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Learning outcomes for this module as of Fall 2019:
Please note: Those headings which have associated teaching tips are underlined, clickable links. However, while this identifies which topics have associated teaching tips, the actual list of teaching tips you click through to include all teaching tips for this module, not only the ones for one particular topic in this module.
Topic from HAPS Guidelines (in bold font)
Learning Outcomes (indented, regular font)
1. General functions of the nervous system
1. Describe the general functions of the nervous system.
2. Organization of the nervous system
1. Compare and contrast the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) with respect to structure and function.
2. Differentiate between the motor (efferent) and sensory (afferent) components of the nervous system.
3. Describe the nervous system as a control system with the following components: sensory receptors, afferent pathways, control (integrating) center, efferent pathways, and effector (target) organs.
4. Compare and contrast the somatic motor and autonomic motor divisions of the nervous system.
5. Compare and contrast the somatic sensory and visceral sensory divisions of the nervous system.
3. General anatomy of the nervous system
1. Describe the composition and arrangement of the gray and white matter in the CNS.
2. Describe the structure of a typical nerve, including the motor and sensory neuronal elements, neuroglial elements, and connective tissue wrappings.
3. Compare and contrast the structure and location of a nucleus and ganglion.
4. Compare and contrast the structure and location of a tract and nerve.
4. Protective roles of cranial bones and vertebral column, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
1. Describe how the cranial bones and the vertebral column protect the CNS.
2. Identify the layers of the meninges and describe their anatomical and functional relationships to the CNS (brain and spinal cord).
3. Compare and contrast the structure of the dura mater surrounding the brain and the spinal cord.
4. Describe the structure and location of the dural venous sinuses, and explain their role in drainage of blood from the brain.
5. Identify and describe the structure and function of the cranial dural septa.
6. Identify and describe the epidural space, subdural space and subarachnoid space associated with the brain and the spinal cord, and identify which space contains cerebrospinal fluid.
7. Describe the general functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
8. Describe the production, flow, and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), from its origin in the ventricles to its eventual reabsorption into the dural venous sinuses.
5. Neurons
1. Identify and describe the major components of a typical neuron (e.g., cell body, nucleus, nucleolus, chromatophilic substance [Nissl bodies], axon hillock, dendrites, and axon) and indicate which parts receive input signals and which parts transmit output signals.
2. Compare and contrast the three structural types of neurons (i.e., unipolar [pseudounipolar], bipolar, and multipolar) with respect to their structure, location, and function.
3. Compare and contrast the three functional types of neurons (i.e., sensory [afferent] neurons, interneurons [association neurons], and motor [efferent] neurons) with respect to their structure, location, and function.
6. Neuroglial (glial) cells
1. Describe the structure, location, and function of each of the six types of neuroglial (glial) cells.
2. Define myelination and describe its function, including comparing and contrasting how myelination occurs in the CNS and PNS.
1. List the major ion channels of neurons and describe them as leak (leakage or passive) or voltage-gated channels, mechanically gated channels, or ligand-gated (chemically-gated) channels, and identify where they typically are located on a neuron.
2. Describe the physiological basis of the resting membrane potential (RMP) in a neuron including the ion channels involved, the relative ion concentrations, and the electrochemical gradient.
3. Describe the role of the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential.
4. Define and describe depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and threshold.
5. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials, with particular attention to their locations in the neuron and the ions and ion channels involved in each.
6. Label a voltage-versus-time diagram of an action potential with the ions involved in each phase, the direction of their movement across the membrane, and the terms depolarize, repolarize, and hyperpolarize.
7. Describe the physiological process involved in the conduction (propagation)[1] of an action potential, including the types and locations of the ion channels involved.
8. Describe the importance of voltage-gated channels in the conduction (propagation) of an action potential.
9. Explain how axon diameter and myelination affect conduction velocity.
10. Explain the role of myelin in saltatory conduction.
11. Compare action potential conduction (propagation) in an unmyelinated versus a myelinated axon.[2]
12. Distinguish between absolute and relative refractory periods and compare the physiological basis of each.
13. Explain the impact of absolute and relative refractory periods on the activity of a neuron.
8. Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and synaptic transmission
1. Define a synapse, and explain the difference between an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.
2. *Explain the difference between a neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator.
