© Getty Image
Recap of last class:
In previous lectures, we learned that nouns name physical entities and abstract concepts. They account for over half of the English words currently in use.
We also learned that nouns can be too general, vague, and boring without modifiers, often adjectives.
When speaking and writing, we often use nouns to tell the topic or character(s) in a story (e.g., a pirate, an old pirate, an old pirate with an eyepatch).
To tell a story, we also need verbs to tell what the character does/did, is/was doing, has/had done, or has/had been doing (e.g., is shouting, is swinging g a sword).
© How it works
Warm-up activity:
Let's watch the recruitment ad for the British Royal Navy in 2010. Think about the stylistic features of the language, especially the choice of verbs. What kinds of effects does it intend for the audience?
You’re born. You cry. You grow. You learn. You change. You change. You pull. You pull. You push. You pause. You think. You start. You learn. You fly. You chase. You fly. You save. You meet. You greet. You hush. You go. You chase. You click. You click. You pull. You pause. You help rise find hunt save shout shoot learn live. A life without limits. Search navy jobs online.
Now, we're going to take a closer look at verbs. We'll focus on the definition of the verbs, the form, function, and meaning of verbs, and finally the rhetorical effects of verbs.
4.4.1. Definition of verbs
Verbs either report actions or define and present the state of being.
4.4.2. Subcategories of verbs
1) By Form
simple verbs (one free morpheme)
eat, drink, think, speak, run, walk, get, hold
derivative verbs (one free morpheme + one derivative morpheme/suffix or prefix)
-ize/ise (e.g., globalize, socialize, commercialize, incentivize, humanize, monetize)
-ify (e.g., falsify, satisfy, mystify, amplify, beautify, certify, clarify, fortify, purify)
-en (e.g., lighten, lengthen, straighten, broaden, whiten, brighten, soften, harden)
-ate (e.g., activate, saturate, substantiate, alienate, allocate, notate, rotate)
-en (e.g., enlarge, ensnare, enlighten, )
-dis/de (e.g., disengage, disagree, desensitize, deactivate)
-ish (e.g., nourish, astonish, cherish, embellish, demolish, impoverish)
converted verbs (verbs converted from other word classes, often nouns)
google, email, ring
multi-word verbs (verbs made up of a verb and one or more other elements)
2) By Meaning
Physical verbs:
Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can create a motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to describe it is most likely a physical verb.
e.g., run, hear, call, write, listen, speak, walk
Mental verbs:
Mental verbs have meanings that are related to cognitive activities such as understanding, thinking, planning. or discovering.
e.g., know, recognize, believe, speculate, contemplate
States of being verbs:
Also known as linking verbs, state of being verbs describe conditions or situations that exist. State of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed. These verbs, forms of to be, such as am, is, are, are usually complemented by adjectives.
be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been), exist, remain, stay, keep, grow, maintain
e.g., (You) Stay healthy. "stay" links "You" the subject and the adjective "healthy".
3). By Function
lexical/true verbs (carry meaning)
e.g., walk, speak, think, pick up, think of, get along with
auxiliary verbs (❗belong to the closed-class category)
a. modal auxiliary verbs (add grammatical information to lexical verbs)
Modals: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must
Semi-modals: (had) better, have to, (have) got to (gotta), ought to, be supposed to, be going to (gonna), used to
b. primary auxiliary verbs: be, have, do (be, have, do as the helping verb), e.g.,
I am eating. be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been)
She has got a cat. have (has, have, had)
He did do it. do (do, does, doing, did, done)
Note that 'be', 'have' and 'do' can also be lexical verbs (if they are the only verb in a sentence). e.g.,
I am a student. be (am, is, are, was, were)
She has a cat. have (has, have, had)
He did it. do (do, does, did)
Because of their versatility, 'be', 'have', and 'do' are called primary verbs.
