Этанол и суррогаты алкоголя

Drug Alcohol Rev. 2019 May 16. doi: 10.1111/dar.12937. [Epub ahead of print]

Methanol content in homemade alcohol from a province in North Vietnam.

Lao Y(1), Pham BD(2), Le HT(2), Nguyen Van H(2), Hovda KE(1).

Author information: 

(1)Norwegian National Unit for CBRNE Medicine, Department of Acute Medicine, Oslo

University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.

(2)Institute for Preventive medicine and Public health, Hanoi Medical University,

Hanoi, Vietnam.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Methanol poisonings pose a major risk especially where

illegal alcohol is consumed. The source of the methanol in the drinks are

debated. We aimed to evaluate whether home distillation of alcohol made from rice

was capable of producing toxic amounts of methanol.

DESIGN AND METHODS: Twenty households with homemade alcohol production in Phu Tho

province in Vietnam were included in this pilot study. We followed the whole

production process and an alcohol sample from each household was analysed for

methanol content.

RESULTS: 17 (85%) of the samples contained detectable levels of methanol. The

median concentration was 9 mg/L (range 2-37 mg/L). To develop clinical symptoms

of methanol poisoning from the sample with the highest concentration would

require drinking more than 424 L.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Homemade alcohol from rice did not contain sufficient

amount of methanol to cause toxicity in our study. This supports the theory of

methanol being added to ethanol post production for economical purposes as the

main source of mass poisonings.

DOI: 10.1111/dar.12937 

PMID: 31095796 

Analysis of methanol and its derivatives in illegally produced alcoholic

beverages.

Arslan MM(1), Zeren C(1), Aydin Z(2), Akcan R(3), Dokuyucu R(4), Keten A(5),

Cekin N(6).

Author information: 

(1)Department of Forensic Medicine, Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Medicine,

Hatay, Turkey.

(2)Department of Chemistry, Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Arts and

Sciences, Hatay, Turkey.

(3)Department of Forensic Medicine, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine,

Ankara, Turkey.

(4)Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Mustafa Kemal,

Hatay, Turkey. Electronic address: drecepfatih@gmail.com.

(5)Kahramanmaraş Branch of the Council of Forensic Medicine, Kahramanmaraş,

Turkey.

(6)Department of Forensic Medicine, Çukurova University Faculty of Medicine,

Adana, Turkey.

INTRODUCTION: Illegal alcohol production remains as a common issue worldwide.

Methanol poisoning mostly occurs because of the methanol used in production of

counterfeit alcohol instead of ethyl alcohol due to its low price or by drinking 

the liquids containing methyl alcohol. Pectolytic enzymes results in an increase 

of methanol levels in many fermentation products such as ciders or wines.

Methanol poisonings are infrequently encountered in forensic medicine practice.

However, sporadic cases due to methanol intoxication as well as epidemic cases

have been reported. In this study, we aimed to identify existence of methanol and

its metabolites in illegally produced alcoholic beverages used in Antakya region.

MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twelve legally produced alcohol samples and Fifty-six

different illegally produced alcohol samples were collected from the markets and 

local producers. Existence of methanol, formic acid, methyl amine, methyl formate

and trioxan were determined using GC-MS method in these samples.

RESULTS: Fifty-six different illegal alcohol samples were analyzed in this study 

and methanol was detected in 39 (75%) of samples. Formic acid was detected in 3, 

formamide in 1, methyl amine in 6, methyl formate in 10 and trioxan in 2 samples.

CONCLUSION: Overwhelming majority of illegal alcoholic beverages was detected to 

contain methanol. Interestingly this study also revealed the presence of

trioxane, which has not previously reported among toxic agents in illegal alcohol

samples.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2015.04.005 

PMID: 26048498  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

J Forensic Leg Med. 2016 Oct;43:85-89. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2016.07.014. Epub 2016

Jul 29.

Hepatotoxicity of illegal home-made alcohols.

Gökce H(1), Akcan R(2), Celikel A(3), Zeren C(3), Ortanca I(3), Demirkiran S(3).

Author information: 

(1)Mustafa Kemal University Medical Faculty, Department of Pathology, Hatay,

Turkey.

(2)Hacettepe University Medical Faculty, Department of Forensic Medicine, Ankara,

06100, Turkey. Electronic address: akcanmd@hotmail.com.

(3)Mustafa Kemal University Medical Faculty, Department of Forensic Medicine,

Hatay, Turkey.

OBJECTIVE AND AIM: Alcohol-related hepatotoxicity is not only caused by excessive

alcohol consumption but also caused and even accelerated by hepatotoxic

ingredients other than ethanol. Concentrations of hepatotoxic substances might be

significantly high, particularly in illegally produced home-made alcohols. In

this study we aim to analyze the hepatotoxic effects of a home-made alcohol

traditionally called "bogma raki" in Turkey.

MATERIALS AND METHOD: Fifty Wistar albino male rats were used. Five groups were

randomly formed with ten animals in each. Besides laboratory diets, groups were

fed as follows: Group 1 (control group) distilled water; Group 2 bogma raki with 

distilled water (%44 (v/v), 9.2 ml/kg/day); Group 3 bogma raki with distilled

water (%44 (v/v), 9.2 ml/kg/day)+walnut (10 g/kg/day); Group 4 whisky with

distilled water (%40 (v/v), 9.2 ml/kg/day); Group 5 distilled water + walnut

(10 g/kg/day), for 28 days. The toxicological analysis of The spirits were

analyzed using Hewlett-Packard (Palo Alto, CA) GC/MS system with HP 6890 gas

chromatograph, an HP 5972 mass selective detector (MSD) and an HP 6890 automatic 

liquid sampler GC/MS; the pressure of the carrier gas helium was 6.0 bar and the 

split value with a ratio of 1:100. The injection unit temperature set to 250 °C

and MS quadrupole temperature set to 280 °C. The MS quadrupole detector

ionization energy set to 70 eV. The initial column temperature was 60 °C (for

4 min) programmed by 6 °C/min to final temperature 160 °C and kept for 8 min at

160 °C. Utilized whisky and bogma raki samples were analyzed for the amounts of

trans-anethole, ethanol, methanol, 1-propanolol, butanol, 2-butanol,

2-methyl-1-propanolol (isobutanol) and 3-methylbutanol (isoamyl alcohol).

Histopathological changes in liver tissues were graded as follows; normal = 0

(<10%), mild = 1 (10%-40%), moderate = 2 (40%-70%), severe = 3 (above 70%).

RESULTS: Chemical composition of illegally produced raki sample (%v/v) was as

follows: trans-anethole %1.93, ethanol %95.70, 2-methyl-1-propanolol (isobutanol)

%0.19, asetic acid %0.25, 3-methylbutanol (isoamyl alcohol) %0.77, and others

%1.16. Chemical composition of commercial whisky sample (%v/v) was as follows:

ethanol %97.72, 2-methyl-1-propanolol (isobutanol) %0.57, asetic acid %0.23,

3-methylbutanol (isoamyl alcohol) %1.28, and others %0.2. No traces of

trans-anethole were detected in whisky. Normal liver morphology was recorded in

control and walnut groups. However, bogma raki caused significant congestion and 

inflammatory cell infiltration compared to control and walnut group. On the other

hand, whisky administration caused mild degeneration including inflammation in a 

limited area.

CONCLUSION: Obtained findings suggest that trans-anethole containing alcoholic

beverages are more hepatotoxic compared to commercial alcoholic beverages.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2016.07.014 

PMID: 27497237  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Alcohol Alcohol. 2006 Jul-Aug;41(4):446-50. Epub 2006 May 10.

The composition of surrogate and illegal alcohol products in Estonia.

Lang K(1), Väli M, Szucs S, Adány R, McKee M.

Author information: 

(1)Department of Public Health, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu,

Estonia.

AIM: To identify the composition of illegal and surrogate alcohol products

consumed in Estonia.

METHODS: The initial source of information was a series of visits made in August 

2005 to a soup kitchen in central Tartu, Estonia. Individuals were asked for

brief details of their personal circumstances, what they normally drank, and in

addition they were asked to bring samples of the substances they usually

consumed. In other cases, the substances identified were purchased by the

investigators or from informal contacts in north-eastern part of Estonia, an area

that is well known for illegal alcohol consumption. Samples were tested for

chemical contents.

RESULTS: We identified a range of alcohol-containing substances that are

consumed, although, not intended for consumption. These comprised medicinal

products, aftershaves, illegally produced spirits, and fire-lighting fuel. The

medicinal compounds contained, on average, 67% ethanol by volume; the aftershaves

contained slightly less. Both were typically pure, with a few containing

detectable quantities of isoamyl alcohol. The illegally produced alcohol

contained, on average, 43% ethanol by volume, ranging from 32 to 53%. However,

many also contained detectable quantities of long chain alcohols. These

substances are half the price or less of commercial vodka, with fire lighting

fuels especially inexpensive.

CONCLUSIONS: There is in Estonia a range of alcohol-containing substances easily 

available at low cost. Some contain substantially higher concentrations of

ethanol than commercial spirits and others also contain toxic long chain

alcohols.

DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agl038 

PMID: 16687467  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005 Oct;29(10):1884-8.

The composition of surrogate alcohols consumed in Russia.

McKee M(1), Suzcs S, Sárváry A, Adany R, Kiryanov N, Saburova L, Tomkins S,

Andreev E, Leon DA.

Author information: 

(1)European Centre on Health of Societies in Transition, London School of Hygiene

and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom. martin.mckee@lshtm.ac.uk

BACKGROUND: In the course of a case-control study examining determinants of

premature death among working age men, it became clear that a significant

percentage of the population (7.3%) were drinking a variety of surrogate alcohol 

products (products not legally sold for consumption). In this population, where

there is a high death rate from alcohol-related causes, including acute alcohol

poisoning, it was important to know what these products contained.

METHODS: The identity of products being consumed was identified from the survey

of controls. Representative samples were obtained and subjected to analysis using

gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to determine their composition.

RESULTS: Three broad groups of product were identified: samogon (home-produced

spirits); medicinal compounds; and other spirits (mainly sold as aftershaves).

Commercially produced vodkas were used for comparison. Samogon contained lower

quantities of ethanol than vodka [mean, 39 vs. 44 volumetric percentage (v/v%),

respectively] but in addition contained certain toxic long-chain alcohols.

Medicinal compounds contained only ethanol, at a higher concentration that vodka 

(mean, 66 v/v%), while the other spirits, which were also essentially pure

ethanol, contained a mean of 94 v/v%.

CONCLUSIONS: A significant number of Russian men are drinking products that have 

either very high concentrations of ethanol or contaminants known to be toxic.

These products are untaxed and thus much less expensive than vodka. There is an

urgent need for policy responses that target their production and consumption.

PMID: 16269919  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007 Oct;31(10):1613-24. Epub 2007 Aug 6.

Surrogate alcohol: what do we know and where do we go?

Lachenmeier DW(1), Rehm J, Gmel G.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany.