3. Describe the structures involved in a typical chemical synapse (e.g., axon terminal [synaptic knob], voltage-gated calcium channels, synaptic vesicles of presynaptic cell, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitter receptors of the postsynaptic cell).
4. Describe the events of synaptic transmission in proper chronological order from the release of neurotransmitter by synaptic vesicles to the effect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.
5. Describe the difference between fast synaptic responses (ion channel [ionotropic] receptors) and slow synaptic responses (second messenger-linked metabotropic receptors).
6. Define excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) and interpret graphs showing the voltage-versus-time relationship of an EPSP and an IPSP.
7. Explain how a single neurotransmitter can elicit different responses at different postsynaptic cells.
8. List the most common excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter(s) used in the nervous system.
9. Explain temporal and spatial summation of postsynaptic potentials.
10. Describe the different mechanisms (e.g., reuptake, enzymatic breakdown, diffusion) by which neurotransmitter activity at a synapse can be terminated.
9. Integration of neural information
1. Define neural (neuronal) circuit.[3]
2. Compare and contrast the different types of neural circuits (e.g., converging, diverging).
3. Define neural plasticity.
10. Structural and functional organization of the brain
1. Identify and describe the 3 primary brain vesicles formed from the neural tube.
2. Identify and describe the 5 secondary brain vesicles formed from the neural tube and name the parts of the adult brain arising from each.
3. Identify and define the general terms gyrus, sulcus, and fissure.
4. Identify and describe the four major parts of the adult brain (i.e., cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum).
5. Identify and describe the ventricular system components.
6. Describe the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its significance.
For the cerebrum:
7. Identify and describe the cerebral hemispheres and the five lobes of each (i.e., frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula).
8. Identify and describe the major landmarks of the cerebrum (e.g., longitudinal fissure, lateral sulcus [fissure], central sulcus, transverse fissure, precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus).
9. Identify and describe the three major cerebral regions (i.e., cortex, white matter, cerebral nuclei [basal nuclei]).
10. Identify and describe the primary functional cortical areas of the cerebrum (e.g., primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, primary auditory cortex, primary visual cortex, primary olfactory cortex, primary gustatory cortex).
11. Compare and contrast the cerebral location and function of the motor speech area (Broca area) and Wernicke area.
12. Compare and contrast the three cerebral white matter tracts (i.e., association, commissural, projection).
For the diencephalon:
13. Name the major components of the diencephalon.
14. Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the thalamus.
15. Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the hypothalamus, including its relationship to the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.
16. Describe and identify the epithalamus, including the pineal gland and its function.
For the brainstem:
17. Name the three subdivisions of the brainstem.
18. Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the midbrain (mesencephalon), including the cerebral peduncles, superior colliculi, and inferior colliculi.
19. Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the pons.
20. Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the medulla oblongata (medulla), including the pyramids and decussation of the pyramids.
For the cerebellum:
21. Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the cerebellum.
22. Identify and describe the cerebellar hemispheres, vermis, arbor vitae (cerebellar white matter), cerebellar peduncles, and cerebellar cortex (folia, cerebellar gray matter).
23. Describe the major components and functions of the limbic system.
24. Describe the major components and functions of the reticular activating system (RAS).
11. Cranial nerves
1. List and identify the cranial nerves by name and number.
2. Describe the major functions of each cranial nerve and identify each cranial nerve as predominantly sensory, motor, or mixed (i.e., sensory and motor).
3. List the cranial nerves that have parasympathetic (ANS) components.
12. Structural and functional organization of the spinal cord
1. Identify and describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord, including its enlargements (i.e., cervical and lumbar), conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale.
2. Compare and contrast the location, composition, and function of the anterior (ventral) roots, posterior (dorsal) roots, and posterior (dorsal) root ganglion with respect to the spinal cord.
