Logical Fallacies

Attacking the person instead of the argument.

• • Undermines credibility without engaging the issue.

Examples

• • • “Why should we trust her argument about recycling when she drives an old gas-guzzler?”

    • “Of course the senator supports that bill—he’s corrupt like all politicians.”

    • “You can’t take his position on healthcare seriously; he failed biology in high school.”

Using vague or double meanings to mislead.

• Lets speakers dodge responsibility or appear truthful while hiding intent.
   

Examples

• 1. 1. 1. An ad says a supplement is “clinically proven”—without saying proven to do what.

        2. A candidate says they’ll “cut taxes,” but later reveal only corporate taxes will drop.

        3. The sign reads “Children under 12 ride free,” leaving unclear if it applies to age 12 exactly.

Using personal stories instead of reliable evidence.

Examples

• “My neighbor never wears sunscreen and doesn’t have skin cancer, so sunscreen is unnecessary.”

• “I got straight A’s without studying, so studying is a waste of time.”

• “My cousin got rich without college, so college degrees are pointless.”

Claiming something is true just because an authority says so.
 

Examples

• “This celebrity endorses the product, so it must work.”

• “My uncle is a doctor, and he says climate change isn’t real.”

• “A Nobel physicist likes this diet, so it must be scientifically valid.”

Using feelings instead of reasons.
 

Examples

• “If you don’t buy this alarm system, think how unsafe your family will be.”

• “Don’t grade my essay harshly—I worked so hard on it.”

• “Vote for me, or imagine how disappointed your children will be.”

Arguing something is good or right because it’s “natural.”
 

Examples

• “Organic sugar is better for you than regular sugar.”

• “It’s natural for men to lead, so that’s how society should work.”

• “Snake venom is natural, so it must be safe in small amounts.”

Claiming something is correct because “everyone does it.”

Examples:

• “All the cool kids vape—don’t you want to fit in?”

• “Thousands of people bought this app, so it must be the best.”

• “Everyone cheats on taxes; it’s normal.”

Using a conclusion as proof for itself.

Examples:

• “God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true because it’s God’s word.”

• “This brand is the best because it’s superior.”

• “We must obey the law because it’s illegal to break it.”

Presenting two options as the only choices.

Examples

• “You’re either with us or against us.”

• “We must cut education funding or the budget will collapse.”

• “Either you love pineapple on pizza, or you hate pizza entirely.”

Shifting the responsibility of proof onto others.

Examples:

• “You can’t prove ghosts don’t exist, so they must be real.”

• “Unless you disprove my conspiracy, it’s true.”

• “Show me evidence that aliens haven’t visited Earth.”

Selecting only favorable evidence while ignoring the rest.

Examples

• “This diet works—look at these three success stories!” (ignores failures).

• “Crime rates are down in this neighborhood,” while ignoring citywide increases.

• A company highlights positive reviews but hides hundreds of complaints.

Assuming the whole shares the traits of its parts, or vice versa.

Examples:

• “Every ingredient in this meal is tasty, so the dish will be delicious.”

• “The team is full of star players, so they’ll win the championship.”

• “Atoms are invisible; therefore, objects made of atoms are invisible.”

Using a word in two different senses as if they are the same.

 Examples

• “Feathers are light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, feathers cannot be dark.”

• “Nothing is better than our pizza. Therefore, order nothing.”

• “The law can’t be wrong, because laws are always right.”

Assuming a claim is false because the reasoning was flawed.
 

Examples

• “Her argument for climate change was weak, so climate change isn’t real.”

• “He explained evolution poorly, so evolution must be false.”

• “That debater committed a fallacy, so everything he said is invalid.”

Comparing two things as if they’re alike in all respects.

Examples

• “Employees are like nails; you have to hit them to get them to work.”

• “School is like prison, so students should be considered inmates.”

• “Life is a game; therefore, we can treat people as opponents.”

Citing expertise in one field as proof in another.
 

Examples:

• “A famous chef says climate change is exaggerated.”

• “A pro athlete endorses this medical treatment, so it must work.”

• “A mathematician claims astrology is valid.”

Mistaking correlation for causation.

Examples:

• “The rooster crowed, then the sun rose. The rooster makes the sun rise.”

• “I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game.”

• “Crime increased after more streetlights were installed, so lights cause crime.”

Judging an argument by its origin, not its merits.
Examples:

• “That policy came from the opposing party, so it must be bad.”

• “Don’t trust her research—it’s funded by a corporation.”

• “The idea was first proposed in ancient Greece, so it’s outdated.”

Discrediting someone because of their connection to others.
 

Examples

• “You attended the same conference as that extremist, so you must agree with him.”

• “She’s friends with a known cheater, so she’s probably dishonest too.”

• “He grew up in that neighborhood, so he must be a criminal.”

Drawing conclusions from limited evidence.

Examples

• “One rude student proves all freshmen are disrespectful.”

• “I met two bad drivers from New York; all New Yorkers drive badly.”

• “This restaurant gave me food poisoning, so all restaurants are unsafe.”

A question that presumes guilt.
 

Examples

• “When did you stop lying to your friends?”

• “Why are you always late to class?”

• “How do you justify your plagiarism problem?”

Assuming the compromise between two extremes is always correct.
Examples:

• “Some say vaccines save lives, others say they’re harmful, so the truth is in between.”

• “One side says 2+2=4, the other says 2+2=6, so the answer must be 5.”

• “Some believe Earth is flat, others say it’s round—so maybe it’s half flat, half round.”

Redefining terms to dismiss counterexamples.
 

Examples

• “No true patriot criticizes their country.”

• “No real gamer plays on easy mode.”

• “If you don’t like spicy food, you’re not a true Texan.”

Conclusion does not logically follow.

Examples

• “She’s tall, so she must be good at basketball.”

• “He drives a nice car, so he must be happy.”

• “You like books, so you’ll love my new podcast.”

Reducing a complex issue to one cause.
 

Examples

• “Poverty exists because people are lazy.”

• “Divorces happen because couples don’t communicate.”

• “Students fail because they don’t try hard enough.”

Rejecting something because it’s hard to believe or understand.

Examples

• “I can’t imagine humans evolving from apes, so it must be false.”

• “Quantum physics is too weird, so it’s probably nonsense.”

• “I don’t get how planes fly, so they must be unsafe.”

Distracting with irrelevant information.

Examples

• “Why worry about climate change when potholes need fixing?”

• “We shouldn’t debate the budget—what about crime rates?”

• “Don’t focus on my grades; think about how stressed I am.”

Arguing one step will lead to extreme consequences.

Examples

• “If we allow video games, kids will stop reading entirely.”

• “If we legalize this drug, soon all drugs will be legal.”

• “If students use AI for grammar, they’ll stop thinking altogether.”

Inventing exceptions when a claim is disproven.

Examples

• “Psychics can’t be tested scientifically because their powers vanish under observation.”

• “My prediction was wrong because the universe is unpredictable.”

• “I lost the game, but only because the rules were unfair.”

Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack.

Examples

• “She wants to reduce military spending, so she must hate our troops.”

• “He said we should have stricter food labeling—clearly he wants to ban junk food.”

• “They think college should be affordable, so they want free everything.”

Deflecting criticism by pointing out the accuser’s flaws.

Examples

• “You smoke, so you can’t tell me not to drink.”

• “How can you lecture me about cheating when you cheated last year?”

• “You waste money on clothes, so don’t judge my spending.”