Lachenmeier@web.de

BACKGROUND: Consumption of surrogate alcohols (i.e., nonbeverage alcohols and

illegally produced alcohols) was shown to impact on different causes of death,

not only poisoning or liver disease, and appears to be a major public health

problem in Russia and elsewhere.

METHODS: A computer-assisted literature review on chemical composition and health

consequences of "surrogate alcohol" was conducted and more than 70 references

were identified. A wider definition of the term "surrogate alcohol" was derived, 

including both nonbeverage alcohols and illegally produced alcohols that contain 

nonbeverage alcohols.

RESULTS: Surrogate alcohol may contain substances that cause severe health

consequences including death. Known toxic constituents include lead, which may

lead to chronic toxicity, and methanol, which leads to acute poisoning. On the

other hand, the role of higher alcohols (e.g., propanol, isobutanol, and isoamyl 

alcohol) in the etiology of surrogate-associated diseases is currently unclear.

Whether other constituents of surrogates have contributed to the high all-cause

mortality over and above the effect of ethanol in recent studies also remains

unclear.

CONCLUSIONS: Given the high public health importance associated with the

consumption of surrogate alcohols, further knowledge on its chemical composition 

is required as well as research on its links to various disease endpoints should 

be undertaken with priority. Some interventions to reduce the harm resulting from

surrogate alcohol could be undertaken already at this point. For example, the use

of methanol or methanol-containing wood alcohol should be abolished in denatured 

alcohol. Other possible surrogates (e.g., automobile products) should be treated 

with bittering agents to avoid consumption.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00474.x 

PMID: 17681034  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2009 Oct;33(10):1757-69. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01013.x. Epub 2009 Jul 1.

Association between quality of cheap and unrecorded alcohol products and public

health consequences in Poland.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Ganss S, Rychlak B, Rehm J, Sulkowska U, Skiba M, Zatonski W.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Germany.

Lachenmeier@web.de

BACKGROUND: The research aimed to study the quality of cheap alcohol products in 

Poland. These included unrecorded alcohols (i.e., home-produced or illegally

imported), estimated to constitute more than 25% of total consumption and fruit

wines.

METHODS: A sample of alcohol products (n = 52) was collected from local markets

and chemical analyses were conducted. The parameters studied were alcoholic

strength, volatiles (methanol, acetaldehyde, and higher alcohols), ethyl

carbamate, inorganic elements, and food additives including preservatives,

colors, and sweeteners. The compositions of the beverages were then

toxicologically evaluated using international standards.

RESULTS: With the exception of 1 fortified wine, the unrecorded alcohols were

home-produced fruit-derived spirits (moonshine) and spirits imported from other

countries. We did not detect any nonbeverage surrogate alcohol. The unrecorded

spirits contained, on average, 45% vol of alcohol. However, some products with

considerably higher alcoholic strengths were found (up to 85% vol) with no

labeling of the content on the bottles. These products may cause more pronounced 

detrimental health effects (e.g., liver cirrhosis, injuries, some forms of

malignant neoplasms, alcohol use disorders, and cardiovascular disease) than will

commercial beverages, especially as the consumer may be unaware of the alcohol

content consumed. Fruit wines containing between 9.5 and 12.2% vol alcohol showed

problems in terms of their additive content and their labeling (e.g., sulfites,

sorbic acid, saccharin, and artificial colors) and should be subjected to

stricter control. Regarding the other components investigated, the suspected

human carcinogens, acetaldehyde and ethyl carbamate, were found at levels

relevant to public health concerns. While acetaldehyde is a typical constituent

of fermented beverages, ethyl carbamate was found only in home-produced

unrecorded alcohols derived from stone fruits with levels significantly above

international guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS: The contamination of unrecorded alcohols with ethyl carbamate should

be analyzed in a larger sample that also should include legal alcoholic

beverages. Furthermore, the impacts of unrecorded alcohol on the health of people

with lower socioeconomic status should be studied in detail. Overall, given the

extent of the alcohol-attributable disease burden in Poland, the highest priority

should be given to the problem of ethanol and its very high content in unrecorded

alcohol products.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01013.x 

PMID: 19572980  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Alcohol Alcohol. 2009 Jan-Feb;44(1):93-102. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agn095. Epub 2008

Nov 25.

The composition of alcohol products from markets in Lithuania and Hungary, and

potential health consequences: a pilot study.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Sarsh B, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Germany.

Lachenmeier@web.de

AIMS: The rates of alcohol-attributable mortality in Lithuania and Hungary have

been shown to be higher than those in most other European countries. Quality of

alcohol products is investigated as a possible explanation.

METHODS: In a descriptive pilot study, a convenience sample of alcohol products

was collected from local city markets in both countries (Lithuania n = 10,

Hungary n = 15) and chemical analyses, including some that have not been done in 

prior studies, were conducted. The parameters studied were alcoholic strength,

volatiles (methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols), ethyl carbamate, anions

(including nitrate) and inorganic elements (including lead). Additionally, a

multi-target screening analysis for toxicologically relevant substances was

conducted.

RESULTS: The majority of samples (64%) had an alcohol content between 35% vol.

and 40% vol., being in accordance with the typical strength of legal spirits in

Europe. Three samples containing significantly higher concentrations of alcohol

above 60% vol. were found to be unrecorded alcohol products, defined as any

alcohol that is outside of legal and taxed production. Screening analysis showed 

that those samples contained various flavourings, including the hepatotoxic

substance coumarin, at concentrations above the legal limit for foods. All other 

substance classes under study were found to be at levels of no toxicological

concern.

CONCLUSIONS: Although some problems with the quality of the alcohol samples were 

found, there is insufficient evidence from this pilot study to conclude that

alcohol quality has an influence on health as reflected in alcohol-attributable

mortality rates. Given the extent of alcohol-attributable disease burden in

central and eastern European countries, future research should focus on

collection of large, representative samples, particularly of unrecorded sources, 

which was the most problematic product group in our study.

DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agn095 

PMID: 19033379  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Foods. 2017 Oct 17;6(10). pii: E89. doi: 10.3390/foods6100089.

High Ethanol Contents of Spirit Drinks in Kibera Slums, Kenya: Implications for

Public Health.

Okaru AO(1), Abuga KO(2), Kibwage IO(3), Lachenmeier DW(4).

Author information: 

(1)Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O.

Box 19676-00202, Kenya. alex.okaru@gmail.com.

(2)Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O.

Box 19676-00202, Kenya. koabuga@uonbi.ac.ke.

(3)Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O.

Box 19676-00202, Kenya. okibwage@uonbi.ac.ke.

(4)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger

Straße 3, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany. lachenmeier@web.de.

Cheap licit and artisanal illicit spirit drinks have been associated with

numerous outbreaks of alcohol poisoning especially with methanol. This study

aimed to evaluate the quality of cheap spirit drinks in Kibera slums in Nairobi

County, Kenya. The samples consisted of cheap licit spirits (n = 11) and the

artisanal spirit drink, 'chang'aa', (n = 28). The parameters of alcoholic

strength and volatile composition were used as indicators of quality and were

determined using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) and 

gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) respectively. The ranges for

alcoholic strength were 42.8-85.8% vol and 28.3-56.7% vol for chang'aa and licit 

spirit drinks respectively, while the pH ranges were 3.3-4.2 and 4.4-4.8 for

chang'aa and licit spirit drinks respectively. The majority of volatiles were

found in artisanal spirits and they included higher alcohols, ethyl esters and

carbonyl compounds. The alcoholic strength of all the artisanal spirits (100%)

and 91% of the licit spirits was above the 40% vol of standard spirits such as

vodka. The high ethanol content of the alcohol products was the only element of

public health significance in this study.

DOI: 10.3390/foods6100089 

PMCID: PMC5664028

PMID: 29039800 

Food Chem Toxicol. 2010 Oct;48(10):2842-7. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.07.016. Epub

2010 Jul 16.

The composition of unrecorded alcohol from eastern Ukraine: is there a

toxicological concern beyond ethanol alone?

Lachenmeier DW(1), Samokhvalov AV, Leitz J, Schoeberl K, Kuballa T, Linskiy IV,

Minko OI, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Weissenburger Strasse 3,

D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany. Lachenmeier@web.de

In 2005, approximately half of all alcohol consumption in Ukraine was unrecorded.

This paper investigates the chemical composition of unrecorded and low-cost

alcohol, including a toxicological evaluation. A sample of alcohol products

(n=78) from both recorded and unrecorded sources was obtained mainly from eastern

Ukraine, and chemically analyzed. Analysis entailed alcoholic strength, levels of

volatile compounds (methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols), ethyl carbamate,

anions, and inorganic elements. The majority of unrecorded alcohol was homemade

samohon with alcoholic strength averaging close to 40% vol. A limited number of

samples, advertised for medicinal purposes, were identified with high alcoholic

strengths (above 60% vol.). Single samples showed contamination with acetaldehyde

and ethyl carbamate above the levels of toxicological concern. Metal

contamination was frequent, with copper levels above 2mg/l in 33 samples, and

zinc above 5mg/l in 10 samples. Overall, however, the composition of unrecorded

samples did not raise major public health concerns other those for ethanol. The

priority of alcohol policy in Ukraine should be the general reduction of alcohol 

consumption with a specific focus on that from small-scale home production.

Further research is needed on potential mitigative measures and the origin of the

metal contamination in particular alcoholic beverages.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.07.016 

PMID: 20638436  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Addiction. 2011 Mar;106 Suppl 1:20-30. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03322.x.

Is contaminated unrecorded alcohol a health problem in the European Union? A

review of existing and methodological outline for future studies.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Schoeberl K, Kanteres F, Kuballa T, Sohnius EM, Rehm J;

Alcohol Measures for Public Health Research Alliance (AMPHORA).

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany.

lachenmeier@web.de

AIMS: Some European countries with high levels of unrecorded alcohol consumption 

have anomalously high rates of death attributable to liver cirrhosis. Hepatotoxic

compounds in illegally produced spirits may be partly responsible. Based on a

review of the evidence on the chemical composition and potential harm from

unrecorded alcohol, the Alcohol Measures for Public Health Research Alliance

(AMPHORA) project's methodology for identifying, analysing and toxicologically

evaluating such alcohols is provided.

METHODS: A computer-assisted literature review concentrated on unrecorded

alcohol. Additionally, we refer to our work in the capacity of governmental

alcohol control authority and a number of pilot studies.

RESULTS: The risk-oriented identification of substances resulted in the following

compounds probably posing a public health risk in unrecorded alcohol: ethanol,

methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols, heavy metals, ethyl carbamate,

biologically active flavourings (e.g. coumarin) and diethyl phthalate.

Suggestions on a sampling strategy for identifying unrecorded alcohol that may be

most prone to contamination include using probable distribution points such as

local farmers and flea markets for selling surrogate alcohol (including denatured

alcohol) to focusing on lower socio-economic status or alcohol-dependent

individuals, and selecting home-produced fruit spirits prone to ethyl carbamate

contamination.