3. Identify and describe the anatomical features seen in a cross-sectional view of the spinal cord (e.g., anterior horn, lateral horn, posterior horn, gray commissure, central canal, anterior funiculus [column[4]], lateral funiculus [column], posterior funiculus [column]).
4. Describe the structure, location, and function of ascending and descending spinal cord tracts.
1. Identify and describe the formation, structure, and branches of a typical spinal nerve, including the roots and the rami (e.g., anterior [ventral], posterior [dorsal]).
2. List the number of spinal nerve pairs emerging from each spinal cord region (i.e., cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal).
3. Describe the concept of a dermatome and its clinical significance.
4. Define a spinal nerve plexus.
5. For the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral nerve plexuses, list the spinal nerves that form each plexus, describe the plexus’ major motor and sensory distributions, and list the major named nerves that originate from each plexus.
14. Reflexes and their roles in nervous system function
1. Define the term reflex.
2. Describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of a reflex arc.
3. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of reflexes: intrinsic versus learned, somatic versus visceral, monosynaptic versus polysynaptic, and ipsilateral versus contralateral.
4. Describe the following reflexes and name all components of each reflex arc: stretch reflex, (Golgi) tendon reflex, flexor (withdrawal) reflex, and crossed-extensor reflex.
15. Structure and function of sensory and motor pathways
1. Describe the locations and functions of the first-, second- and third-order neurons in a sensory pathway.
2. Describe the locations and functions of the upper and lower motor neurons in a motor pathway.
3. Describe the concept of decussation and its functional implications.
16. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
1. Compare and contrast the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to the somatic nervous system (SNS) with respect to site of origination, number of neurons involved in the pathway, effectors, receptors, and neurotransmitters.
2. Name the two main divisions of the ANS and compare and contrast the major functions of each division, their neurotransmitters, the origination of the division in the CNS, the location of their preganglionic and postganglionic (ganglionic) cell bodies, and the length of the preganglionic versus postganglionic axons.
3. Describe the major components of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions (e.g., sympathetic trunk [chain], white and gray rami communicantes, splanchnic nerves, pelvic splanchnic nerves, CN III, CN VII, CN IX, CN X) and the major ganglia of each division (e.g., terminal ganglia, intramural ganglia, sympathetic trunk [chain] ganglia, prevertebral [collateral] ganglia).
4. Describe the different anatomical pathways through which sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons reach target effectors.
5. Compare and contrast the effects (or lack thereof) of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation on various effectors (e.g., heart, airways, gastrointestinal tract, iris of the eye, blood vessels, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles).
6. Explain the relationship between chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic division of the nervous system.
7. Describe visceral reflex arcs, including structural and functional details of sensory and motor (autonomic) components.
8. Compare and contrast cholinergic and adrenergic receptors with respect to neurotransmitters that bind to them, receptor subtypes, receptor locations, target cell response (i.e., excitatory or inhibitory), and examples of drugs, hormones, and other substances that interact with these receptors.
17. Application of homeostatic mechanisms
1. Explain the role of the nervous system in the maintenance of homeostasis and give examples of how the nervous system interacts with other body systems to accomplish this.
18. Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis
1. Given a factor or situation (e.g., a demyelinating disease), predict the changes that could occur in the nervous system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).
2. *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the nervous system (e.g., decreased neurotransmitter release), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict the possible causes).
Note: An asterisk (*) preceding a learning outcome designates it as an optional, advanced learning outcome. The HAPS A&P Comprehensive Exam does not address these optional learning outcomes.
[1] The preferred term for neurophysiologists is conduction (not propagation) and we recommend using conduction to be consistent with the neurophysiologists.
[2] All action potential conduction is continuous. We have intentionally omitted the term “continuous conduction” from the comparison of conduction in myelinated and unmyelinated axons because saltatory conduction is also continuous -- it only appears to jump from node to node.
[3] The preferred term is neural circuit rather than neural or neuronal pool.
[4] Terminologia Anatomica (TA) states that the term funiculus should be used to describe the white matter regions, whereas ‘column’ should refer to structures within the gray matter of the spinal cord. We include column in parentheses because we recognize the prevalence of the use of the term ‘column’ relating the white matter.