Minangkabau

Minangkabau : Malayo & Srivijaya empires

The Minangkabau kingdom was a union of the remnants of 2 empires:-

• Malayo realm (bhumi), and

• Srivijaya empire.

Both empires were based side-by-side on the east coast of Sumatra. The Malayo realm was based at the coastal city of Dharmasraya (now Jambi) on the Batang Hari river (east-by-south-east of Sumatra). The Srivijaya empire was based at the coastal city of  Palembang on the Musi river (south-east of Sumatra). 

The two territories would vie for political power against each other; especially when one became too powerful. But they also had shared interests and would unite in helping each other; especially when foreign armies appeared. 

Malayo Realm

The Malayo realm was also known as the Mauli dynasty or Jambi kingdom or the Dharmasraya kingdom. Not much is known about the beginnings of the Malayo realm except that they appeared after the end of the Sailendra dynasty.

The earliest records are from the chinese monk Yijing's visit in 671 CE. He recorded that Malayo realm was absorbed by the Srivijaya in 692 CE. Later, chinese historian Zhao Rukuo records that the Malayo realm had broken away from the Srivijaya in 1183 CE and had taken over a large section of East Sumatra.

Their capital city was at Dharmasraya. As listed in the Istana Records*, the rulers of the Malayo realm were as follows:-

• Tuwanku Kalokamo (Suryanarayana Malayapura) 

• Tuwanku Ratu 1183 CE (Trilokyaraja Maulibusanawarmadewa) 

• Tuwanku Tianso 

• Tuwanku Tiang Panjang 1286 CE (Tribuanaraja Mauliwarmadewa) 

The Padang Roco Inscription from 1286 CE was a gift to Tuwanku Tiang Panjang from Maharaja Kertanegara of Singhasari.

The daughter of Tuwanku Tiang Panjang, Puti Reno Marak Dara Jingga, was married to the javanese Majapahit prince Adawayavarman. This union would beget a new beginning with their child, prince Adityavarman.

Srivijaya Empire [683 CE ~ c.1183 CE]

The Srivijaya empire was based in Palembang, Sumatra. Srivijaya were known for their maritime trade prowess, their seafaring explorations as well as the cultural spread of Mahayana Buddhism throughout South-East Asia. Their influence of the Srivijaya is still highly visible within the cultures of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.  They also promoted diplomatic and trade relations with China, the Coromandel kingdoms and Arabia.

The Srivijaya empire expanded by conquests in Sumatra with the Malayo realm (Jambi); in Java with Taruma and Kalingga; in Malay Peninsula with Langkasuka, Pan Pan and Tambralinga; in the Mekong with Indrapura. They also set-up the principalities of Sailendra and Mataram kingdoms in Java. Srivijaya established trade routes from the Philippine Islands (in Tondo) to Madagascar.

Yet, despite its major impact on the development of South-East Asia, relatively little is known about the Srivijaya empire. Stone Inscriptions credit the Srivijaya founder as Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa on a holy quest for wealth, power and mystical sorcery.

The relationship of Srivijaya with Malayo realm seems to be of a brotherly nature with power-sharing to rule the empire together. Srivijaya also coexisted peacefully to the Sailendra, the dominant empire in Java.

The Srivijaya began their decline after their imperial territories were attacked by the Cholas from South India 1025 AD. In 1183, Malayo realm broke away. In 1222, the Singhasari kingdom in took control of Java. In 1293, Java's new superpower, the Majapahit empire, took over the entire region. With the Malayo realm re-established (although lesser), the remnants of the Srivijaya re-grouped into two main directions; the Minangkabau federation and the Singapura kingdom. 

Exodus to the Highlands c.1300

Jack's Genealogy* chronicles the journey of the remnants of Srivijaya people to their homelands in West Sumatra. 

Starting from the area between Palembang and Jambi, they travel westward and cross over the mountain range to first settle at Ayer Etam. With the constant risk of attack by the Javanese Majapahit empire, they move to Indrapura on the west coast and then later to Tanjong Bunga. More clashes with the Javanese force them to move northward and eventually they settle at BukitTinggi (Highlands).

Supposedly, it is during this journey that the stories of the "buffalo contest" and the "bamboo cup massacre" took place [see Jack's Genealogy* pp 8-10].

BukitTinggi (the highlands) are part of the Barisan ridge of  mountains, most of which are volcanic. BukitTinggi was the ideal location as its steep access was defensible, there was water for agriculture, and there was gold to be mined. 

