Rehtorical Appeals

What are Rhetorical Appeals?

Rhetorical appeals are used to persuade listeners that your argument is correct. They appeal to the arguer's credibility, the logic and timeliness of the argument, or the audience's emotions. These are useful tools, but if they're used as a manipulation tactic, a writer may lose their audience.

Common Rhetorical Appeals

Ethos

Ethos (Greek: "character") refers to the writer's credibility, but can also refer to the credibility of a source they present. This can be done by citing your sources, demonstrating your familiarity with a topic, and presenting fair and accurate information. An example might also be an expert like Jane Goodall, who has worked all her life with chimpanzees, giving a lecture... on chimpanzees.

Ethos, misused

"Authorities" who are not convincing sources:

A salesman who has no experience in dentistry creates his own toothpaste to sell through an MLM.

They may also overinflate their own credibility in a subject:

"I'm your favorite Tiktoker partnering with this shampoo company today- here's why you should buy it!"

Or, they can attack the ethos of another expert:

"I’m not sure why we should believe anything Jane Goodall has to say about conservation. Last year, I saw her eating a hamburger!" (Ad hominem)

Oftentimes, these logical fallacies can be spotted by language the writer has used to inspire fear or outrage. Always look at the author's authority to speak on the subject.

Logos

Logos (Greek: "word" or "reason") is the use of logic and reasoning in an argument. For example, Dr. Jane Goodall presents data and statistics showing the decline in chimp populations and the impact of human activities on their habitats. This is meant to argue that chimp habitats need conservation before they disappear entirely.

Goodall's map showing the decline in chimpanzee habitat

Logos, misused

There are many logical fallacies by which we find that the writer’s conclusion is not necessarily a logical result of the facts:

Tens of thousands of Americans have seen lights in the night sky that they could not identify. The existence of life on other planets is fast becoming certainty.

Gen-Z tends to be self-centered and materialistic. My friends Eric and Melanie certainly are.

That politician likes dogs? You know who else liked dogs? Hitler!

Belief in God is universal. After all, everyone believes in God.

Pathos

Pathos (Greek: "emotion") refers to the use of emotional appeals in an argument. An author using pathos works to create an emotional connection with the audience by evoking feelings such as sympathy, anger, fear, or hope. Keeping with our subject Jane Goodall, we can see that she uses pathos when describing chimpanzee behavior in order to evoke an emotional connection between human and chimp.

For example, Flo, a female chimpanzee observed by Jane Goodall, mourned the death of her infant. Flo held the body of the infant for several days, carrying it around and trying to revive it. She also displayed signs of distress, such as pant-hooting and lethargy. Goodall uses this example to argue that, like humans, chimps are capable of experiencing grief and mourning the loss of loved ones.

Pathos, misused

This is when emotions are used to manipulate the audience:

Don't you want to help this poor little puppy? Donate to our shelter now!

Try our diet pills or you'll never find love!

First, the government stops us from buying assault rifles. Then, it limits the number of handguns we can buy. What will come next? Will we need a permit to buy a water gun, too?

Kairos

"Kairos" (Greek: "opportune moment") refers to a moment of time where an argument is more likely to be accepted. For example, around Daylights Savings Time, many people argue that the US should do away with moving our clocks an hour forwards or backwards. This argument has more momentum around the time that we are about to lose sleep, and congressional bills eliminating Daylights Savings are often introduced in the House around March since that's when we "spring forward" an hour.

Kairos, misused

If an author claims falsely that a crisis is more dire than it actually, that might be a misuse of kairos.

A million people die each year due to Daylight's Savings Time, so we must act now!

How To Avoid Abusing Rhetorical Appeals

Respect your audience, even if you don't agree with them. They are able to sense disrespect and manipulation.
Don't use any language meant to evoke fear or outrage.
Avoid fallacies.
Consider you and your source’s credibility to speak on a particular issue.