4) By transitivity/valency (📍This won't be tested in Quiz 5. We have one lesson designated for verb valency when we get to verb phrases.)
transitive verbs: carry the action of the subject to a direct object (DO), a receiver of the action
e.g., The cocker spaniel licked [my face]. V + NP: DO
intransitive verbs: report complete actions by themselves without taking a direct object (DO)
e.g., The cocker spaniel rolled [in the grass]. V + PP: Optional Adverbial of Place)
linking (copular) verbs: do not report actions but connect the subjects with predicates, often a noun, adjective, or prepositional phrase.
e.g., The cocker spaniel is [my friend's dog]. V + NP: Subject Predicate
The cocker spaniel is [friendly]. V + AdjP: Subject Predicate
The cocker spaniel was [in a near frenzy]. V + PP: Obligatory Adverbial
4.4.3. Writing Connection: The rhetoric of verbs
Verbs are the most complex part of speech.
"With their nuances in meaning (abstract/concrete; dynamic/static; neutral/descriptive; literal/figurative), variations in tense, voice, and mood, and non-finite forms, they offer the writer more expressive possibilities, more opportunities for control, than any other part of speech." (Rice, 1992, p. 282)
You can watch this video from Grammar Monster to learn more about verbs.
Identify the verbs in the quotes below.
There was not the sensation of the water's raging, but rather that of its alertness and resourcefulness as it split apart at rocks, frothed lightly, corkscrewed, fluted, fell, recovered, jostled into helmet-shapes over smoothed stones.
- James Dickey, Deliverance
There was not the sensation of the water's raging, but rather that of its alertness and resourcefulness as it split apart at rocks, frothed lightly, corkscrewed, fluted, fell, recovered, jostled into helmet-shapes over smoothed stones. -- James Dickey, Deliverance
Notice that the word 'raging' is not a verb but a noun here, because it follows the possessive form of water (water's). Think about the phrase "Uncles Tom's Cabin", the word cabin is a noun.
It is a noun converted from the present participle form (v-ing) of the verb 'rage'. The special term used to describe a v-ing form functioning as a noun is gerund (e.g., Seeing is believing.)
"Verbs act. Verbs move. Verbs do. Verbs strike, smooth, grin, cry, exasperate, decline, fly, hurt, and heal. Verbs make writing go, and they matter more to our language than any other part of speech."
- Donald Hall, Writing Well.
"Verbs act. Verbs move. Verbs do. Verbs strike, smooth, grin, cry, exasperate, decline, fly, hurt, and heal. Verbs make writing go, and they matter more to our language than any other part of speech."
- Donald Hall, Writing Well.
4. A fun activity:
Below is the poem ‘After Rain’ (2009) by Nigel McLoughlin. (You can listen to a recording of the poet reading the poem here). You will see the original version on the left and one modified version. Read both versions and think about the verbs (and other word classes) that have been altered here. How do these choices influence your experience of the modified version compared to the original?
Write your observations in the comments below. Focus on one or more changes that interest you and feel free to comment on why that is. Remember, you can like any comments that you find interesting or thought provoking, and can also reply to start a conversation.
After Rain
(Nigel McLoughlin, 2009)
Original:
the blue arch of the wind
makes the catkins ripple.
One falls and stipples
across a puddle. Lead peels
like bark off a steeple
and evening flattens
on a park bench.
Everyone is under cover
huddled below eaves
and behind shutters.
A car pinks by
the exhaust stutters
a plume of smoke
thunder coloured.
To the west, a clearing
opens up to the silence
left behind. The street
swings into motion
black umbrellas gleam
against the ocean
of a whitening sky.
After Rain
(Nigel McLoughlin, 2009)
Revised:
A blue arch of wind
makes the flowers ripple.
One falls and lies
across a puddle. Lead peels
like bark off a steeple
and evening is here.
Everyone is under cover
huddled below eaves
and behind shutters.
A car pinks by
the exhaust stutters
a purple plume of smoke.
To the west, a clearing
opens up in the quiet.
The street swings into motion
and bright umbrellas gleam
against the ocean
of a white sky.