Malayapura - refers to the core of the homelands, is basically the great plateau between Mount Talakmau and Mount Talang with 2 great lakes of Maninjau and Singkarak in between them. Mount Talakmau is referred to as Mount Ophir, due to the presence of gold in that area. 

Pagaruyung - Originally, the name Pagar-Ruyung referred to the fence (pagar) made of ruyong (or nibong) protecting their base camp at Tanjong Bunga and the name stayed in use as they migrated onward to the next base camps (Jack's Genealogy p.7). In the later Minangkabau era, they maintained the word Pagaruyung to (still) refer to the Istana (palace).

Minangkabau Kingdom established 1347

Arriving at BukitTinggi (in Malayo territory), the remnants of the Srivijaya unite with the Malayo and are ruled by prince Adityavarman. He is credited with the founding of Pagaruyung (c. 1347 -1375) and the beginning of the Minangkabau empire.  

Adityavarman's father was a Majapahit prince.His mother was a prominent Malayo princess. He then marries a prominent princess of the Srivijaya new arrivals. Not only does Adityavarman unite the Malayo and Srivijaya, this is also implicitly blessed by the Majapahit. This begins the first Minangkabau dynasty.

Adityavarman the Great [reign 1347 - 1375]

Dewang Palokamo Rajo Indo Deowano -or- Sri Maharajadhiraja Kenakamedinidra -or- Pratapaprakrama Rajendra Maulimaliwarmadewa -or- Adityavarman was born c.1294 to a princess of the Malayo and a prince of the Majapahit. His father was prince Adawayavarman which made Adityavarman a cousin to Maharaja Jayanegara of Majapahit. His mother was Puti Reno Marak Dara Jingga, whose father was Tuwanku Tiang Panjang (of the Padang Roco Inscription fame). 

Adityavarman is regarded as the first ruler of the Minangkabau. He is credited as the ruler who defined and secured the sovereignty of the Minangkabau kingdom; politically independent from the Majapahit; and a separate identity from the Malayo. However, from the Majapahit point of view, the Minangkabau kingdom was regarded as one of their vassal states which was now ruled by one of their princes. 

Either way, Adityavarman was highly exalted with many inscription stones found in his honour. 

List of Rulers (in Pagaruying)

This list of Rulers was created using the Istana Records. Please see sub-pages King List for more details.

Minangkabau Rulers in Pagaruyung (incl. Year of death)

Mahayana Buddhism

During the first dynasty of the Minangkabau, the religion being practiced by them was Mahayana Buddhism. While traditional Buddhism (Sutra influenced) is based on abstinence, Mahayana (Tantra influenced) uses indulgence.

Adityavarman was said to be highly dedicated to particular rituals of Tantra in Mahayana Buddhism. Although popular Tantric indulgences include ritual sex or intoxication, it is insinuated that Adityavarman's specialty was trance-like dancing at funeral pyres.

Beyond this, Adityavarman also had a fearsome reputation as a powerful sorcerer; and considered to be an incarnation of a Bhairava (terror deity from Hinduism). 

Minangkabau First dynasty [1347 - 1580]

The first dynasty of the Minangkabau rulers lasted from 1347 to 1580. This period of 233 years was represented by 11 rulers. 

Compiled from Istana Records, Minangkabau Rulers in Pagaruyung (incl. Yr. of death):-

Marsden's Sumatra* : "upon the death of a Sultan Alif in the year 1680, without direct heirs". Marsden misquoted the year which should have been 1580; the year Alif-1 died. 

Due to the practice of royal members intermarrying between close relatives, this was an incestuous DNA accident waiting to happen. See the sub-page 1st Dynasty for more details.

Adat & the Matrilineal Tradition

The Minangkabau (presumably from the Srivijaya heritage) have a long established matrilineal Adat (tradition) and is one of the largest matrilineal societies in the world. Things like which clan-house you belong to, line of descent and inheritance follow the female line; or as they say, "follow the umbilical cord". Children belong to the clan-house, which in reality means they belong to the mother.

In Minangkabau society, the women control the household, its monies and they are usually the trade merchants. The men are expected to work or to go seek fortune and adventure.

This ancient matrilineal Adat became "popular culture" and is attributed to the marriage of Maharaja Adityavarman and Puti Reno Jalito (Juwita). Her mother was Puti Indo Jalito, descendant of the Srivijaya. Her lineage from the Istana Pagaruyung Records is shown below.

