Evidence

Evidence

Definition: Information, facts, or material presented to support an assertion, claim, or argument. Used to establish truth and falsehood in various disciplines, environments, and contexts and is the basis of the scientific method. In the absence of clear facts and distinct understanding, evidence is used to establish the probability or likelihood of truth in a given situation. 

• Format: physical objects, circumstantial conditions, documents, testimony, digital data, observations, and more.

• Types: statistical, testimonial, examples, analogical, anecdotal, quotations, historical, logical, and visual

  • Examples: Evidence is used in legal proceedings, academic research, the scientific method, product evaluations, medical diagnoses, livestock valuations, music theory, weather forecasting, ethical judgments, sexual attraction, and everyday decision-making.

Quantitative vs.  Qualitative Data

Both types of data are valuable in research, often complementing each other—quantitative data provides the "what" in clear, measurable terms, while qualitative data offers insight into the "why" and "how" behind those numbers.

• Quantitative Data: This refers to numerical data that can be measured and quantified. It focuses on quantities, amounts, and measurable variables, and it often answers questions like "how many?" or "how much?" Quantitative data is often used to identify patterns, make statistical analyses, and draw conclusions based on measurable evidence.

  • • Example: The number of students enrolled in a class, the percentage increase in sales over a quarter, or the average temperature in a city.

• Qualitative Data: This refers to descriptive and non-numerical data. It focuses on qualities, characteristics, and the subjective interpretation of experiences or observations. Qualitative data often answers questions like "why?" or "how?" and is used to explore complex, deeper issues that can't easily be quantified.

  • • Example: Responses from interview participants about their experiences, open-ended survey answers, or the emotional tone in a written narrative.

Types of Rhetorical Evidence

1. Facts & Statistics

Objective data that can be verified and used to strengthen an argument.

1. • • • Example: "According to the CDC, smoking causes 480,000 deaths annually in the U.S."

2. Expert Testimony

Quotations or paraphrased statements from authoritative sources in a given field.

2. • • • Example: Citing a climate scientist when discussing global warming.

3. Examples

Specific cases or instances that illustrate a larger point.

3. • • • Example: Using a historical event to demonstrate a recurring social issue.

4. Analogies & Comparisons

Drawing parallels between similar situations to clarify a point or make an argument relatable.

4. • • • Example: Comparing the rise of renewable energy today to the industrial revolution in the past.

5. Anecdotal Evidence

Personal stories or individual experiences that add a human element to an argument.

5. • • • Example: A person describing how they quit smoking to argue for the effectiveness of support programs.

6. Quotations

Direct words from someone relevant to the topic or subject matter, often used to back up a claim.

6. • • • Example: Quoting a legal scholar in a paper on constitutional law.

7. Historical Evidence

Events or precedents from history that serve to support or discredit an argument.

7. • • Example: Referencing the Great Depression in a discussion about economic policy.

8. Logical Reasoning

Arguments based on sound logic and clear reasoning.

8. • • Example: "If A leads to B, and B leads to C, then A must lead to C."

9. Visual Evidence

Photographs, charts, graphs, and other visual materials that can support a written argument.

9. • • Example: Including a graph that shows rising carbon emissions to argue for climate action.

10. Case Studies

In-depth examinations of specific instances, events, or subjects that provide detailed insights and support for broader conclusions. Case studies are often used to illustrate how theoretical concepts apply in real-world contexts or to demonstrate the impact of certain actions or decisions.

10. • • Example: Presenting a case study on a city’s implementation of a bike-sharing program to show how it successfully reduced traffic congestion and improved public health, offering a concrete example to support arguments for sustainable urban transport solutions.

Using Evidence: Rhetorical Analysis

(Illustrated Paragraph Example)

Illustrated Elements

Topic Sentence (TS): Underlined Red Audience Analysis: Orange Italics Evidence (EV): Plain Blue Analysis/Argument (AN): Italic Green
In-text Citations (MLA): Bold Purple

     In the 2015 Science Advances journal article titled "Is Renewable Energy the Future of Power?" Davis, Mitchell, and Clark attempt to use statistical evidence, reputable research, and logical analysis to advocate for a rapid transition to renewable energy sources, but they ultimately fail to convince due to oversimplification, conflicting arguments, and flawed data interpretation. Science Advances is a peer-reviewed journal that seeks to present groundbreaking scientific findings to a broad academic audience. As such, its readers primarily consist of graduate students and professionals in the fields of science and engineering.  However, as established researchers in their fifties, Davis, Mitchell, and Clark confidently assert, "Renewable energy will replace fossil fuels within the next two decades" (34). But they fail to back up that claim with consistent data. Instead, they cite a World Energy Outlook report, which only predicts a modest increase in renewable energy usage by 2040, without supporting a full transition. This argument overlooks the complexities of energy infrastructure and economic constraints in various regions. Next, the authors employ weak and misleading emotional appeals that contradict their optimistic stance. At one point they state, "The costs of continuing to rely on fossil fuels will devastate the global economy: energy crises can cripple entire nations" (Davis, et al. 39). This dramatic yet unrelated statement—an example of ignoratio elenchi—actually undermines their argument that renewable energy is an affordable, immediate solution. Contradictions like these drift through the article like abandoned policies that failed to deliver. Moreover, the inclusion of personal accounts from industry insiders who have faced setbacks with fossil fuel investments bogs the article down with skewed, irrelevant narratives. Finally, the authors conclude with a sweeping generalization that claims embracing renewables will “simultaneously address climate change and create millions of jobs, leading to a prosperous, green future" (Davis, et al. 42). This glittering generality ignores the technological and economic barriers that prevent an easy switch to renewable sources. With their ineffective appeals, frequent contradictions, evident biases, and distorted reasoning, Davis, Mitchell, and Clark fail to persuade their audience of aspiring scientists and engineers that renewable energy will soon replace traditional power sources.  (Word Count 350)

Work Cited

Davis, Presley, et al. “Is Renewable Energy the Future of Power?” Science Advances, vol. 9, no. 3, 2015, pp. 22–27. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41960776. Accessed 2 May 2023.