The main features of social learning theory, including observation, imitation, modelling and vicarious reinforcement, attention, retention, motivation and reproduction.
Social learning theory (SLT) rests on the idea of observational learning: that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by models in the social environment.
Unlike the behaviourist approach from which it derives, SLT recognises the importance of cognitive processing of informational stimuli (mediational processes) and rejects the notion that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop. As its name implies, learning is a social phenomenon. For SLT to take place, someone must model an attitude or behaviour in a context defined by four distinct characteristics:
attention
retention
motivation
reproduction
If these factors are implemented, imitation (i.e. copying of what has been observed) can take place; if the observed behaviour is rewarded (either directly or vicariously), imitation is more likely. This learning from the observation of others’ rewards is what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement. However, vicarious learning can also include learning from someone else’s misfortunes.
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment(Bandura, 1961).
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behaviour. At a later time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behaviour they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behaviour is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behaviour that its society deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behaviour modeled by people of the same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behaviour it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behaviour and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behaviour.
Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behaviour, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behaviour is more likely to repeat that behaviour herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed behaviours, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (i.e., behaviourism) and the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences.
Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitate it. There is some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called mediational processes. This occurs between observing the behaviour (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response)
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behaviour and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behaviour. For a behaviour to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviours on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behaviour influences others imitating it.
Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may be noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behaviour is formed to be performed later by the observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behaviour is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated. We see much behaviour on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour, we cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.
Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and punishment that follow a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behaviour.
One strength of SLT is its plentiful research support. For example, Fox and Bailenson (2009) found that humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves; Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who agreed to, and then actually did, donate blood. These studies demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT, including modelling and vicarious reinforcement, adding credibility to the key principles of this theory.
Another strength of SLT is its applicability to real-world issues. For example, SLT has been used to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of advertising: Andsager et al. (2006) found that ‘identification with a character or example may increase the likelihood that audiences will model behaviour presented in an anti-alcohol message’. Consequently, the principles of SLT can be used to provide a positive impact on promotional health campaigns, and indirectly help combat problem behaviours like alcoholism.
However, one limitation of SLT revolves around the issue of causality: Do people learn behaviour from models, or do they seek out models who exhibit behaviour or attitudes they already favour? Siegel and McCormick (2006), for example, argue that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly-inclined peers because they are more fun to be with, and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not necessarily the result of SLT itself. Consequently, it is difficult to distinguish behaviours that develop because of SLT from the many other factors that contribute to human behaviour, which poses an issue for the social learning explanation of behaviour.
Brigita is five years old. She has observed her mother applying make-up, and her father telling her mother how nice she looks. Brigita finds her mother’s make-up and puts it onto her own face. State two reasons why Brigita imitates her mother. (2) January 2018
Ore observed his father painting a picture of a local scene. When the painting was finished Ore’s mother praised his father and said how good the painting was. Ore decides to try and paint the same local scene. Explain, using social learning theory, why Ore’s father is a role model for Ore. (2) June 2018
Describe, using social learning theory, what may have motivated Ore to try and paint the same local scene as his father. (2) June 2018
Explain one strength and one weakness of social learning theory. (4) January 2018
Describe what is meant by the term ‘motivation’ as used in social learning theory. (4) January 2020
Tammy lives in Spain and has just been arrested for stealing a car. Once she had been arrested, the police realised that her sister was also on police files for stealing cars. When the police interviewed Tammy she admitted that this was not the first time she had stolen a car, and that she gets excited when driving stolen cars. Discuss social learning theory as an explanation of Tammy’s behaviour. You must refer to the context in your answer. (8) October 2018
Assess social learning theory as a complete explanation of human behaviour. (8) October 2019