Puti Indo Jalito had 2 husbands: (i) Rajo Natan Sang Seto {of the Srivijaya}, and (ii) Hyang Indojati Cati Bilang Pandai {apparently a Chettiar}. Her children were Puti Reno Jalito, Parpatih Nan Sabatang & 4 others (by Cati Bilang Pandai) as well as Katumangguangan (by Rajo Natan).

Adityavarman & Reno Jalito had a son and daughter, named  Ananggawarman, and Dewi Sanggowani respectively. Rajo Annanggawarman married the daughter of Katumangguangan.

The matrilineal Adat system was further interpreted into 2 directions (lareh) which are attributed to Parpateh Nan Sabatang and Katumangguangan.

Bundo Kanduang - the head Matriarch

"Birth Mother", Bundo Kanduang is a title given to the matriarch of the Minangkabau (the highest rank for a woman) awarded by the Council. Informally, Bundo Kanduang can also refer to the head of a clan-house (female). It is thought that this title was first applied to Dara Jingga (daughter of Tiang Panjang). The informal use of Bundo Kanduang continues to this day in several clan-houses.

In the epic of Cindua Mato,  tells a legend based on historical characters. where Bundo Kanduang at that time was Puti Panjang Rambuik II, daughter of Wijayawarman (Maharaja Dewa Sati I). She was also the grand-daughter of Ananggawarman.

Istana Records* show that, after the death of Wijayawarman, there was a period of 4 rulers who did not use the title "Maharajo". This might have been a record-keeping omission or perhaps they were similar to Regents. After Widjayawarman, the rulers were:-

1. Dewang Duato Deowano - brother of Widjayawarman

2. Puti Panjang Rambuik II - daughter of Widjayawarman

3. Dewang Pandan Banang Raiwano - son of Puti Panjang Rambuik II

4. Dewang Ramowano (Tuwan Bujang-I) - son of Hyang Indojati (Sumaniak)

The matriarch and ruler, Puti Panjang Rambuik II was married to Hyang Indojati of Sumaniak (Tuanku Bujanggo Salamat Panjang Gombak). Ramowano was his son from another wife.

The title Maharaja continues again after this with Sari Deowano Sati II. His father was Pandan Banang Raiwano and his mother was Puti Reno Kamuniang Mego: Kamuniang's father was Dewang Bano Rajawano, ruler of Sekelawi (in Bengkulu): Rajawano's father was Widjayawarman.

Folklife: Merantau & Clan-Houses

Dari Taratak manjadi Dusun; dari Dusun manjadi Koto; dari Koto manjadi Nagari; Nagari ba Panghulu ~ From a lodge becomes an estate; from an estate becomes a town; from a town becomes a province; a province has an elder.

The Minangkabau territories are united as a confederation of districts or provinces. Each district is headed by a Panghulu with the title of Datuak. 

Life in the dusun (farm) was agrarian and simple. Life in the koto (town) was mercantile and structured. A person could own a hut or house on a farm or town and that property would belong to them but later be inherited by the female line. If one was travelling or homeless, one could seek shelter in their clan-house. 

Joint-ownership for property, farm or house was the usual practice for married couples. As inheritance follows the female line, eventually the female-side would own the property. 

The word rantau refers to the border of the realm and beyond.

The word merantau refers to action of "venturing forth" to find your fortune and glory; as practiced by the young men upon reaching puberty. The act of merantau for young men could be searching for new lands to cultivate -or- trying out new businesses -or- even wandering off to fight military wars. In the early days, groups of young men would "venture forth" on foot, finding shelter where they could, relying on their wits and the kindness of others to embark on their voyage of discovery. With the adoption of Islam, hundreds of surau (assembly halls) were built which made overnight stays easier during merantau.

Every kampong would have their communal clan-houses while the towns would have the Rumah Gadang or "Great House". The Lareh Koto Piliang style of great-house is called Sitinjau Laut {Sea Overlook}. The clan-houses are almost exclusively for the use of the women of the clan because, in general, males are expected to find their own means of support, property and success.

From Mahayana Buddhism to Sufi Islam [c.1692 CE]

Islam appeared in North Sumatra after the Srivijaya era as indicated by the grave of Sultan Malik-as-Salih of Samudra-Pasai (Kingdom of Pasai, now absorbed into Aceh) dated 1294.