CONCLUSIONS: Standardized guidelines for the chemical and toxicological

evaluation of unrecorded alcohol that will be used in a European-wide sampling

and are applicable globally are provided. These toxicological guidelines may also

be used by alcohol control laboratories for recorded alcohol products, and form a

scientific foundation for establishing legislative limits.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03322.x 

PMID: 21324018  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

World J Gastroenterol. 2014 Jun 21;20(23):7217-22. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i23.7217.

Influence of unrecorded alcohol consumption on liver cirrhosis mortality.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Monakhova YB(1), Rehm J(1).

Author information: 

(1)Dirk W Lachenmeier, Jürgen Rehm, Epidemiological Research Unit, Institute for 

Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187

Dresden, Germany.

Unrecorded alcohol includes illegally distributed alcohol as well as homemade or 

surrogate alcohol which is unintended for consumption by humans (e.g., cosmetics 

containing alcohol). The highest unrecorded alcohol consumption occurs in Eastern

Europe and some of these countries have an over proportional liver cirrhosis

mortality. Compounds besides ethanol have been hypothesized as being responsible 

for this observation. On the other hand, chemical investigations were unable to

prove that unrecorded alcohol regularly contains contaminants above toxicological

thresholds. However, illegally produced spirits regularly contain higher

percentages of alcohol (above 45% by volume), but for considerably less costs

compared with licit beverages, potentially causing more problematic patterns of

drinking. In this review, it is investigated whether patterns of drinking rather 

than product composition can explain the liver cirrhosis mortality rates.

Statistical examination of World Health Organization country data shows that the 

originally detected correlation of the percentage of unrecorded alcohol

consumption and liver cirrhosis mortality rates disappears when the data is

adjusted for the prevalence of heavy episodic drinking. It may be concluded that 

there is currently a lack of data to demonstrate causality between the

composition of illicit spirits (e.g., higher levels of certain contaminants in

home-produced products) and liver toxicity on a population scale. Exceptions may 

be cases of poisoning with antiseptic liquids containing compounds such as

polyhexamethyleneguanidine, which were reported to be consumed as surrogate

alcohol in Russia, leading to an outbreak of acute cholestatic liver injury,

histologically different from conventional alcoholic liver disease.

DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i23.7217 

PMCID: PMC4064067

PMID: 24966592  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Addiction. 2000 Mar;95(3):339-46.

Beverage-specific alcohol consumption and cirrhosis mortality in a group of

English-speaking beer-drinking countries.

Kerr WC(1), Fillmore KM, Marvy P.

Author information: 

(1)University of California-San Francisco, Laurel Heights 94143-0612, USA.

Comment in

    Addiction. 2000 Aug;95(8):1267-70; author reply 1271-2.

    Addiction. 2000 Mar;95(3):350-1; discussion 355-8.

    Addiction. 2000 Mar;95(3):347-50; discussion 355-8.

    Addiction. 2000 Mar;95(3):352-3; discussion 355-8.

    Addiction. 2000 Mar;95(3):354-5; discussion 355-8.

AIMS: To compare beverage-specific per capita consumption and total alcohol

consumption's associations with cirrhosis mortality rates in multiple countries.

DESIGN: Pooled cross-sectional time-series analysis.

SETTING: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States

during the years 1953-1993.

MEASUREMENTS: National level data on per capita total alcohol, beer, wine and

spirits consumption and standardized all-cause cirrhosis mortality rates.

FINDINGS: Significant associations with cirrhosis mortality are found for both

total ethanol and spirits. Spirits consumption is found to make up the majority

of the effect of alcoholic beverage consumption on cirrhosis mortality and the

model including only spirits is found to fit the data at least as well as the

model including only total ethanol consumption. The lag relationship between all 

alcohol types and cirrhosis is found to be short with only present and 1 year's

lagged consumption having significant associations.

CONCLUSIONS: Spirits consumption rather than beer or wine is associated with

cirrhosis mortality in this group of primarily beer-drinking countries. This

finding offers important clues to understanding the drinking behaviors associated

with cirrhosis mortality on the individual level.

PMID: 10795350  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

J Stud Alcohol. 1996 Jan;57(1):77-84.

Behavioral and social consequences related to the consumption of different

beverage types.

Smart RG(1).

Author information: 

(1)Social Science Consulting, Toronto, Canada.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to review the literature on the effects

of beer, wine and spirits on the behavioral consequences of alcohol consumption.

METHOD: The methods involve library research and analysis of the various

published articles relating to experimental and survey studies of different

effects

RESULTS: The major results indicate that (1) after spirits consumption blood

alcohol concentrations rise more quickly than after beer; (2) for most behavioral

tasks beer creates less impairment than brandy at the same dose levels; (3)

brandy also leads to more emotional and aggressive responses; (4) those who drink

beer or beer and spirits have more alcohol-related problems than others; and (5) 

beer drinkers are more likely than others to drink and drive, to be arrested for 

drinking-driving and to be in alcohol-related accidents.

CONCLUSIONS: It appears that beer and spirits lead to greater problems than does 

wine consumption. However, there is a need for more studies of women and

confirmed drinkers of various beverages. There is also a need to study the

effects of wine consumption on behavioral impairment. Lastly, there is a need to 

determine if there is a beer-drinking culture which supports heavy drinking and

driving after drinking.

PMID: 8747505  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Clin Geriatr Med. 1992 Feb;8(1):127-41.

Alcohol and the elderly.

Dufour MC(1), Archer L, Gordis E.

Author information: 

(1)National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, Maryland.

Moderate drinking for the elderly of both genders is no more than one drink per

day, where a drink is defined as 12 oz of beer, 5 oz of wine, or 1.5 oz of

spirits. Age does not affect the rate of absorption or elimination of alcohol.

Lean body mass decreases and adipose tissue increases with age, however,

resulting in a corresponding decrease in the volume of total body water. With a

smaller volume of distribution, an alcohol dose identical to that administered to

a younger individual of the same size and gender will produce a higher blood

alcohol concentration in the elderly. Low-dose alcohol stimulates appetite and

promoters regular bowel function. In the well-nourished nonalcoholic elderly, the

negative impact of alcohol consumption on nutrition is minimal. Alcohol

consumption improves mood by increasing feelings of happiness and freedom from

care while lessening inhibitions, stress, tension, and depression. Although in

the laboratory low-dose alcohol improves certain types of cognitive function in

young men, in other types of task performance, alcohol induces impairment, which 

worsens with age. The effects of alcohol on sleep are primarily detrimental,

worsening both insomnia and breathing disturbances during sleep. Although the

role of alcohol consumption in mortality from heart disease has not been

investigated in the elderly, moderate drinking appears safe. Under some

circumstances low-dose alcohol may produce analgesia whereas in others it may

worsen pain. The elderly use a significant proportion of both prescription and

over-the-counter medication, a large variety of which interact with alcohol.

Alcoholic beverage consumption may exacerbate cognitive impairment and dementias 

of other etiology. Although some studies suggest that moderate use of alcohol by 

institutionalized senior citizens appears to produce benefits including improved 

socialization, separation of the effects of the social situation from those

specifically attributable to alcohol remains to be accomplished. Older

individuals who want to drink, have no medical contraindications, and take no

drugs (prescription or over-the-counter) that interact with alcohol, may consider

one drink a day to be a prudent level of alcohol consumption. Patients should be 

counseled to avoid alcohol consumption immediately prior to going to bed in order

to avoid sleep disturbances. They also should be cautioned against potential

drug-alcohol interactions and told to avoid alcohol ingestion prior to activities

such as driving. The decision to recommend a particular level of alcohol

consumption in any given patient must, however, be carefully tailored not only to

that individual's specific medical needs but to his or her social and

environmental circumstances as well.

PMID: 1576571  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Sleep. 2003 Mar 15;26(2):185-91.

Ingestion of ethanol just prior to sleep onset impairs memory for procedural but 

not declarative tasks.

Smith C(1), Smith D.

Author information: 

(1)Dept. of Psychology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

csmith@trentu.ca

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The aim of Experiment 1 was to determine if moderate ethanol

consumption at bedtime would result in memory loss for recently learned cognitive

procedural and declarative tasks. The aim of Experiment 2 was to establish that

the memory loss due to alcohol consumption at bedtime was due to the effect of

alcohol on sleep states.

DESIGN: In Experiment 1, participants were asked to learn a cognitive procedural 

task and a declarative task in the evening. Then, either the same evening or 2

nights later, they were asked to drink ethanol (0.7g/kg). Sleep was monitored for

3 days and re-testing of the tasks was done on the eighth day after training at

the same time of day. In Experiment 2, subjects were asked to learn a cognitive

procedural task (Tower of Hanoi) and a motor procedural task (Pursuit Rotor) in

the late afternoon. Then one group was asked to drink ethanol (0.9 g/kg) right

after task acquisition (5 hours before bed), while the other was asked to drink

the same dose of ethanol just prior to bedtime. Re-testing was done 8 days later 

at the same time of day.

PARTICIPANTS: Subjects in Experiment 1 were 15 college students between the ages 

of 19 and 24 that appeared to be in good health and were relatively naive in

terms of drinking alcohol. Subjects in Experiment 2 were 13 college students in

the same age range. These subjects were considered to be more experienced

drinkers than subjects in Experiment 1 but were not judged to be heavy drinkers.

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: In Experiment 1, the alcohol ingestion resulted in

memory loss for the cognitive procedural task but not the declarative task.

Further, the effect was seen when alcohol ingestion occurred the same day or 2

days after the end of acquisition. In Experiment 2, alcohol ingestion at bedtime 

impaired memory for the cognitive procedural and motor procedural tasks. By

contrast, alcohol ingestion in the afternoon, immediately after the acquisition

of these two tasks, did not impair memory. There were clear changes in the nature

of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep as a result of evening alcohol ingestion. In

Experiment 1, the number of REMs and number of minutes of REM in the first half

of the night were reduced. In Experiment 2, the reduction was in REM densities in

the first half of the night.

CONCLUSIONS: Moderate doses of ethanol can modify the REM sleep architecture by

reducing the number of REMs and/or REM densities as well as minutes of REM sleep,

particularly in the first half of the night. These modifications result in memory

impairment for recently learned cognitive procedural material. Alcohol may also

have a subtle effect on Stage 2 sleep as well, since memory for a Stage 2

sensitive motor procedural task was also impaired.

PMID: 12683478  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Addiction. 2014 Jun;109(6):880-93. doi: 10.1111/add.12498. Epub 2014 Mar 3.

A systematic review of the epidemiology of unrecorded alcohol consumption and the

chemical composition of unrecorded alcohol.

Rehm J(1), Kailasapillai S, Larsen E, Rehm MX, Samokhvalov AV, Shield KD,

Roerecke M, Lachenmeier DW.

Author information: 

(1)Social and Epidemiological Research (SER) Department, Centre for Addiction and

Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Sciences, University 

of Toronto (UofT), Toronto, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, UofT,

Toronto, Canada; Dept. of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, UofT, Toronto, Canada;

PAHO/WHO Collaborating Centre for Mental Health & Addiction, Toronto, Canada;

Epidemiological Research Unit, Technische Universität Dresden, Klinische

Psychologie & Psychotherapie, Dresden, Germany.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Unrecorded alcohol constitutes about 30% of all alcohol

consumed globally. The aims of this systematic review were to determine the

epidemiology (occurrence, types, prevalence) of unrecorded alcohol consumption in

different countries/regions, analyse the chemical composition of unrecorded

alcohol and examine health outcomes caused by the consumption of unrecorded

alcohol, based on either epidemiology or toxicology.

