This is a synoptic section in which students will be asked to draw on other areas of the qualification in order to understand conceptual and methodological issues. Students will develop an understanding of how to use theories, methodology and evidence from many areas of psychology and apply them to issues. Relevant psychological skills have been contextualised in Topics A–H.
This topic collects them together (excluding Topics F and G) in order to ensure that all content has been covered. Students must consider issues and debates from across all topics in order to develop a general knowledge of key issues and debates. What students need to learn:
Types of data: qualitative and quantitative data; primary and secondary data.
Sampling techniques: random, stratified, volunteer and opportunity.
Experimental/research designs: independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs.
Hypotheses: null, alternate, experimental; directional and non-directional.
Questionnaires and interviews: open, closed (including ranked scale questions); structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews; self-report data.
Experiments: laboratory and field; independent and dependent variables.
Observations: tallying; event and time sampling; covert, overt, participant, non-participant; structured observations; naturalistic observations. Gathering both qualitative and quantitative data.
Correlation research: type of correlation: positive, negative and use of correlations including issues with cause and effect and other variables.
Additional research methods and techniques: twin studies and aggression, animal experiments, case studies as used in different areas of psychology including case studies of brain-damaged patients in relation to memory, brain scanning/neuroimaging (CAT, PET, fMRI), randomised controlled trials (RCTs), content analysis, clinical interviewing, ethnographic fieldwork when getting data with children, longitudinal and cross-sectional research, cross-cultural and meta-analysis.
Control issues: counterbalancing, randomising, order effects, experimenter/researcher effects, social desirability, demand characteristics, participant variables, situational variables, extraneous variables, confounding variables, operationalisation of variables.
Descriptive statistics (List A) • Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), frequency tables, summary tables, graphs (bar chart, histogram, scatter diagram), normal distribution, skewed distribution, sense checking data, measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation) and percentages.
Produce, handle, interpret data, drawing comparisons including the mean of two sets of data. Students do not need to know formulae but are expected to be competent in mathematical steps.
Inferential statistics (List B)
Levels of measurement. Appropriate choice of statistical test. The criteria for and use of the Wilcoxon, Spearman’s, chi-squared (for difference) tests. Directional and non-directional testing.
Use of critical value tables, one- and two-tailed testing.
Levels of significance, including knowledge of standard statistical terminology such as p equal to or greater than (p≤.10 p≤.05 p≤.01). Rejecting hypotheses. Type I and type II errors. The relationship between significance levels and p values. • Observed and critical values.
Methodological issues: validity (internal, predictive, ecological), reliability, generalisability, objectivity, subjectivity, credibility.
Analysis of qualitative data — thematic analysis.
Conventions of published psychological research: abstract, introduction, aims and hypotheses, method, results, discussion; the process of peer review.
Ethical issues in research using humans (BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct, 2009), including risk assessment when carrying out research in psychology. The UNCRC and participation versus protection rights when researching with children and ethical issues when children are the participants. Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC).
Ethical issues in research using animals (Scientific Procedures Act 1986 and Home Office Regulations).
Key questions for society using concepts, theories or research from one or more of Topics A to H (except Topics F and G).
Ethical issues in research (animal and human).
Practical issues in the design and implementation of research.
Reductionism versus holism when researching human behaviour.
Ways of explaining behaviour using different approaches, models or theories.
The issue of psychology as a science.
Cultural and gender issues in psychological research.
The role of both nature and nurture in psychology.
An understanding of how psychology has developed over time.
The use of psychology in social control.
The use of psychological knowledge in society.
Issues relating to socially sensitive research.