For the Minangkabau, the acceptance of Islam is credited to Sheikh Burhanuddin [1646-1704 CE] of Ulakan (Pariaman) [Sheikh, arabic title for "Elder"]. He was a Buddhist who converted to Islam in Aceh. After 30 years of studying Islam in Aceh, he returned to the Minangkabau regions c.1692 where he propagated Islam through the public discussions, prayers and building of schools. Burhanuddin was an understudy of Sheikh Abdur Rauf of Singkil, the mufti of Aceh. Abdur Rauf was a disciple of Sheikh Ahmad al-Qushashi of Medina. Ahmad al-Qushashi was a prominent authority of the Shattari order of Sufi Islam.

Other noted Sufi ulama (teachers) in West Sumatra include Ismail al-Khalidi [1712-1844] and Tuan Ku Nan Tuo [1723-1830].

Historically, both Mahayana Buddhism and Shattari Islam are surprisingly similar as they (a) embrace the mystical esoteric side of religion (b) promote a "thunderbolt" methodology, and (c) have women in authority.  

Suku & Clans

In the Minangkabau tradition, each person is from a clan-house (determined by their mother). Each clan house will follow the Adat customs of a particular Suku. Here, the word "Suku" means "section" or "division" or "part" and there are 4 main Suku (A Suku can have further sub-divisions which are also called "Suku" but let's put that aside). 

The main Suku are in pairs, taking on differing socio-political and philosophical inspirations. The suku Bodi and suku Caniago are aligned to the principles attributed to Datuak Parpatih Nan Sabatang. The suku Koto and suku Piliang are aligned to the principles attributed to Datuak Katumangguangan. The 2 directions are referred to simply as Lareh Bodi Caniago and Lareh Koto Piliang. 

Jack's Undang* shows that Lareh Koto Piliang strives for a strict adherence to local laws and political structure; while Lareh Bodi Caniago strives for collective consensus and a humane approach. Most of the Minangkabau regions practice the adat of Lareh Bodi Caniago; as compared to Lareh Koto Piliang which is seen to be mostly relevant for the nobility and aristocracy. Beyond this, the different Suku have divergences mainly in aesthetic style as well as social ranking. 

Geographically, the Lareh Koto Piliang clans were mostly concentrated in the Tanah Datar region, on the flatlands of the plateau; where the main districts of the royals and nobility are located. The Lareh Bodi Caniago clans are scattered about the Minangkabau territories; or wherever there was opportunity for agriculture or commerce.

Differently for Malaysia,  Adat Perpatih refers to the Minangkabau matrilineal system; while Adat Temenggung refers to the usual male-centric and patrilineal system. 

Langgam Nan Tujuah : Political Structure

Minangkabau literature (eg. Cindua Mato) describes a structure of rule called Langgam Nan Tujuah (system of seven) made of 3 rulers and 4 ministers.

The Rajo Tigo Selo, "Principle Three Rulers" system was made of :-

1. Raja Alam - the Maharaja; lord of the realm, which includes territories, military & diplomacy. He resides in the territory of Pagaruyung.

2. Raja Adat - the lord of customs and traditions which includes administration, law and taxation; the Chancellor. He resides in the territory of Buo.

3. Raja Ibadat - ruler of worship; the Cardinal. He resides in the territory of Sumpur Kudus (Lintau).

The Basa Ampek Balai, "Council Four Ministers" was originally made of :-

1. Tuan Bandaro (Putieh) - Lord Treasurer (also titled as Mangkubumi). He resides in Sungai Tarab. He is the head of the Council.

2. Tuan Indomo - chief advisor, Lord Steward (also titled as Laksamana). He resides in Saruaso.

3. Tuan Mangkudum - in charge of peace and order, Lord Prefect. He resides in Sumaniak.

4. Tuan Kadli - the Lord Magistrate. He resides in Padang Gantiang.

From the Timeline of Events above, the earliest appearance of these royal titles give clues of evolution of this Minangkabau ruling structure. Most of these titles follow the female descendants of Puti Reno Sudah, the sister-in-law of Adityawarman, and likely the Bundo Kanduang of her time. The appearance of the titles, in chronological order, are as follows:-

• The rank of Bandaro Putieh existed circa 1360 in the reign of Adityavarman.

• The rank of Rajo diBuo [abode of Raja Adat] existed circa 1425 in reign of Widjayawarman.

• The ranks of Tuwan Bujang appears circa 1480.

• The rank of Tuwan Gadih (female) appears circa 1500 in the reign of Sati-II

• After 1580, the 3 ranks of Indomo and Mangkudum as well as Rajo Sumpur [abode of Raja Ibadat] appear in the records.

In contrast to popular literature as per Cindua Mato, the Istana Records show the structured division of rule really only appears after the death of Rajo Alif-1 in 1580.

