Embedded Files
Sources:
Ellerbrock, Ewe. The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire. Routledge, 2021.
Smith, Patrick Scott. "Parthian Warfare". 2019. https://www.worldhistory.org/Parthian_Warfare/
Images Used:
Gold Dinar of Ardashir
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dinar_of_Ardashir_I_(cropped).jpg
Relief depicting the Roman-Parthian Wars, from the arch of Septimus Severus, 203 AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg
Silver tetradrachm of Antiochus II
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antiochos_II_Theos_portrait.jpg
Coin of Arsaces I. The greek text reads ‘Arsaces Autokrator’.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Arsaces_I_(1),_Nisa_mint.jpg
Coin of Mithridates I, 148 BC
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Mithradates_I_of_Parthia,_Seleucia_mint.jpg
Coin of Heliocles I Dikaios (‘the just’)
Coin of Mithridates II
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Mithridates_II_of_Parthia,_Ray_mint.jpg
Parthian relief of Mithridates I of Parthia at Xong-e Ashdar, Iran
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Xong-e_Ashdar_Parthian_relief.jpg
Medal depicting the battle of Carrhae, Switzerland, 18th century
Coin of Arsaces II
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Arsaces_II,_Ray_mint.jpg
Bust which may depict Antiochus III
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antiochos_III.jpg
The ruins of Nisa, the early Parthian capital
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nisa-Overview-2015.JPG
Bust of Pompey, Venice National Archaeological Museum
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:(Venice)_Pompey_the_Great,_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale.jpg
Bust traditionally identified as Crassus
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bust_of_a_Roman,_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek.jpg
Coin of Orodes II, minted at Nisa
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Orodes_II,_Mithradatkert_(Nisa)_mint.jpg
Battle of Carrhae from “Caesarː A History Of The Art Of War Among The Romans Down To The End, vol. II, 1892”
Parthians celebrating victory, H. Vogel, 1880
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:H._Vogel_-_Parthians_celebrating_victory.jpg
Aerial photograph of Merv
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mervturkmenistan.jpg
The Torture of Crassus, 1530s, Louvre Museum
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Le_supplice_de_Crassus_(Louvre,_OA_1761).jpg
Augustus of Prima Porta
A Faravahar at Persepolis, one of the most prominent Zoroastrian symbols
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Persepolis_-_carved_Faravahar.JPG
Depiction of Zoroaster, Dura Europos, 3rd cen. AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CIMRM_44-Mithraic_pater_(Dura_Europos)_B.jpg
Sassanid relief depicting Ahura Mazda
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam_(cropped).jpg
Ossuary depicting zoroastrian priests attending to a sacred fire, Uzbekistan, 7th-8th cen. AD
The modern Fire Temple of Baku, Azerbaijan
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jahlinmarceta_baku_temple.jpg
Parthian cavalry archer, Palazzo Madama, Turin
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parthian_mounted_archer.jpg
The Darial Gorge in the Caucasus, one of the potential locations for the Caspian Gates
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Darielpass_1906.jpg
The plains near Hamadan in modern Iran, a possible location of the Nisaean plain
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Nisaean_plain,_surrounding_Ecbatana_(modern_Hamadan).jpg
Parthian cavalryman
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parthian_cavalryman.jpg
Sassanian king Hormizd II depicted executing a Parthian shot
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clevelandart_1962.150.jpg
Horseman demonstrating the Parthian shot on the Hephthalite silver bowl, 460-479 AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alchon_horseman_2_on_the_Hephthalite_Silver_Bowl.jpg
Rock carving depicting Sassanian and Parthian heavy cavalry, Eugene Flandin, 1840
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg
Sarmation Cataphracts fleeing before Roman troops, Trajan’s column
The arid flats around Harran, modern Turkey, where the battle of Carrhae took place
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harran_(3).jpg
Reenactment of a Roman testudo formation, Neil Carey, 2006
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Testudo_formation.jpg
Fragment of relief of battle with parthian warrior
Parthian cataphract fighting a lion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ParthianCataphract.JPG
Dromedaries in the Negev desert
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DromedaryGroupIsrael052611.jpg
Parthian votive relief, 2nd cen. AD
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ParthianVotiveReliefIranKhuzestan2ndCenturyCE.jpg
Letter from Parthian King Artabanus II to the inhabitants of Susa, written in Greek, circa 21 AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ArtabanIIGreekLetter.jpg
Parthian Script from Paikuli Tower in modern Iraq, 3rd cen. AD
Parthian version of the Shapur I inscription at Ka'ba-ye Zartosht
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shapur_Kabe_Zartosht.png
Nisa, modern Turkmenistan
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nisa-Entrance-2015.JPG
The ruins of the city of Merv, John Pavelka
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Sultan_Sanjar_with_Camel_(42400295421).jpg
Chinese silk, 4th cen. BC
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_silk,_4th_Century_BC.JPG
Antiochus I tetradrachm, 3rd cen. BC
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seleucus_I_portrait.jpg
The Elburz mountains, Mt. Mazandaran, Iran
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alborz_Mountains1.jpg
Mount Dena, Zagros Mountains, Alireza Javaheri
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_view_of_Dena_from_Semirom_road_-_panoramio.jpg
