people (1% of the population) is affected by schizophrenia. This disorder is found throughout the world and in all races and cultures. Schizophrenia affects men and women in equal numbers, although on average, men appear to develop schizophrenia earlier than women. Generally, men show the first signs of schizophrenia in their mid 20s and women show the first signs in their late 20s. Schizophrenia has a tremendous cost to society, estimated at $32.5 billion per year in the US (statistic from Brain Facts, Society for Neuroscience, 1997).
For more information on schizophrenia go to http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/schis.html
Personality Disorders For and exercise check out www.rider.edu/users/suler/perdis.html
Antisocial personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder
Narcissistic
Histrionic
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
How is normality defined, and what are the major psychological disorders?
What is a personality disorder?
What problems result when a person suffers high levels of anxiety?
How do psychologists explain anxiety-based disorders?
What are the general characteristics of psychosis?
How do delusional disorders differ from other forms of psychosis?
What forms does schizophrenia take? What causes it?
What are mood disorders? What causes depression?
Why do people commit suicide? Can suicide be prevented?
What does it mean to be ‘crazy’? What should be done about it?
For more info. on abnormal and other psychology topics check out www.rider.edu/users/suler/psylinks.html
TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Mental illnesses are brought on by a variety of causes therefore therapists must use a variety of methods to treat them.
Research shows that about two-thirds of adults who undergo psychotherapy show marked improvement or recover however about the same number improve without treatment also.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES
- also known as insight therapies, based on Freud’s ideas
- goal is to uncover the material in the unconscious mind
- psychoanalysis
- hypnosis
- free association
- dream analysis
- symptom substitution
- transference
HUMANISTIC THERAPY
- emphasize peoples’ positive capacities, ability to self-actualize
- Carl Rogers, client-centered therapy, Unconditional positive regard
- Gestalt therapy
- Existential therapies
COGNITIVE THERAPY
- attempts to directly manipulate the client’s thinking and reasoning processes
- Rational-emotive therapy
- Attributional style
- Beck cognitive triad
GROUP THERAPY
- family therapy
- encounter groups
- self-help groups
SOMATIC THERAPY
- The most common somatic therapy is drug therapy or psychopharmacology
- electroconvulsive therapy, shock treatment
- psychosurgery
How do psychotherapies differ? How did psychotherapy originate?
Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used?
What are the major humanistic therapies?
What is behavior therapy?
How is behavior therapy used to treat phobias, fears, and anxieties?
What role does reinforcement play in behavior therapy?
Can therapy change thoughts and emotions?
Can psychotherapy be done with groups of people?
What do various therapies have in common?
How do psychiatrists treat psychological disorders?
How are behavioral principles applied to everyday problems?
How could a person find professional help?
Do cultural differences affect counseling and psychotherapy?
PSYCHOLOGY ON THE NET
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
-The scientific study of the ways in which the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of one individual are influenced by the real, imagined, or inferred behavior or characteristics of other people.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
How does group membership affect individual behavior?
What unspoken rules govern the use of personal space?
How do we perceive the motives of others and the causes of our own behavior?
Why do people affiliate?
What factors influence interpersonal attraction?
What have social psychologists learned about conformity, social power, obedience, and compliance?
How does self-assertion differ from aggression?
What is a social trap?
* Social Psychology Network – A comprehensive site with many links to information about social psychology. http://www.wesleyan.edu/spn/
* Social Psychology Humor – Links to cartoons that relate to principles of social psychology. http://miavxl.muohio.edu/~shermarc/p324cart.html
TERMS
Primacy effect - early information about someone weights more heavily that later information in influencing one’s impression of that person
Self-fulfilling prophecy - process in which a person’s expectation about another elicits behavior from the second person that confirms the expectation
Stereotype - set of characteristics presumed to be shared by all members of a social category
Attribution theory - theory that addresses the question of how people make judgments about the causes of behavior
Fundamental attribution error - tendency of people to overemphasize personal causes for other people’s behavior and to under emphasize personal causes for their own behavior
Defensive attribution - tendency to attribute our successes to our own efforts or qualities and our failures to external factors
Just-world hypothesis - attribution error based on the assumption that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people
Proximity - how close two people live to each other
Exchange - concept that relationships are based on trading rewards among partners
Equity - fairness of exchange achieved when each partner in the relationship receives the same proportion of outcomes to investments
Intimacy - the quality of genuine closeness and trust achieved in communication with another person
Attitude - relatively stable organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavior tendencies directed toward something or someone-the attitude object
Self-monitoring - tendency for an individual to observe the situation for cues about how to react
Prejudice - an unfair, intolerant, or unfavorable attitude toward a group of people
Discrimination - an unfair act or series of acts taken toward an entire group of people or individual members of that group
Frustration-aggression theory - theory that under certain circumstances people who are frustrated in their goals turn their anger away from the proper, powerful target toward another, less powerful target it is safer to attack
Authoritarian personality - a personality pattern characterized by rigid conventionality, exaggerated respect for authority, and hostility toward those who defy society’s norms
Cognitive dissonance - perceived inconsistency between two cognitions
Social influence - process by which others individually or collectively affect one’s perceptions, attitudes, and actions.
Culture - All the goods, both tangible and intangible, produced in a society
Cultural truism - Belief that most members of a society accept as self-evidently true
Norm - A shared idea ore expectation about how to behave
Cultural norm - A behavioral rule shared by an entire society
Conformity - Voluntarily yielding to social norms, even at the expense of one’s own preferences
Compliance - Change of behavior in response to an explicit request from another person or group
Obedience - Change of behavior in response to a command from another person, typically an authority figure
Deindividuation - Loss of personal sense of responsibility in a group
Altruistic behavior - Helping behavior that is not linked to personal gain
Bystander effect - Tendency for an individual’s helpfulness in an emergency to decrease as the number of bystanders increases.
Risky shift -Greater willingness to take risks in decision making in a group than as independent individuals
Polarization - Shift in attitudes by members of a group toward more extreme positions than the ones held before group’s discussion
Great person theory -Theory that leadership is a result of personal qualities and traits that qualify one to lead others
Industrial/organization psychology - Division of psychology concerned with the application of psychological principles to the problems of human organizations, especially work organizations
Hawthorne effect - Principle that subjects will alter their behavior because of researcher’s attention and not necessarily because of any specific experimentation