METHODS: A systematic search for, and qualitative analysis of, papers with

empirical results on the different categories of unrecorded alcohol, based on

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)

guidelines.

RESULTS: Unrecorded alcohol was widespread in all regions of the world. Artisanal

fermented beverages and spirits were the most common categories of unrecorded

alcohol globally, and were available on all continents. In India, industrially

produced spirits (country spirits) were most prevalent. In Russia and countries

of the former Soviet Union, surrogate alcohols complemented artisanal spirits.

Cross-border shopping was the most prevalent method of obtaining unrecorded

alcohol in parts of Europe. Ethanol was the most harmful ingredient of unrecorded

alcohol, and health consequences due to other ingredients found in unrecorded

alcohol were scarce. However, as unrecorded alcohol is usually the least

expensive form of alcohol available in many countries, it may contribute to

higher rates of chronic and irregular heavy drinking.

CONCLUSIONS: Very large amounts of alcohol are produced globally that go

unrecorded. The primary harm from this kind of alcohol arises from the fact that 

it is typically much cheaper than licit alcohol.

DOI: 10.1111/add.12498 

PMID: 24467748  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Int J Drug Policy. 2011 Mar;22(2):153-60. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.11.002. Epub

2011 Jan 15.

Alcohol under the radar: do we have policy options regarding unrecorded alcohol?

Lachenmeier DW(1), Taylor BJ, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger

Strasse 3, D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany. Lachenmeier@web.de

BACKGROUND: According to the World Health Organization, the public health impact 

of illicit alcohol and informally produced alcohol should be reduced. This paper 

summarizes and evaluates the evidence base about policy and intervention options 

regarding unrecorded alcohol consumption.

METHODS: A systematic review of the literature using electronic databases.

RESULTS: The literature on unrecorded consumption was sparse with less than 30

articles about policy options, mostly based on observational studies. The most

simplistic option to reduce unrecorded consumption would be to lower recorded

alcohol prices to remove the economic incentive of buying unrecorded alcohol.

However, this may increase the net total alcohol consumption, making it an

unappealing public health policy option. Other policy options largely depend on

the specific sub-group of unrecorded alcohol. The prohibition of toxic compounds 

used to denature alcohol (e.g. methanol) can improve health outcomes associated

with surrogate alcohol consumption. Cross-border shopping can be reduced by

either narrowing the tax differences, or stricter control. Actions limiting

illegal trade and counterfeiting include introduction of tax stamps and

electronic surveillance systems of alcohol trade. Education campaigns might

increase the awareness about the risks associated with illegal alcohol. The most 

problematic category appears to be the home and small-scale artisanal production,

for which the most promising option is to offer financial incentives to the

producers for registration and quality control.

CONCLUSION: Even though there are suggestions and theories on how to reduce

unrecorded alcohol consumption, there is currently no clear evidence base on the 

effectiveness or cost effectiveness of available policy options. In addition, the

differences in consumption levels, types of unrecorded alcohol, culture and

tradition point to different measures in different parts of the world. Thus, the 

recommendation of a framework for moving forward in decision making currently

seems premature. Instead, there is a need for systematic research.

DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.11.002 

PMID: 21242085  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Adicciones. 2011;23(2):133-40.

Quality of illegally and informally produced alcohol in Europe: Results from the 

AMPHORA project.

[Article in English, Spanish]

Lachenmeier DW(1), Leitz J, Schoeberl K, Kuballa T, Straub I, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt, Karlsruhe, Germany.

Lachenmeier@web.de

BACKGROUND: In the WHO region Europe, the average unrecorded adult per capita

alcohol consumption was 2.67 L pure ethanol in 2005, which is 22% of the total

consumption of 12.20 L. Despite concerns about potential health harms from the

chemical composition of unrecorded alcohol, there are surprisingly few data on

the problem in the European Region. This study reports the results from the

Alcohol Measures for Public Health Research Alliance (AMPHORA) project, which

assessed the quality of unrecorded alcohol in a Europe-wide study.

METHODS: Samples of unrecorded alcohol were collected in 16 European countries

and chemically analyzed for potentially health-relevant parameters. Thresholds

for parameters were defined based on potential health hazards of daily drinking.

RESULTS: The average alcoholic strength of unrecorded wine products was 14.9%

vol, and 47.8% vol in unrecorded spirits. One half of the samples (n=57) showed

acceptable alcohol quality. The other half (n=58) showed one or several deficits 

with the most prevalent problem being ethyl carbamate contamination (n=29). Other

problems included copper (n=20), manganese (n=16) and acetaldehyde (n=12). All

other parameters (including methanol, higher alcohols, phthalates) were only

seldom problematic (limit exceedance in less than 10 samples). The price of

unrecorded alcohol was approximately 45% of the price of recorded alcohol.

CONCLUSIONS: The major problem regarding unrecorded alcohol appears to be ethanol

itself, as it is often higher in strength and its lower price may further

contribute to higher drinking amounts. Compared to the health effects of ethanol,

the contamination problems detected may be of minor importance as exposure will

only in worst-case scenarios reach tolerable daily intakes of these substances.

PMID: 21647540  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Addiction. 2009 Apr;104(4):533-50. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02516.x.

Carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde in alcoholic beverages: risk assessment outside

ethanol metabolism.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Kanteres F, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany.

lachenmeier@web.de

Comment in

    Addiction. 2009 Apr;104(4):551-3.

AIMS: In addition to being produced in ethanol metabolism, acetaldehyde occurs

naturally in alcoholic beverages. Limited epidemiological evidence points to

acetaldehyde as an independent risk factor for cancer during alcohol consumption,

in addition to the effects of ethanol. This study aims to estimate human exposure

to acetaldehyde from alcoholic beverages and provide a quantitative risk

assessment.

METHODS: The human dietary intake of acetaldehyde via alcoholic beverages was

estimated based on World Health Organization (WHO) consumption data and

literature on the acetaldehyde contents of different beverage groups (beer, wine,

spirits and unrecorded alcohol). The risk assessment was conducted using the

European Food Safety Authority's margin of exposure (MOE) approach with benchmark

doses obtained from dose-response modelling of animal experiments. Life-time

cancer risk was calculated using the T25 dose descriptor.

RESULTS: The average exposure to acetaldehyde from alcoholic beverages was

estimated at 0.112 mg/kg body weight/day. The MOE was calculated to be 498, and

the life-time cancer risk at 7.6 in 10,000. Higher risk may exist for people

exposed to high acetaldehyde contaminations, as we have found in certain

unrecorded alcohol beverages in Guatemala and Russia, for which we have

demonstrated possible exposure scenarios, with risks in the range of 1 in 1000.

CONCLUSIONS: The life-time cancer risks for acetaldehyde from alcoholic beverages

greatly exceed the usual limits for cancer risks from the environment set between

1 : 10,000 and 1 : 1,000,000. Alcohol consumption has thus been identified as a

direct source of acetaldehyde exposure, which in conjunction with other sources

(food flavourings, tobacco) results in a magnitude of risk requiring

intervention. An initial public health measure could be to reduce the

acetaldehyde content in alcoholic beverages as low as technologically possible,

and to restrict its use as a food flavour additive.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02516.x 

PMID: 19335652  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Interdiscip Toxicol. 2011 Dec;4(4):198-205. doi: 10.2478/v10102-011-0030-x.

Unrecorded alcohol consumption in Russia: toxic denaturants and disinfectants

pose additional risks.

Solodun YV(1), Monakhova YB, Kuballa T, Samokhvalov AV, Rehm J, Lachenmeier DW.

Author information: 

(1)Irkutsk Forensic Institute, Prosecutor General's Office, Shevzov Street 1,

664035 Irkutsk, Russia.

In 2005, 30% of all alcohol consumption in Russia was unrecorded. This paper

describes the chemical composition of unrecorded and low cost alcohol, including 

a toxicological evaluation. Alcohol products (n=22) from both recorded and

unrecorded sources were obtained from three Russian cities (Saratov, Lipetsk and 

Irkutsk) and were chemically analyzed. Unrecorded alcohols included homemade

samogons, medicinal alcohols and surrogate alcohols. Analysis included alcoholic 

strength, levels of volatile compounds (methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols),

ethyl carbamate, diethyl phthalate (DEP) and polyhexamethyleneguanidine

hydrochloride (PHMG). Single samples showed contamination with DEP (275-1269

mg/l) and PHMG (515 mg/l) above levels of toxicological concern. Our detailed

chemical analysis of Russian alcohols showed that the composition of vodka,

samogon and medicinal alcohols generally did not raise major public health

concerns other than for ethanol. It was shown, however, that concentration levels

of DEP and PHMG in some surrogate alcohols make these samples unfit for human

consumption as even moderate drinking would exceed acceptable daily intakes.

DOI: 10.2478/v10102-011-0030-x 

PMCID: PMC3274728

PMID: 22319254 Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2017 Jan;41(1):207-215. doi: 10.1111/acer.13280. Epub 2016 

Dec 16.

Composition of Unrecorded Distilled Alcohol (bai jiu) Produced in Small Rural

Factories in Central China.

Newman I(1), Qian L(2), Tamrakar N(1), Feng Y(1), Xu G(3).

Author information: 

(1)Department of Educational Psychology, Nebraska Prevention Center for Alcohol

and Drug Abuse, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska.

(2)Department of Guidance & Training, Chinese Center for Health Education,

Beijing, China.

(3)Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan 

University, Wuxi, China.

BACKGROUND: Unrecorded traditional distilled spirits (bai jiu, ) are made and

used throughout rural China for everyday use and special occasions. Nearly every 

town or village has a distiller to supply the demand. In rural China, distilling 

bai jiu is legal and regulated lightly or not at all. The World Health

Organization estimates that as much as 25% of all alcohol consumed in China is

unrecorded alcohol, of which an unknown portion is unrecorded bai jiu. Little is 

known about the composition of unrecorded Chinese spirits from rural parts of the

country. This study focused on white spirits because the high ethanol (EtOH)

concentration makes them more likely to contribute to health risks compared to

other types of lower alcohol by volume (ABV) Chinese unrecorded alcohol.

METHODS: Researchers purchased samples of Chinese white spirits from

small-factory distillers in central China. An independent laboratory conducted

the analysis. Alcohol strength (ABV) was determined by hydrometer. Gas

chromatography was used to determine the concentration of volatile organic

compounds: EtOH, methanol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, and higher alcohols.

Samples were tested for 3 heavy metals-arsenic, cadmium, and lead. We used the

guidelines developed by the Alcohol Measures for Public Health Research Alliance 

(AMPHORA) of the European Commission to assess risk.