Part of the Qanats of Ghasabeh, Iran, Tavasoli Mohsen
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg
Parthian stag-shaped vessel
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/325063
Figurine on horseback, circa 150 BC
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324853
Parthian sculpture of a king offering a sacrifice at a fire-altar, 2nd-3rd cen. AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:King_cornucopia_Louvre_Sb7302.jpg
Mitha (on the left) depicted overseeing the investiture of Ardashir II
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithra
Coin of Artabanus II, depicting the king kneeling before Mithras
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Artabanosiia.jpg
A Zoroastrian priest reads from a book while performing a sacrifice, Bernard Picart
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZoroastrianPriest_Banier1741a.png
The Magi Journeying, James Tissot, 1886-1894
Coin of the Lydian Satrap Tiribazos featuring Ahura Mazda, circa 380 BC
Dish depicting Anahita, who came to be associated with Artemis, Sassanian, 400-600 AD
Parthian carving of Nergal, 1st-2nd cen. AD
Seal of Mani, circa 3rd cen. AD
Birth of Mani, Yuan Chinese silk painting, 14th cen. AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Birth_of_Mani.jpg
Parthian statuette of a goddess, made of alabaster
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Statuette_Goddess_Louvre_AO20127.jpg
Parthian-era wall painting from the Dura Europos synagogue, a good example of frontality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg
Parthian-era grave relief from Palmyra representing a priest named Zabdila, 176 AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Palmyrenian_relief_Louvre_AO2200.jpg
Rhyton (drinking vessel) terminating in the forepart of a wild cat, 1st cen. BC
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/326623
Parthian ivory rhyton from Old Nisa, Hans Birger Nilsen
Vologases Relief, Bisotun, Iran
Fresco of Conon, Dura-Europos, 1st cen. AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_fresco_Sacrifice_of_Conon.jpg
Fresco from the Dura-Europos Synagogue, 3rd cen. AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duraeuropa-1-.gif
Parthian gold earring, 1st-2nd cen. AD
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/328744
Parthian silver torque
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/325881
Parthian bronze belt buckle, 2nd-3rd cen. AD
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/327595
Silver gilt bowl, 3rd-1st cen. BC
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/327436
Late Parthian or early Sassanian Rhyton, 3rd cen. AD
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/328840
Relief of Artaxerxes II
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Artaxerxes_II_relief_detail.jpg
Coin of Pacorus II, depicting him being invested as king by a goddess
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pacorus_II_and_goddess.jpg
The Shami statue, a bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman, 50 BC - 150 AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parthian_Iran_Museum.jpg
Excavations at Dura-Europos
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A08_Dura_Europos_615.jpg
Head of Marcus Licinius Crassus, 1st cen. BC
Statue of two musicians, playing drums and oboe, 3rd-2nd cen. BC
Terracotta statue of long necked-lute player
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parthian_lute_player.jpg
Relief of Darius I, the Achaemenid Persian King of Kings
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Kings
Coin of Mithridates I of Parthia wearing a bashlyk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia
Coin of Mithridates II wearing a diadem
Coin of Alexander the Great
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander-Coin.jpg
Coin of the Achaemenid Satrap of Egypt, Sabakes
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EGYPT,_Persian_Administration._Sabakes._Circa_340-333_BC.jpg
Drachm of Phraates IV
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Drachm_of_Phraates_IV,_Mithradatkirt_mint.jpg
Nisa, modern Turkmenistan
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nisa.jpg
Coin of Vologases I, 51/52 AD - The reverse depicts an investiture scene, where the king is receiving a sceptre by the Greek goddess Tyche
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Vologases_I,_minted_at_Seleucia_in_51_or_52.jpg
Terracotta statue of a Parthian king, found as Assur
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parthian_king_ashur.jpg
Roman relief depicting slaves, circa 200 AD
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_collared_slaves_-_Ashmolean_Museum.jpg
Enslaved Parthians from the Arch of Septimus Severus, Rome
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arch_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Rome,_Italy_-_DSC01610.jpg
Coin of Musa
Greek bust which may depict Queen Musa, found at Susa
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parthian_Queen_Bust.jpg
Alabaster statue of a reclining woman, 2nd cen. BC - 2nd cen. AD
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/322114
Statue of a standing woman, 2nd cen. BC - 2nd cen. AD
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/322112
Tetradrachm of Artabanus II
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tetradrachm_of_Artabanus_II,_Seleucia_mint.jpg
Coin of Vardanes I
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Vardanes_I_(cropped,_2),_Seleucia_mint.jpg
Tetradrachm of Gotarzes II
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tetradrachm_of_Gotarzes_II,_minted_in_49.jpg
The Arch of Septimus Severus, depicting the Roman-Parthian Wars under the emperor’s reign
Parthian Temple of the Gareus, Uruk, Iraq
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:معبد_كاريوس_...اوروك_...._مدينة_الوركاء_..._المثنى.jpg
Antiochus II Theos, Seleucid Emperor 261-246 BC
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antiochus_ii_munich.jpg
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