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Learning outcomes for this module as of Fall 2019:
Please note: Those headings with associated teaching tips are underlined, clickable links. However, while this identifies which topics have associated teaching tips, the actual list of teaching tips you click through to include all teaching tips for this module, not only the ones for one particular topic in this module.
Topic from HAPS Guidelines (in bold font)
Learning Outcomes (indented, regular font)[1]
1. General functions of the respiratory system
1. Describe the major functions of the respiratory system.
2. Describe the processes associated with the respiratory system (i.e., ventilation, pulmonary gas exchange [gas exchange between alveoli and blood], transport of gases in blood, tissue gas exchange [gas exchange between blood and body tissues]).[2]
2. Gross and microscopic anatomy of the respiratory tract and related organs
1. Compare and contrast the general locations and functions of the conducting and respiratory portions (zones) of the respiratory tract.
2. Identify the anatomical division of the upper versus lower respiratory tract.
3. List, in order, the respiratory structures that air passes through during inspiration and expiration.
4. Describe the major functions, gross anatomical features, and epithelial lining of the nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
Larynx:
5. Describe the major functions of the larynx.
6. Describe the anatomical features of the larynx, including the laryngeal cartilages.
7. Compare and contrast the location, composition, and function of the vestibular folds (false vocal cords) and vocal folds (true vocal cords).
8. Briefly explain how the vocal folds and the larynx function in phonation.
Trachea:
9. Describe the major functions of the trachea.
10. Describe the gross anatomical features of the trachea, including its positioning with respect to the esophagus.
11. Describe the microscopic anatomy of the trachea, including the significance of the C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings.
Lungs, pleura, and bronchial tree:
12. Compare and contrast the main anatomical differences between bronchi and bronchioles.
13. Identify and describe the anatomic features of the bronchial tree (e.g., main [primary] bronchi, lobar [secondary] bronchi, segmental [tertiary] bronchi, smaller bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli).
14. Pair each bronchus (e.g., main, lobar, segmental) with the general portion of lung it supplies (e.g., lung, lobe, bronchopulmonary segment).
15. Identify and describe the respiratory membrane, and explain its function.
16. Describe the histological changes that occur along the bronchial tree from larger to smaller air passageways.
17. Identify and describe the location, structure, and function of the visceral and parietal pleura, serous fluid, and the pleural cavity.
18. Compare and contrast the gross anatomic features of the left and right lungs, and explain the reasons for these differences.
19. *Identify and describe the bronchopulmonary segments and their clinical significance.
3. Mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation
1. Define pulmonary ventilation, inspiration (inhalation), and expiration (exhalation).
2. Identify the muscles used during quiet inspiration, deep inspiration, and forced expiration.
3. Identify the nerves responsible for ventilation.
4. Define atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, intrapleural pressure, and transpulmonary pressure.
5. Explain the relationship of intrapleural pressure, transpulmonary pressure, and intrapulmonary pressure relative to atmospheric pressure during ventilation.
6. Explain the inverse relationship between gas pressure and volume of the gas (i.e., Boyle’s Law) and apply this relationship to explain airflow during inspiration and expiration.
7. Explain how pulmonary ventilation is affected by bronchiolar smooth muscle contractions (bronchoconstriction), lung and thoracic wall compliance, and pulmonary surfactant and alveolar surface tension.
8. Describe the forces that tend to collapse the lungs and those that normally oppose or prevent collapse (e.g., elastic recoil of the lung versus subatmospheric intrapleural pressure).
4. Pulmonary air volumes and capacities
1. Define, identify, and determine values for the pulmonary volumes (inspiratory reserve volume [IRV], tidal volume [TV], expiratory reserve volume [ERV], and residual volume [RV]) and the pulmonary capacities (inspiratory capacity [IC], functional residual capacity [FRC], vital capacity [VC], and total lung capacity [TLC]).
2. Define anatomical dead space.
3. Explain the effect of anatomical dead space on alveolar ventilation and on the composition of alveolar and expired air.
4. Define and calculate minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation.
5. Mechanisms of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues
1. Explain the relationship between the total pressure of gases in a mixture and the partial pressure of an individual gas (i.e., Dalton’s Law).
2. Explain the relationship between the partial pressure of a gas in air, the solubility of that gas in water, and the amount of the gas that can dissolve in water.
3. Compare and contrast the solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide in plasma.
4. Describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries.
5. Analyze how oxygen and carbon dioxide movements are affected by changes in partial pressure gradients (e.g., at high altitude), area of the exchange surface, permeability of the exchange surface, and diffusion distance.
6. Explain the effects of local changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations on the diameters of pulmonary arterioles and bronchioles.
7. Use the mechanisms of ventilation-perfusion coupling to predict the effect that reduced alveolar ventilation has on the distribution of pulmonary blood flow and to predict the effect that reduced pulmonary blood flow has on bronchiole diameter.
8. Describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements between systemic capillaries and the body tissues.
9. Explain the influence of cellular respiration on oxygen and carbon dioxide gradients that govern gas exchange between blood and body tissues.
6. Mechanisms of gas transport in the blood
1. Describe the ways in which oxygen is transported in blood, and explain the relative importance of each to total oxygen transport.
2. State the reversible chemical equation for oxygen binding to hemoglobin and predict how raising or lowering the partial pressure of oxygen will shift the equilibrium.
3. Interpret the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve at low and high partial pressures of oxygen.
4. Explain the changes in hemoglobin affinity for oxygen when the curve shifts to the right or the left.
5. List factors that shift the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve to the right, and explain how this results in increased oxygen release at the tissues.
6. List factors that shift the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve to the left, and explain how this facilitates oxygen binding to hemoglobin in the lungs.
7. *Describe the oxygen-fetal hemoglobin saturation curve and its impact on oxygen delivery to fetal tissues.
8. Describe the ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in blood and explain the relative importance of each to total carbon dioxide transport.
9. State the reversible chemical equation for the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid and then to hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion.
10. Explain the relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration.
11. Predict how changing the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will affect the pH and the concentration of bicarbonate ions in the plasma.
12. Predict how changing the pH or the concentration of bicarbonate ions will affect the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the plasma.
13. State the reversible chemical equation for carbon dioxide binding to deoxyhemoglobin.
14. Explain the role of each of the following in carbon dioxide transport: carbonic anhydrase, hydrogen ions binding to hemoglobin, the chloride shift, and oxygen-hemoglobin saturation level.
7. Control of pulmonary ventilation
1. Describe the locations and functions of the brainstem respiratory centers.
2. List and describe the major chemical and neural stimuli to the respiratory centers.
3. Compare and contrast the central and peripheral chemoreceptors.
4. Define hyperventilation, hypoventilation, panting, eupnea, hyperpnea, and apnea.
5. Explain why it is possible to hold one’s breath longer after hyperventilating than after eupnea.
8. Application of homeostatic mechanisms
1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the respiratory system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.
2. Explain how the respiratory system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.
9. Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance
1. Given a factor or situation (e.g., pulmonary fibrosis), predict the changes that could occur in the respiratory system and the consequences of those changes (i.e. given a cause, state a possible effect).
2. *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the respiratory system (e.g., atelectasis), predict the possible factors or situations that might have created the disruption (i.e. given an effect, predict possible causes).
[1] An asterisk (*) preceding a learning outcome designates it as an optional, advanced learning outcome. The HAPS A&P Comprehensive Exam does not address these optional learning outcomes.
[2] We are not using the terms “external respiration” and “internal respiration” because these terms have different meanings to different people and because of confusion between internal respiration and cellular respiration. We strongly encourage A&P instructors to adopt the terminology listed in LO 1.2 instead.