RESULTS: ABV ranged from 35.7 to 61.4%, and 58 of the 61 samples exceeded 40%

ABV. The concentration of methanol, ethyl acetate, lead, arsenic, and cadmium was

below AMPHORA guideline. The sum of higher alcohols exceeded the AMPHORA maximum 

in just 1 sample. Forty of the 61 samples had acetaldehyde levels beyond the

AMPHORA guideline.

CONCLUSIONS: The unrecorded Chinese alcohols we analyzed had a high EtOH

concentration-a public health concern that is also presented by recorded

alcohols. The high percentage of samples (65.5%) that had elevated acetaldehyde

suggests the need to investigate the causes for this result and the need for

steps to reduce acetaldehyde levels. The cumulative long-term risks of using high

EtOH and high acetaldehyde Chinese spirits are heightened by the percentage of

people in China who have a genetic trait for impaired acetaldehyde metabolism.

DOI: 10.1111/acer.13280 

PMID: 27984849  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 Aug;46(8):2903-11. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.05.034. Epub

2008 Jun 6.

The role of acetaldehyde outside ethanol metabolism in the carcinogenicity of

alcoholic beverages: evidence from a large chemical survey.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Sohnius EM.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger Str. 

3, D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany. Lachenmeier@web.de

Acetaldehyde is a volatile compound naturally found in alcoholic beverages, and

it is regarded as possibly being carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B).

Acetaldehyde formed during ethanol metabolism is generally considered as a source

of carcinogenicity in alcoholic beverages. However, no systematic data is

available about its occurrence in alcoholic beverages and the carcinogenic

potential of human exposure to this directly ingested form of acetaldehyde

outside ethanol metabolism. In this study, we have analysed and evaluated a large

sample collective of different alcoholic beverages (n=1,555). Beer (9+/-7 mg/l,

range 0-63 mg/l) had significantly lower acetaldehyde contents than wine (34+/-34

mg/l, range 0-211 mg/l), or spirits (66+/-101 mg/l, range 0-1,159 mg/l). The

highest acetaldehyde concentrations were generally found in fortified wines

(118+/-120 mg/l, range 12-800 mg/l). Assuming an equal distribution between the

beverage and saliva, the residual acetaldehyde concentrations in the saliva after

swallowing could be on average 195 microM for beer, 734 microM for wine, 1,387

microM for spirits, or 2,417 microM for fortified wine, which are above levels

previously regarded as potentially carcinogenic. Further research is needed to

confirm the carcinogenic potential of directly ingested acetaldehyde. Until then,

some possible preliminary interventions include the reduction of acetaldehyde in 

the beverages by improvement in production technology or the use of acetaldehyde 

binding additives. A re-evaluation of the 'generally recognized as safe' status

of acetaldehyde is also required, which does not appear to be in agreement with

its toxicity and carcinogenicity.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.05.034 

PMID: 18577414  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Pancreas. 2010 Nov;39(8):1199-204. doi: 10.1097/MPA.0b013e3181dd65b5.

Can by-products in country-made alcohols induce acute pancreatitis?

Barreto SG(1), Jardine D, Phillips P, Bhatia M, Saccone GT.

Author information: 

(1)Department of General and Digestive Surgery, Faculty of Science and

Engineering, Flinders Medical Centre and Flinders University, Adelaide, South

Australia, Australia. barr0264@flinders.edu.au

Comment in

    Pancreas. 2011 Oct;40(7):1143-4; author reply 1144-5.

OBJECTIVES: We previously reported a high incidence of alcohol-related acute

pancreatitis (AP) in Goa, India, where country-made alcoholic products are

consumed in addition to the commercially available alcoholic products. We aimed

to analyze the composition of these country-made alcoholic products consumed by a

population with a high incidence of alcohol-related AP.

METHODS: Three locally distilled alcoholic products (ethanol content, >20%)

regularly consumed by patients developing AP, as determined by responses in a

patient questionnaire, were selected. Three commercially available products with 

comparable ethanol content (rum, whiskey, and brandy) were used for comparison.

Representative samples were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. 

Compound assignments used mass spectral searches of the NIST library (2008).

RESULTS: Commercially available rum, whiskey, and brandy used for comparison

contained the 2 major constituents, ethanol and water. In addition, the

country-made alcoholic products contained a higher level of by-products including

long-chain alcohols (eg, butanol, propanol), aldehydes (eg, acetaldehyde), acids 

(eg, acetic acid), and even traces of methanol.

CONCLUSIONS: Country-made alcoholic products contain many compounds in addition

to ethanol. Given the high incidence of alcohol-related AP in the population

where these products are consumed, further evaluation of their constituents in

relation to the induction of pancreatic damage is warranted.

DOI: 10.1097/MPA.0b013e3181dd65b5 

PMID: 20531242  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Arch Toxicol. 2016 Oct;90(10):2349-67. doi: 10.1007/s00204-016-1770-3. Epub 2016 

Jun 29.

Carcinogenic compounds in alcoholic beverages: an update.

Pflaum T(1), Hausler T(1), Baumung C(1), Ackermann S(1), Kuballa T(1), Rehm

J(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7), Lachenmeier DW(8)(9).

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger

Strasse 3, 76187, Karlsruhe, Germany.

(2)Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), 33 Russell Street, Toronto, ON,

M5S 2S1, Canada.

(3)Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, CAMH, 250 College Street,

Toronto, ON, M5T 1R8, Canada.

(4)Institute of Medical Science (IMS), University of Toronto, Medical Sciences

Building, 1 King's College Circle, Room 2374, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada.

(5)Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, 8th

Floor, Toronto, ON, M5T 1R8, Canada.

(6)Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, 155 College Street,

6th Floor, Toronto, ON, M5T 3M7, Canada.

(7)Institute for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, TU Dresden, Chemnitzer

Str. 46, 01187, Dresden, Germany.

(8)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger

Strasse 3, 76187, Karlsruhe, Germany. Lachenmeier@web.de.

(9)Institute for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, TU Dresden, Chemnitzer

Str. 46, 01187, Dresden, Germany. Lachenmeier@web.de.

The consumption of alcoholic beverages has been classified as carcinogenic to

humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) since 1988. More

recently, in 2010, ethanol as the major constituent of alcoholic beverages and

its metabolite acetaldehyde were also classified as carcinogenic to humans.

Alcoholic beverages as multi-component mixtures may additionally contain further 

known or suspected human carcinogens as constituent or contaminant. This review

will discuss the occurrence and toxicology of eighteen carcinogenic compounds

(acetaldehyde, acrylamide, aflatoxins, arsenic, benzene, cadmium, ethanol, ethyl 

carbamate, formaldehyde, furan, glyphosate, lead, 3-MCPD, 4-methylimidazole,

N-nitrosodimethylamine, pulegone, ochratoxin A, safrole) occurring in alcoholic

beverages as identified based on monograph reviews by the IARC. For most of the

compounds of alcoholic beverages, quantitative risk assessment provided evidence 

for only a very low risk (such as margins of exposure above 10,000). The highest 

risk was found for ethanol, which may reach exposures in ranges known to increase

the cancer risk even at moderate drinking (margin of exposure around 1). Other

constituents that could pose a risk to the drinker were inorganic lead, arsenic, 

acetaldehyde, cadmium and ethyl carbamate, for most of which mitigation by good

manufacturing practices is possible. Nevertheless, due to the major effect of

ethanol, the cancer burden due to alcohol consumption can only be reduced by

reducing alcohol consumption in general or by lowering the alcoholic strength of 

beverages.

DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1770-3 

PMID: 27353523  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

eCollection 2016 Jun.

Chemical Components of Noncommercial Alcohol Beverage Samples: A Study With the

Viewpoint of Toxic Components in Mashhad, Iran.

Dadpour B(1), Hedjazi A(2), Ghorbani H(2), Khosrojerdi H(1), Vaziri SM(3), Malek 

Zadeh H(4), Habibi Tamijani A(2).

Author information: 

(1)Faculty of Medicine, Addiction Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical 

Sciences, Mashhad, IR Iran.

(2)Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Tehran, IR Iran.

(3)Cardiac Anesthesia Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences,

Mashhad, IR Iran.

(4)Medical Toxicology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences,

Mashhad, IR Iran.

BACKGROUND: Iran has one of the lowest alcoholic beverage use rates in comparison

with other countries, because it is legally forbidden and because of religious

beliefs. Even so, unrecorded and noncommercial alcohol remains a considerable

concern, which needs special attention.

OBJECTIVES: In the current research, we have studied the general composition of

noncommercial alcohol samples to identify potentially toxic components in the

context of the city of Mashhad in IR Iran.

PATIENTS AND METHODS: Using a descriptive study, chemical composition records of 

alcohol samples obtained from Mashhad and its suburbs (from March 2013 to March

2014) were evaluated in terms of ethanol percentage and methanol percentage using

gas chromatography. Likewise, the pH of the alcohol and the location of the

sample were also considered. Some substances, such as inorganic elements, were

not included because there was no information about these substances in the

records.

RESULTS: Of 877 reports of alcohol samples, more than 50% were obtained from

Mashhad and the rest were from the suburbs. Of the reports, 57.5% were in the

spring and summer, followed by 42.5% in the fall and winter. The mean (min-max)

of ethanol percentage was 30.04% (0 - 98.4). In four cases, methanol was

detected. The mean (min-max) of methanol percentage was 23% (4 - 95).The majority

of the samples had an acidic pH.

CONCLUSIONS: The composition of unrecorded samples did not raise major

toxicological concern beyond ethanol in alcohol products. However, concentration 

levels of methanol in some unrecorded alcohol samples made these samples

detrimental for human consumption.

DOI: 10.5812/ijhrba.27831 

PMCID: PMC5002315

PMID: 27622171 

J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Dec 27;54(26):9992-7.

Production and composition of cider spirits distilled in "alquitara".

Madrera RR(1), Valles BS, Hevia AG, Fernandez OG, Tascón NF, Alonso JJ.

Author information: 

(1)Area de Tecnología de los Alimentos, Servicio Regional de Investigación y

Desarrollo Agroalimentario (SERIDA), E-33300 Villaviciosa (Asturias), Spain.

The capacity of alquitara (a traditional distillation system) to produce cider

brandies is evaluated. To do so, the chemical composition of 12 fractions

obtained during the distillation process and the cider brandies obtained from

five ciders were analyzed (alcohol strength, methanol, volatile substances,

furfural, and metals), taking into account European and Spanish legislation.

During the course of distillation, an important increase in methanol, furfural,

2-phenylethanol, and metals in the last fractions was observed, while fusel oils 

were more abundant in the first fractions collected. Only acetaldehyde behaved

differently, showing a minimum concentration in the middle fractions that might

be explained by its formation on the surface of alquitara. On the other hand, the

final distillates obtained by means of this method complied with the considered

regulations. Worth highlighting in this regard are the low levels of a potential 

toxin such as methanol, as well as the detection of a constant ratio for

methanol, ethanol, and fusel oil for the pairs of cider/spirits analyzed, which

could be interpreted as an indication of good uniformity in the distillation

system and method, thus guaranteeing product quality.