Negeri Sembilan - the Malayan Outpost

The settlements of Negeri Sembilan and Malacca were intertwined due to their proximity as well as their shared ancestral links from the Srivijaya era as told in Malay Annals. After the Dutch capture of Malacca in 1641, they contacted the Minangkabau settlements hoping for a peace accord in 1643. The Minangkabau communities there were in partnership with the local aboriginal tribes referred to as Biduanda Jakun, indicating an alliance. 

In 1775, Raja Melewar of the Pagaruyung, grandson of Sultan Alif II, took to the throne of Negeri Sembilan. This was in response to the Minangkabau chiefs in Negeri Sembilan wanting a royal leader to resolve their contentions according to Adat customs as well as to be part of the Minangkabau empire as protection against Bugis interference. Raja Melewar is credited with the success of  forming a cohesive political state by unifying the main districts and outlying settlements.

It was fortunate for Raja Melewar to be appointed as the ruler for this distant (then) insignificant outpost of the empire. All his contemporary nobility of  higher rank in Pagaruyung would have been vying for a position in Langgam Nan Tujuah or in royal court. After Raja Melewar's prosperous reign in Negeri Sembilan, his successors were thenceforth of higher rank.

Raja Melewar    1775 ~ 1795

Raja Hitam      1795 ~ 1808

Raja Lenggang   1808 ~ 1824

Wahhabism & the Padri [1803 - 1837]

In 1784, the Sufi ulama, Tuan Ku Nan Tuo, was the religious head for the area of  Koto Tuo and he appointed his students to head the different surau of the region. However, some of them had become militant extremists after returning from the Hajj in Mecca. They had been infiltrated by the Wahabbi (a fanatical sect from the otherwise moderate Sunni branch of Islam). On the pretext of implementing Sharia law, the intent of the Padri was a violent revolution to eradicate the region of all Adat, traditions and customs which they deemed un-islamic including pre-islamic influences like Sanskrit. Underlying this agenda was also the Acehnese imperial aspiration of conquest of the Batak, Mandailing and Minangkabau territories and its peoples. 

According to Dobbin*, the Padri's militancy was propagated by Tuan Ku Nan Rinceh triggered by his recurring encounters with cock-fighting. He forbade gambling & sireh while forcing residents to wear white and grow beards; women to cover up. This puritanical fury so extremist that he killed his mother's sister for using tobacco. Any disagreement with his interpretation of Islam was punishable by death. Village by village, they burnt down, looted the wealth and killed the existing ulama and any "orang yang cerdik" (the intelligentsia). The Padri leaders spurned the teachings of their mentor, Tuan Ku Nan Tuo, and even killed his sons.

Events in the Padri War (mostly from Dobbin's work):-

1803 : Padri War began in Koto Tengah. Sultan Muning Syah IV dies. Expected to take the throne was Raja Bagagar Syah III, who was aged 14 years then.

1804 : Pagaruyung Istana is burnt down by Padri rioters.

1815 : Padri Tuan Ku Pasaman captures Pagaruyung area. 

1815 : Padri Tuan Ku Lintau sets up negotiations at Kota Tengali with Raja Arifin Muning Syah (the Raja Alam, then aged around 70 years) and the important state functionaries. Instead, the meeting was an ambush and Lintau orders the massacre of the Adat attendees. Arifin Muning's 2 sons are murdered while Arifin Muning & grandson escape to Lubuk Jambi. Raja Bagagar Syah III (aged 26 yrs) escapes to Padang. Lintau then enslaves the entire region of Tanah Datar basically to grow coffee which he sells at Padang.

1818 Jul : Raffles comes to Padang to discuss support operations with the remants of the Minangkabau royal family.

1819 May : Padang transfers from British to Dutch control.

1821 Feb : Raja Bagagar Syah III and Limbago council sign a deal for the Tanah Datar region to be under Dutch control in exchange for their military intervention against the Padri.

1821 Apr : Dutch forces attack the Padri. 

1824 : Dutch forces take control of the Tanah Datar region. Raja Bagagar Syah III is Regent of Tanah Datar. Raja Arifin Muning Syah is satisfied with this outcome .

1825 : Raja Arifin Muning Syah dies and the title of Yang diPertuan is "retired" from further use (encouraged by the Dutch).

1825 Nov : Padri leaders sign a peace treaty with the Dutch for recognition of their conquest lands.

From 1824 to 1831, some of the Padri had to become less tyrannical due to the large number of Hajj returnees who were questioning the Padri's rules. Within their fiefdoms, the individual Padri leaders were becoming wealthy from coffee and other goods then began to raid and attack each other.

