The use of the observational research method in psychology, including the gathering of both qualitative and quantitative data (including tallying, event and time sampling).
Types of observation: participant, non-participant, structured, naturalistic, overt and covert.
Observational techniques involve observing actual behaviours which are subsequently scored.
A key challenge that is encountered by the researcher though is deciding what to look for and how to decide what constitutes a particular behaviour.
The behaviours that the researcher is interested in need to be clearly defined (operationalised) so that the observer knows what to look out for and measure; eventually these can be counted up to produce a score.
There are many types of observations, such as naturalistic and structured observation; covert and overt observation; participant and non-participant which all have their strengths and weaknesses.
Psychologists attempt to overcome the ambiguity of observing their chosen behaviours by clearly defining (operationalising) these, which usually involves producing a behaviour checklist or behaviour categories, so that the researcher knows exactly what to look out for.
For example, if a researcher was interested in measuring aggression through an observation the checklist might include predetermined behaviours such as punching, kicking, pushing and biting. Each time a participant displayed any of the listed behaviours this would be counted producing a running tally for each behaviour identified.
Here is a summary of some of the key strengths and limitations of a variety of observational techniques.
Natural observations
STRENGTHS: High ecological validity as the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour in a natural environment, without any outside interference from the researcher.
LIMITATIONS: Cannot be replicated to check reliability, as the researcher is not in control of variables.
Structured observations
STRENGTHS: High reliability as behavioural categories are used on a checklist. Can be replicated to check for reliability. Collects quantitative data.
LIMITATIONS: May suffer from low validity if behaviour occurs that is not in the given categories, or if the observer subjectively interprets behaviour as fitting into a category that it should not.
Covert observations
STRENGTHS: Investigator effects are unlikely meaning that participants’ behaviour will be genuine.
LIMITATIONS: Less ethical as participants are not aware they are taking part and cannot give fully informed consent
Overt observations
STRENGTHS: It is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent.
LIMITATIONS: Behaviour can be distorted through investigator effects in which the participant changes their behaviour through social desirability bias
Participant observation
STRENGTHS: The researcher can obtain in-depth data as they are in close proximity to the participants and so are unlikely to overlook or miss any behaviours.
LIMITATIONS: The researchers’ presence might influence the participants’ behaviour due to evaluation apprehension,
Non-participant observation
STRENGTHS: Investigator effects and evaluation apprehension are less likely as the researcher is not visible.
LIMITATIONS: Due to a lack of proximity the researcher might overlook or miss behaviours of interest.
There are occasions in which it might be useful for the researcher to gather an insight into whether there are behavioural trends that occur over particular time periods.
Under such circumstances researchers can use time sampling in which behaviours are noted within prescribed intervals.
For instance a researcher might tally co-operative classroom behaviours (operationalised as instances of students putting their hand up to contribute and attempting to help their peers) over 5 minute intervals during a lesson. Each 5 minute interval could then be compared to identify when most co-operative behaviours occur.
In contrast event sampling would simply tally all co-operative behaviour over the full 1 hour lesson to gather an overall impression of the amount of co-operative behaviour.
Naif carried out a participant observation. He was observing the behaviour of students in different classes to investigate whether they behaved differently for different teachers. Naif decided to do an overt observation. Describe how Naif could make his observation of the students overt. (2) October 2017
Misaki created a tally chart to gather her data. Draw a tally chart that Misaki could have prepared in order to gather her data. (2) January 2020
Misaki carried out an observation to investigate whether younger drivers, aged 25 years and below, or older drivers, aged 50 years and above, were more likely to use their mobile/cell phone while driving. She used time sampling. Describe how Misaki may have carried out the observation using time sampling. (3) January 2020
Yoko carried out an observation in a local park. She observed how males and females interacted with other people, to see if there was a difference. She observed how long males spoke to males (Condition A) and how long females spoke to females (Condition B). Yoko observed if they spoke for less than 5 minutes or for 5 minutes or more. Yoko recorded her data using event sampling. Describe how Yoko may have carried out the observation using event sampling. (3) January 2019
Describe how Yoko may have carried out the observation using event sampling. (3) January 2019
Explain one strength and one weakness of the observational research method. (4) October 2017
Describe how Priya could carry out her naturalistic observation. (4) June 2019
Explain two weaknesses of using a naturalistic observation. (4) June 2019
Explain one strength and one weakness of using the observational research method in this study. (4) June 2016
Explain one strength and one weakness of overt observations as a research method. (4) June 2017