DOI: 10.1021/jf062316h 

PMID: 17177532  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2009 Jan;6(1):349-60. doi:10.3390/ijerph6010349. Epub 2009 Jan 20.

Ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages from Mexico (tequila, mezcal, bacanora,

sotol) and Guatemala (cuxa): market survey and risk assessment.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Kanteres F, Kuballa T, López MG, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany.

lachenmeier@web.de

Ethyl carbamate (EC) is a recognized genotoxic carcinogen, with widespread

occurrence in fermented foods and beverages. No data on its occurrence in

alcoholic beverages from Mexico or Central America is available. Samples of agave

spirits including tequila, mezcal, bacanora and sotol (n=110), and of the

sugarcane spirit cuxa (n=16) were purchased in Mexico and Guatemala,

respectively, and analyzed for EC. The incidence of EC contamination was higher

in Mexico than in Guatemala, however, concentrations were below international

guideline levels (<0.15 mg/L). Risk assessment found the Margin of Exposure (MOE)

in line with that of European spirits. It is therefore unlikely that EC plays a

role in high rates of liver cirrhosis reported in Mexico.

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph6010349 

PMCID: PMC2672322

PMID: 19440288  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2010 Winter;17(1):e47-50. Epub 2010 Jan 4.

Alcohol content in declared non-to low alcoholic beverages: implications to

pregnancy.

Goh YI(1), Verjee Z, Koren G.

Author information: 

(1)Motherisk Program, Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, The

Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol consumption in pregnancy may result in serious adverse fetal 

outcome. Non- or low alcoholic wines and beers may be a risk-reduction strategy

to help alcohol-dependent individuals to prevent or limit ethanol consumption.

The objective of this study was to quantify ethanol concentrations in Canadian

beverages claiming to contain no or low alcohol content.

METHODS: Forty-five different beverages claiming to contain no or low alcohol

content in the Canadian market were tested for ethanol concentration using gas

chromatography.

RESULTS: Thirteen (29%) of the beverages contained ethanol levels higher than the

declared concentration on their label. Six beverages claiming to contain no

alcohol were found to contain greater than 1% ethanol.

CONCLUSION: Pregnant women seeking replacement to alcoholic beverages may be

misled by these labels, unknowingly exposing themselves and their unborn babies

to ethanol.

PMID: 20051610  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Sci Total Environ. 2009 Nov 1;407(22):5861-8. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.08.012. Epub 2009 Sep 3.

Artisanal alcohol production in Mayan Guatemala: chemical safety evaluation with 

special regard to acetaldehyde contamination.

Kanteres F(1), Rehm J, Lachenmeier DW.

Author information: 

(1)Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), 33 Russell Street, ARF 2035,

Toronto, ON, Canada.

There is a lack of knowledge regarding the composition, production, distribution,

and consumption of artisanal alcohol, particularly in the developing world. In

Nahualá, an indigenous Mayan municipality located in highland Guatemala, heavy

alcohol consumption appears to have had a significant negative impact on health, 

a major role in cases of violence and domestic abuse, and a link to street

habitation. Cuxa, an artisanally, as well as commercially produced sugarcane

alcohol, is widely consumed by heavy drinkers in this community. Cuxa samples

from all distribution points in the community were obtained and chemically

analyzed for health-relevant constituents and contaminants including methanol,

acetaldehyde, higher alcohols, and metals. From those, only acetaldehyde was

confirmed to be present in unusually high levels (up to 126 g/hl of pure

alcohol), particularly in samples that were produced clandestinely. Acetaldehyde 

has been evaluated as "possibly carcinogenic" and has also been identified as

having significant human exposure in a recent risk assessment. This study

explores the reasons for the elevated levels of acetaldehyde, through both

sampling and analyses of raw and intermediary products of cuxa production, as

well as interviews from producers of the clandestine alcohol. For further

insight, we experimentally produced this alcohol in our laboratory, based on the 

directions provided by the producers, as well as materials from the town itself. 

Based on these data, the origin of the acetaldehyde contamination appears to be

due to chemical changes induced during processing, with the major causative

factors consisting of poor hygiene, aerobic working conditions, and inadequate

yeast strains, compounded by flawed distillation methodology that neglects

separation of the first fractions of the distillate. These results indicate a

preventable public health concern for consumers, which can be overcome through

education about good manufacturing practices, as well as financial incentives to 

separate the acetaldehyde-rich fractions during distillation.

DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.08.012 

PMID: 19729189  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Eur J Cancer Prev. 2011 Nov;20(6):526-9. doi: 10.1097/CEJ.0b013e328348fbe4.

Acetaldehyde level in spirits from central European countries.

Boffetta P(1), Kaihovaara P, Rudnai P, Znaor A, Lissowska J, Swiatkowska B, Mates

D, Pandics T, Salaspuro M.

Author information: 

(1)International Prevention Research Institute, Lyon, France.

paolo.boffetta@i-pri.org

Intake of acetaldehyde in alcoholic beverages, in central Europe, might explain

the high rate of alcohol-related diseases in these countries. We measured the

acetaldehyde level in 30 samples of home-made spirits and 12 samples of

industry-made spirits from four central European countries, including 35

fruit-based and five grain-based spirits. Acetaldehyde was detected in all

fruit-based spirits and in none of the grain-based spirits. Acetaldehyde levels

were above 2000 µmol/l in 12 samples, 11 of which were home-made. In a

multivariate analysis restricted to fruit-based spirits, however, the difference 

between home-made and industry-based spirits was not statistically significant.

These results add evidence to the hypothesis that intake of acetaldehyde in

alcoholic beverages, in central Europe, contributes to the burden of

alcohol-related disease, especially that of upper digestive tract cancers. The

acetaldehyde level should be monitored and high-level exposure should be avoided.

DOI: 10.1097/CEJ.0b013e328348fbe4 

PMID: 21811156  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2004;42(5):597-601.

Analysis of moonshine for contaminants.

Holstege CP(1), Ferguson JD, Wolf CE, Baer AB, Poklis A.

Author information: 

(1)Blue Ridge Poison Center, Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of

Emergency Medicine, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 800699, Charlottesville, VA 

22908-0699, USA. ch2xf@virginia.edu

OBJECTIVES: In the past, some moonshine products contained potentially toxic

contaminants. Although moonshine production continues in the United States, no

studies have analyzed the content of moonshine since the early 1960s. We

hypothesize that moonshine continues to contain potentially toxic concentrations 

of contaminants.

METHODS: Forty-eight samples of illicitly distilled moonshine were obtained from 

law enforcement agencies. An independent laboratory, blinded to both the

moonshine source and a control sample of ethanol, conducted the analysis. Lead

content was determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry with a graphite 

tube atomizer. Alcohol content, including ethanol, acetone, isopropanol,

methanol, and ethylene glycol, was determined using gas liquid chromatography

with flame ionization detection.

RESULTS: Ethanol content ranged from 10.5% to 66.0% with a mean value of 41.2%.

Lead was found in measurable quantities in 43 of 48 samples with values ranging

from 5 to 599 parts per billion (ppb) with a mean value of 80.7 ppb. A total of

29 of 48 (60%) of samples contained lead concentrations above or equal to the EPA

water guideline of 15 ppb. Methanol was found in only one sample at a

concentration of 0.11%. No samples contained detectable concentrations of

acetone, isopropanol, or ethylene glycol.

CONCLUSIONS: Many moonshine samples contain detectable concentrations of lead.

Extrapolations based on the described moonshine lead content suggest that chronic

consumers of moonshine may develop elevated lead concentrations. Physicians

should consider lead toxicity in the differential diagnosis when evaluating

patients consuming moonshine.

PMID: 15462151  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 Feb;46(2):476-9. Epub 2007 Aug 23.

Potential mechanism for Calvados-related oesophageal cancer.

Linderborg K(1), Joly JP, Visapää JP, Salaspuro M.

Author information: 

(1)University of Helsinki, Research Unit of Substance Abuse Medicine, Helsinki

00014, Finland. klas.linderborg@helsinki.fi

The old Normandian habit of consumption of hot Calvados is associated with an

increased risk of oesophageal cancer compared to other alcoholic beverages. The

role of alcohol consumption in the risk of oesophageal cancer is well

established. The first metabolite of alcohol, acetaldehyde is a potential local

carcinogen in humans. Accordingly, different acetaldehyde concentrations in

different beverages could account for some of the variations in cancer risk with 

regard to the type of alcoholic beverage. Eighteen samples of farm-made Calvados 

were collected in Normandy. Samples of commercially available beverages were

purchased, including factory-made Calvados, other spirits, wines, beer and cider.

The samples were analysed gas-chromatically for acetaldehyde and ethanol

concentrations. All results are expressed as mean+/-SD. The mean acetaldehyde

concentration of all Calvados samples (1781+/-861 microM, n =25) differed highly 

significantly (p<0.001) from that of all wine samples (275+/-236 microM), from

all other spirits samples (1251+/-1155 microM, p<0.05), and from all beer and

cider samples (233+/-281 microM, p<0.001). Farm-made Calvados and farm-made

cognac had the highest mean acetaldehyde concentration of the measured beverages.

The high concentration of acetaldehyde combined with possible effects of the high

temperature at which Calvados is consumed could account for the increased risk of

Calvados-related oesophageal cancer.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.08.019 

PMID: 17892909  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018 Dec 1;15(12). pii: E2710. doi:10.3390/ijerph15122710.

Chemical Composition and Safety of Unrecorded Grain Alcohol (Bai Jiu) Samples from Three Provinces in China.

Newman IM(1), Qian L(2), Tamrakar N(3), Zhang BB(4).

Author information: 

(1)Nebraska Prevention Center for Alcohol and Drug Abuse, Department of

Educational Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, P.O. Box 880345, Lincoln,

NE 68588, USA. inewman1@unl.edu.

(2)National Center for Health Education, Beijing 100011, China.

qianlingzh@126.com.

(3)Nebraska Prevention Center for Alcohol and Drug Abuse, Department of

Educational Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, P.O. Box 880345, Lincoln,

NE 68588, USA. ntamrakar1987@gmail.com.

(4)School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.

bobozhang@jiangnan.edu.cn.

About 20% of spirits consumed in China are "unrecorded", where these spirits are 

produced in small-scale distilleries and sold outside the systems of taxation and

quality control. Researchers visited small distilleries in rural Yunnan, Hubei

and Anhui and purchased 56 samples of unrecorded bai jiu. Seven samples of the

recorded bai jiu were purchased as reference samples. An independent laboratory

conducted a blind analysis of the samples. Results were compared to the standards

for unrecorded alcohol adopted by the European Commission's Alcohol Measures for 

Public Health Research Alliance (AMPHORA). No samples exceeded the AMPHORA

guidelines for methanol, ethyl acetate, lead and cadmium; one sample exceeded

1000 g/hL of combined higher alcohols; one sample exceeded 100 mg/L of arsenic;

and three samples exceeded 50g/hL of acetaldehyde, but only by relatively small

amounts. Low-priced unrecorded bai jiu averaged 9.8 RMB/jin (500 mL), compared to

10.7 RMB/jin for inexpensive recorded bai jiu. The low-priced unrecorded bai jiu 

samples had a mean alcohol-by-volume of 51.8%, compared to 50.1% for the recorded

bai jiu samples. The results did not raise any critical safety issues with

unrecorded bai jiu, but there may be long-term health risks related to ethanol,

acetaldehyde and arsenic. The social ties between the bai jiu makers and the

people who consume their product are a deterrent to adulteration; but when bai

jiu is sold outside of the social circle, the deterrent disappears.