1831 Aug - 1832 Oct : Beyond Tanah Datar, the Dutch forces attack and conquer the entire Minangkabau highlands.

On 9 January 1933, multiple synchronised attacks on the Dutch garrisons in the valley of Rao and village of Bonjol erupted, resulting in the death of hundreds of Dutch soldiers.The village of Bonjol alone had 139 dead Europeans. It was as if the entire population took up arms against the Dutch. During this time, Imam Bonjol reappears at his fortress. Soon there were numerous outbreaks of rebellion and attacks on Dutch senior officials. The Dutch uncovered the plans to obliterate their military forces and were shocked that the resistance was an alliance of Adat and Padri with documents from Bagagar Syah III. The Dutch sent their forces to quell this rebellion. On 2 May 1833, Bagagar Syah is arrested and exiled to Batavia (Jakarta). At the end of July 1833 in Agam region, 12 penghulu and 3 Padri leaders were executed. In August 1837 after years of being under siege and shelling, the fortress of Bonjol falls. Imam Bonjol escapes, later surrenders and is eventually exiled to Sulawesi.

Negeri Sembilan - the new Dynasty

With the Pagaruyung dynasty at an end in West Sumatra, the surviving lineage continued  in Negeri Sembilan in 1824 with Raja Radin (son of Raja Lenggang). Despite numerous claimants, pretenders and usurpers to the throne, Raja Radin was finally affirmed as ruler in 1832. Since then, every YamTuan of Negeri Sembilan has been a descendant of Raja Radin.

YamTuan Radin      1824 ~ 1861

YamTuan Imam       1861 ~ 1869

YamTuan Antah      1875 ~ 1888

YamTuan Muhammad   1888 ~ 1933

YamTuan Muhammad united the state of Negeri Sembilan under a constitution where the 4 Undang (Lawgivers) of Jelebu, Johol, Sungai Ujong and Rembau elect the YamTuan from the descendants of Raja Radin. These are perhaps ripples of continuing the Basa Ampek Balai tradition from Pagaruyung.

And so the ancient line from the Srivijaya to Adityawarman and the Minangkabau royalty continues in Negeri Sembilan to this day.

Reference Literature & Information

1. History of Sumatra - William Marsden - ed.1 1783 [1], ed.2 1784 [2], ed.3 1811 [3] [4] [5]

2. Malay Annals -  John Leyden, 1821 [1] [2] [3] [4]

3. Genealogy of the Rajahs of Pulo Percha - W Jack, 1822 [1] Malayan Miscellanies vol.2

4. Undang Undang of Moco Moco - W Jack, 1822  [1] Malayan Miscellanies vol.2

5. Menancabow - J.H. Moor, 1827 [1] [2] Notices o't Indian Archipelago & Adjacent Countries : pt.1

6. Menancabow - W. Marsden, 1828 [1] East-India Gazetteer ed.2 vol.2

7. Rembau - D.F.A. Hervey, 1884 [1] 

8. Menangkabau Code - W.E. Maxwell, 1885 [1]  [2]  JRASSB N&Q no.2 

9. Negri Sembilan: Origin & Constitution - M. Lister & DFA Hervey, 1887 [1] 

10. Malay law in Negri Sembilan - M. Lister, 1890 [1]

11. Folk-lore & the Minangkabau Code in Negri Sembilan - A. Hale, 1898 [1] 

12. Election & Installation of Tuanku Muhammad Shah - E.W. Birch, 1906 [1]

13. Empire of the Maharaja - C.O. Blagden, 1920 [1]

14. Teromba - A. Caldecott, 1921 [1] 

15. Founder of Malay Royalty - R.O. Winstedt, 1926 [1] [2] [3] [4]

16. History of Negri Sembilan - R.O. Winstedt, 1933 [1] 

17. Adat & Islam: Conflict in Minangkabau - Taufik Abdullah, 1966 [1]

18.  Notes on the Kaba Tjindua Mato - Taufik Abdullah, 1970 [1]

19.  Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy - Central Sumatra, 1784-1847 [1] - by C.E. Dobbin, 1983

20. Minangkabau: Background of the pioneers of Modern Standard Malay (language) in Indonesia - Khaidir Anwar, 1976 [1]

21. Spice Route End \ Minangkabau Culture & History [web]

22. Istana Pagaruyung records - compiled by Sutan Taufik Thaib & Tunku Nadzaruddin Raden c.2000 [pdf]