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15122710 

PMID: 30513745  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Food Addit Contam. 1989 Jul-Sep;6(3):383-9.

Investigation of ethyl carbamate levels in some fermented foods and alcoholic beverages.

Dennis MJ(1), Howarth N, Key PE, Pointer M, Massey RC.

Author information: 

(1)Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Food Science Division, Norwich,

UK.

An analytical procedure has been developed for the determination of trace amounts

of ethyl carbamate in fermented foodstuffs and alcoholic beverages.

Concentrations were generally below the 1-5 micrograms/kg detection limit in

bread, cheese, yoghurt, beer, gin and vodka. Higher concentrations were found in 

the other alcoholic beverages examined, which included whisky, fruit brandy,

liqueur, wine, sherry and port.

DOI: 10.1080/02652038909373794 

PMID: 2721787  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Forensic Sci Int. 2008 Oct 25;181(1-3):40-6. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.08.010. Epub 2008 Oct 15.

Occurrence of ethanol and other drugs in blood and urine specimens from female

victims of alleged sexual assault.

Jones AW(1), Kugelberg FC, Holmgren A, Ahlner J.

Author information: 

(1)Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of

Forensic Medicine, Artillerigatan 12, SE-587 58 Linköping, Sweden.

wayne.jones@rmv.se

Results of toxicological analysis of blood and urine specimens from 1806 female

victims of alleged non-consensual sexual activity are reported. After making

contact with the police authorities, the victims were examined by a physician for

injuries and biological specimens were taken for forensic toxicology and other

purposes (e.g. DNA). Urine if available or otherwise on an aliquot of blood after

protein precipitation was screened for the presence of drugs by enzyme

immunoassay methods (EMIT/CEDIA). All positive results from screening were

verified by more specific methods, involving isotope dilution gas

chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for illicit drugs. A large number of

prescription drugs were analyzed in blood by capillary column gas chromatography 

with a nitrogen-phosphorous (N-P) detector. Ethanol was determined in blood and

urine by headspace gas chromatography and concentrations less than 0.1g/L were

reported as negative. The number of reported cases of alleged sexual assault was 

highest during the warmer summer months and the mean age of victims was 24 years 

(median 20 years), with approximately 60% being between 15 and 25 years. In 559

cases (31%) ethanol and drugs were negative. In 772 cases (43% of total) ethanol 

was the only drug identified in blood or urine. In 215 cases (12%) ethanol

occurred together with at least one other drug. The mean, median and highest

concentrations of ethanol in blood (N=806) were 1.24 g/L, 1.19 g/L and 3.7 g/L,

respectively. The age of victims and their blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) were

positively correlated (r=0.365, p<0.001). Because BAC decreases at a rate of

0.10-0.25 g/(Lh), owing to metabolism the concentration in blood at time of

sampling is often appreciably less than when the crime was committed several

hours earlier. Licit or illicit drugs were identified in blood or urine in N=262 

cases (15%). Amphetamine and tetrahydrocannabinol were the most common illicit

drugs at mean (median) concentrations in blood of 0.22 mg/L (0.1mg/L) and 0.0012 

mg/L (0.0006 mg/L), respectively. Among prescription drugs, sedative-hypnotics

such as diazepam and zopiclone were common findings along with SSRI

antidepressants and various opiate analgesics. Interpreting the analytical

results in terms of voluntary vs. surreptitious administration of drugs and the

degree of incapacitation in the victim as well as ability to give informed

consent for sexual activity is fraught with difficulties.

DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.08.010 

PMID: 18922656  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

West Afr J Med. 2009 Sep-Oct;28(5):291-4.

Sweet little Gabonese palm wine: a neglected alcohol.

[Article in English, French]

Mavioga EM(1), Mullot JU, Frederic C, Huart B, Burnat P.

Author information: 

(1)Hopital d'Instruction des armees BEGIN, Service de Biochimie, Toxicologie et

Pharmacologie Cliniques, Saint-Mandé, France. menack28@yahoo.fr

BACKGROUND: During the last ten years, consumption of palm wine, a popular

traditional alcoholic beverage, seriously increases in Gabon. This sweet beverage

seems to be the main alcohol and the most drunken in low socioeconomic

population.

OBJECTIVE: To have an idea of its composition and toxicity, 21 samples of palm

wine were collected in the country and analysed.

METHODS: Twenty-one palm wine samples were randomly selected from all over Gabon.

Methanol and ethanol concentrations in the samples were measured by gas

chromatography. Aromatic hydrocarbons were measured by selected ion monitoring

mode in mass spectrometry. Delection of heavy metals was by standard techniques.

RESULTS: Gabonese palm wine contained ethanol at a mean concentration of about 60

g*L-1, i.e. 7.5 degrees (volume %), volatile components such as alcohols,

aldehydes, carboxylic acids and esters and trace metals. Trace metals were

present at low concentrations below internationally recognized maximal limits for

alcoholic beverages with less than 2 microg*L-1 for cadmium, less than 10

microg*L-1 for arsenic and for lead 15 samples with concentrations under 10

microg*L-1 and the last six samples with concentrations between 11 and 61

microg*L-1. None of the searched aromatic or chlorinated solvents, indicative of 

refined fuel or industrial contamination, was detected.

CONCLUSION: For the parameters analyzed here, there seems to be no significant

difference in constitution between Gabonese wine palm and others kind of palm

wine produced in West Africa. This alcohol needs to be more considered by public 

health authorities and medical teams because of its health and economic

consequences.

PMID: 20383831  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2008 Apr;50(3):313-21. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.12.008.

Epub 2008 Jan 16.

Defining maximum levels of higher alcohols in alcoholic beverages and surrogate

alcohol products.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Haupt S, Schulz K.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger

Strasse 3, D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany. Lachenmeier@web.de

Higher alcohols occur naturally in alcoholic beverages as by-products of

alcoholic fermentation. Recently, concerns have been raised about the levels of

higher alcohols in surrogate alcohol (i.e., illicit or home-produced alcoholic

beverages) that might lead to an increased incidence of liver diseases in regions

where there is a high consumption of such beverages. In contrast, higher alcohols

are generally regarded as important flavour compounds, so that European

legislation even demands minimum contents in certain spirits. In the current

study we review the scientific literature on the toxicity of higher alcohols and 

estimate tolerable concentrations in alcoholic beverages. On the assumption that 

an adult consumes 4 x 25 ml of a drink containing 40% vol alcohol, the maximum

tolerable concentrations of 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, isobutanol, isoamyl

alcohol and 1-hexanol in such a drink would range between 228 and 3325 g/hl of

pure alcohol. A reasonable preliminary guideline level would be 1000 g/hl of pure

alcohol for the sum of all higher alcohols. This level is higher than the

concentrations usually found in both legal alcoholic beverages and surrogate

alcohols, so that we conclude that scientific data are lacking so far to consider

higher alcohols as a likely cause for the adverse effects of surrogate alcohol.

The limitations of our study include the inadequate toxicological data base

leading to uncertainties during the extrapolation of toxicological data between

the different alcohols, as well as unknown interactions between the different

higher alcohols and ethanol.

DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.12.008 

PMID: 18295386  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Addiction. 2005 Apr;100(4):536-42.

Could the high level of cirrhosis in central and eastern Europe be due partly to 

the quality of alcohol consumed? An exploratory investigation.

Szucs S(1), Sárváry A, McKee M, Adány R.

Author information: 

(1)Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Medical and Health

Science Centre, University of Debrecen, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary.

BACKGROUND: The burden of alcohol-related diseases differs widely among

countries. Since the 1980s, a band of countries in Central and Eastern Europe

have experienced a steep rise in deaths from chronic liver diseases and

cirrhosis. A possible risk factor is the consumption of illegally produced

home-made spirits in these countries containing varying amounts of aliphatic

alcohols and which may be hepatotoxic. However, little is known about the

composition of such beverages.

AIMS: To compare the concentration of short-chain aliphatic alcohols in spirits

from illegal and legal sources in Hungary.

DESIGN: Samples taken from commercial retailers and illegal sources were

collected and their aliphatic patterns and alcohol concentrations were determined

by gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) analysis.

FINDINGS: The concentrations of methanol, isobutanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol,

2-butanol and isoamyl alcohol were significantly higher in home-made spirits than

those of from commercial sources.

CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the consumption of home-made spirits is an 

additional risk factor for the development of alcohol-induced cirrhosis and may

have contributed to high level of liver cirrhosis mortality in Central and

Eastern Europe. Restrictions on supply and sale of alcohol from illicit sources

are needed urgently to reduce significantly the mortality from chronic liver

disease.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01009.x 

PMID: 15784068  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Food Chem Toxicol. 2015 Sep;83:210-4. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.05.006. Epub 2015

Jun 25.

The total margin of exposure of ethanol and acetaldehyde for heavy drinkers

consuming cider or vodka.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Gill JS(2), Chick J(3), Rehm J(4).

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger

Strasse 3, D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany; Epidemiological Research Unit, Institute

for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden,

Dresden, Germany. Electronic address: Lachenmeier@web.de.

(2)School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Care, Edinburgh Napier University,

Sighthill Campus, Edinburgh EH11 4BN, Scotland, UK.

(3)School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Care, Edinburgh Napier University,

Sighthill Campus, Edinburgh EH11 4BN, Scotland, UK; Castle Craig Hospital, Blyth 

Bridge, West Linton, EH46 7DH Scotland, UK.

(4)Epidemiological Research Unit, Institute for Clinical Psychology and

Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Social and

Epidemiological Research (SER) Department, Centre for Addiction and Mental

Health, Toronto, Canada; Addiction Policy, Dalla Lana School of Public Health,

University of Toronto (UofT), Canada; PAHO/WHO Collaborating Centre for Mental

Health & Addiction, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, UofT, Canada.

Heavy drinkers in Scotland may consume 1600 g ethanol per week. Due to its low

price, cider may be preferred over other beverages. Anecdotal evidence has linked

cider to specific health hazards beyond other alcoholic beverages. To examine

this hypothesis, nine apple and pear cider samples were chemically analysed for

constituents and contaminants. None of the products exceeded regulatory or

toxicological thresholds, but the regular occurrence of acetaldehyde in cider was

detected. To provide a quantitative risk assessment, two collectives of exclusive

drinkers of cider and vodka were compared and the intake of acetaldehyde was

estimated using probabilistic Monte-Carlo type analysis. The cider consumers were

found to ingest more than 200-times the amount of acetaldehyde consumed by vodka 

consumers. The margins of exposure (MOE) of acetaldehyde were 224 for the cider

and over 220,000 for vodka consumers. However, if the effects of ethanol were

considered in a cumulative assessment of the combined MOE, the effect of

acetaldehyde was minor and the combined MOE for both groups was 0.3. We suggest

that alcohol policy priority should be given on reducing ethanol intake by

measures such as minimum pricing, rather than to focus on acetaldehyde.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.05.006 

PMID: 26116882  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2014 Sep;38(9):2460-7. doi: 10.1111/acer.12511.

Alcoholic beverage strength discrimination by taste may have an upper threshold.

Lachenmeier DW(1), Kanteres F, Rehm J.

Author information: 

(1)Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA), Karlsruhe, Germany; Ministry 

of Rural Affairs and Consumer Protection, Stuttgart, Germany; Epidemiological

Research Unit, Institute for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Technische

Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.

BACKGROUND: Given the association between alcohol consumption and negative health

consequences, there is a need for individuals to be aware of their consumption of

ethanol, which requires knowledge of serving sizes and alcoholic strength. This

study is one of the first to systematically investigate the ability to

discriminate alcoholic strength by taste.

METHODS: Nine discrimination tests (total n = 413) according to International

Standardization Organization (ISO) 4120 sensory analysis methodology "triangle

test" were performed.

RESULTS: A perceptible difference was found for vodka in orange juice (0.0 vs.

0.5% vol; 0 vs. 1% vol), pilsner and wheat beer (0.5 vs. 5% vol), and vodka in

orange juice (5 vs. 10% vol, 20 vs. 30% vol, and 30 vs. 40% vol). The percentage 

of the population perceiving a difference between the beverages varied between 36

and 73%. Alcoholic strength (higher vs. lower) was correctly assigned in only 4

of the 7 trials at a significant level, with 30 to 66% of the trial groups

assigning the correct strength. For the trials that included beverages above 40% 

vol (vodka unmixed, 40 vs. 50% vol and vodka in orange juice, 40 vs. 50% vol),

testers could neither perceive a difference between the samples nor assign

correct alcoholic strength.

CONCLUSIONS: Discrimination of alcoholic strength by taste was possible to a

limited degree in a window of intermediate alcoholic strengths, but not at higher

concentrations. This result is especially relevant for drinkers of unlabeled,

over-proof unrecorded alcoholic beverages who would potentially ingest more

alcohol than if they were to ingest commercial alcohol. Our study provides strong

evidence for the strict implementation and enforcement of labeling requirements

for all alcoholic beverages to allow informed decision making by consumers.

DOI: 10.1111/acer.12511 

PMID: 25257295  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Rev Assoc Med Bras (1992). 1993 Oct-Dec;39(4):234-6.

[Hepatotoxic substances in Brazilian rum].

[Article in Portuguese]

Mincis M(1), Mizuta K, Bulhões E, Andriolo M, Khouri S, Doin P.

Author information: 

(1)Disciplina de Gastroenterologia Clínica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Istituto

de Pesquisas Technológicas de São Paulo S.A.--IPT.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether Brazilian "pingas" (liquor

distilled from sugar cane) contain toxic agents other than ethanol at levels

which might risk consumers health, especially regarding liver damage. We have

studied 8 different "pingas" in which the levels of iron, copper and zinc were

measured through an atomic absorption method, and the levels of ethanol,

acetaldehyde, n-propanol, ethyl acetate, isobutane, and isoamylic alcohol were

measured through gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Iron levels were

higher than those allowed in two liquors, samples 1 and 8 (respectively 0.57 mg/L

and 0.38 mg/L). Such levels may be considered deleterious to health if these

liquors are consumed in great amounts and during large periods, especially if a

synergistic interaction between alcohol and iron exists, as accepted by some

authors. Our findings warrant that further studies be performed.

PMID: 8162089  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Food Addit Contam. 1993 Sep-Oct;10(5):585-92.

A survey of ethyl carbamate in beverages, bread and acidified milks sold in

Denmark.

Vahl M(1).

Author information: 

(1)National Food Agency of Denmark, Central Laboratory, Søborg.

A sensitive gas-chromatographic method of analysis using mass specific detection 

has been applied to a study of ethyl carbamate in the Danish diet. Beverages and 

foods which were assumed to give a major contribution to the exposure of the

Danish population to this potentially carcinogenic compound were investigated.

Average values, ranges obtained for concentrations of ethyl carbamate and the

number of analyses were 534 micrograms/l (< 5-5000 micrograms/l, n = 22) in

spirits, 30 micrograms/l (7-61 micrograms/l, n = 14) in fortified wines, 7

micrograms/l (< 3-29 micrograms/l, n = 57) in wine, 3 micrograms/l (0.2-6.6

micrograms/l, n = 50) in beer, 3.5 micrograms/kg (0.8-12 micrograms/kg, n = 33)

in bread and 0.2 microgram/kg (< 0.1-0.3 microgram/kg, n = 19) in yogurts and

other acidified milk products. It is estimated that the average daily intake of

ethyl carbamate is approximately 2 micrograms per person. The 5% of Danish males 

who have the highest alcohol intake probably consume more than 7 micrograms of

ethyl carbamate per day.

DOI: 10.1080/02652039309374182 

PMID: 8224327  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1991 Jan-Feb;85(1):133-5.

Ingredients and contaminants of traditional alcoholic beverages in Tanzania.

Nikander P(1), Seppälä T, Kilonzo GP, Huttunen P, Saarinen L, Kilima E, Pitkänen 

T.

Author information: 

(1)Institute of Development Studies, University of Helsinki, Finland.

Home-made but commercially available alcoholic beverages were collected in Dar es

Salaam, Tanzania and analysed for their congener alcohol, additive, aflatoxin and

heavy metal contents. Ethanol concentrations of the 15 brewed samples ranged from

2.2 to 8.5% w/v whilst the 2 distilled samples contained ethanol 24.2 and 29.3%

w/v. Aflatoxin B1 was found in 9 brewed beverages, suggesting the use of

contaminated grain or fruit for their production. The amount of zinc in 4 samples

was double the World Health Organization recommended maximum for drinking water

(5 mg/litre). One brewed beverage contained toxic amount of manganese (12.8

mg/litre). Both distilled spirits were rich in fusel alcohols and one was

fortified by caffeine. The results suggested that impurities and contaminants

possibly associated with severe health risks, including carcinogens, are often

found in traditional alcoholic beverages. Continuous daily drinking of these

beverages is certain to increase health risks. Contaminated grain or fruit

rejected from foodstuff production should not be used for the production of

alcoholic beverages.

DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(91)90187-4 

PMID: 2068743  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

J Forensic Sci. 1999 Nov;44(6):1292-5.

Alcohol content of beer and malt beverages: forensic consideration.

Logan BK(1), Case GA, Distefano S.

Author information: 

(1)Washington State Toxicology Laboratory, Bureau of Forensic Laboratory

Services, Washington State Patrol, 2203 Airport Way South, Seattle, WA, USA.

Beer consumption is commonly an issue in a medico-legal setting, requiring

estimates either of a likely blood alcohol concentration (BAC) for a given

pattern of consumption or vice versa. Four hundred and four beers and malt

beverages available for sale in the State of Washington were tested by gas

chromatography for their alcohol content. Considerable variability in the

alcoholic strength was found, even within the same class. Overall the range of

concentrations was 2.92%v/v to 15.66%v/v. The mean alcohol concentration for ales

was 5.51%v/v (SD 1.23%v/v), and for lagers, 5.32% (SD 1.43%v/v). Some specialty

brews had characteristically higher or lower mean concentrations: ice beers

6.07%v/v, malt liquor 7.23%v/v, light beer 4.13%v/v, seasonal ales 6.30%v/v. Six 

brands of lager and four light beers account for the majority of all beer sales

in the United States, and the mean alcohol concentration for these products was

measured as 4.73%v/v and 4.10%v/v respectively. Few of the beers (17%) were

labeled with respect to alcohol content, and in some cases, there was a

significant disparity between the concentration listed on the label, and the

measured alcohol concentration. Toxicologists need to exercise caution when

performing Widmark type calculations, using all available information to select

the most appropriate estimate for alcoholic strength of a beer or malt beverage.

PMID: 10744486  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Leg Med. 1985:34-61.

Blood alcohol concentrations: factors affecting predictions.

Winek CL, Esposito FM.

As a result of extensive alcohol research conducted on both humans and animals,

it is possible to predict a BAC, given pertinent data. In addition, it is

possible to estimate from a given BAC the quantity of alcohol consumed. Caution

must be used in these predictions, for certain factors will affect the final

estimation. Absorption of alcohol is influenced by gastrointestinal contents and 

motility, and also the composition and quantity of the alcoholic beverage. The

vascularity of tissues influences the distribution of alcohol, and their water

content will determine the amount of alcohol present after equilibrium.

Elimination of alcohol begins immediately after absorption. The elimination rate 

varies for individuals but falls between .015 percent to .020 percent per hour,

with an average of .018 percent per hour. In addition to these factors, a BAC

will depend on the subject's weight, percentage of alcohol in the beverage, and

the rate of drinking. The principal effect of alcohol in the body is on the

central nervous system. Its depressant effect consists of impairment to sensory, 

motor and learned functions. When combined with some other drugs, a more

intoxicated state occurs. Although tolerance to alcohol at low blood

concentrations is possible, the tolerance most noted is a learned tolerance among

chronic drinkers. contamination of antemortem blood samples collected for alcohol

analysis is minimal when swabbing with an ethanolic antiseptic is performed with 

routine clinical technique; sloppy swabbing has been shown to increase the BAC

determination significantly. The alcoholic content of blood used for transfusion 

does not contribute significantly to the BAC of the recipient, since extensive

dilution occurs; nor does the alcohol present in injectable medication contribute

significantly. Although many factors may alter the concentration of alcohol

present in autopsy specimens, postmortem synthesis of alcohol receives the most

attention. The microorganisms that cause postmortem ethanol production can be

inhibited by adding a preservative to the samples and storing them under

refrigeration. Should putrefaction be present, it is recommended that, in

addition to blood, several different specimens be collected and analyzed for the 

presence of alcohol. Antemortem blood samples containing ethanol, collected using

sterile tubes and techniques, may be analyzed up to 14 days later with reasonable

certainty that the ethanol level reflects that which was present at the time of

collection.

PMID: 3835425  [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 1984 May;178(5):393-6.

Metals in Finnish liqueurs.

Harju K, Ronkainen P.

The metal content of some representative Finnish berry liqueurs was determined by

atomic absorption spectrometry. The berry liqueurs were prepared from cloudberry 

(Rubus chamaemorus), arctic bramble (Rubus arcticus), cranberry (Vaccinum

oxycoccus), lingonberry (Vaccinum vitis-idaea) and sea buckthorn (Hippophae

rhamnoides). In addition some other Finnish berry, fruit and herbal liqueurs were

analyzed. The trace elements studied were Al, As, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, 

Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, and Zn. The level of poisonous metals in all the samples was very

low: As less than 0.1, Cd less than 0.005 and Pb less than or equal to 0.1 mg/l.

PMID: 6464557  [Indexed for MEDLINE]