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Mythology of Mesopotamia
Mythology of Mesopotamia
and its influence on Folklore
and its influence on Folklore
and Religious Texts
and Religious Texts
● Discovering the earliest Civilisations
Lamassu, 40 ton statue c.710 BC from Sargon II palace, Dur-Sharrukin, Nineveh - now at Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago -source WikiCommons, blacked edit by Yala Abdullah.
Cylinder-seal imprint -source Pinterest
Discovering the earliest Civilisation
Discovering the earliest Civilisation
Ancient Origins
As far as we know, the earliest civilisations were :-
● Ancient Mesopotamia - 4500 BC in Iraq - West Asia
● Norte Chico (or Caral Supe) - 3500 BC in Peru - South America.
● Indus Harappa (Indus Valley) - 3300 BC in Afghanistan, Pakistan & North-West India - South Asia.
● Ancient Egypt - 3100 BC in Egypt - North-East Africa
● Ancient China - 2070 BC in China - East Asia
Sumeria and the subsequent Empires
Sumeria and the subsequent Empires
Human civilisation (as far as we know) began in Mesopotamia with the Sumerians.
Mesopotamia refers to the area of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (in modern day Iraq). Ancient Mesopotamian civilisation is the first known civilisation and refers to the period when the city-states overthrew one another for domination.
In the region of Sumer, their earliest know city is Eridu (c. 5400 BC). The Sumerian city-states formed alliances (c. 3500 BC) and were administrated from the city of Uruk. Sumeria would later be replaced by Akkadia, then Babylonia, then Assyria, then eventually to Persia.
Ancient Mesopotamia = Sumeria +-> Akkadia +-> Babylonia +-> Assyria +-> Neo-Babylonia
Ruling Empires: 3100 BC Sumeria, 2234 BC Akkadia, 2193 BC Gutians, 2100 BC Ur-Namma, 2004 BC Babylonia, 1595 BC Hittites & Kassites, 1365 BC Assyria, 626 BC Neo-Babylon/Chaldean, 539 BC Persian.
Mesopotamian religion & mythology had a great influence on later civilisations like the mythology of Ancient Egypt, the Persian Empire, Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Not surprisingly, these mythologies permeated into all the cultures of the kingdoms in those areas and beyond. Similarities are found in religious stories of Hinduism and Judaism while much of its impact can still be found in today's mythology.
Using Cuneiform, the Sumerians basically invented writing circa 3200 BC. Cuneiform is made up of small triangle marks and is written on clay by using a small stick which is shaved to be 3-sided. Mesopotamian Cuneiform used pictograms or symbols to represent words. More than 500,000 Cuneiform tablets have been found (mostly held in museums or universities) of which only about 10% have been examined for translation.
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia
Civilisation is based on the ability of a city to create food and feed its people. Mesopotamia is really part of the first Agricultural (Neolithic) Revolution when expertise on crop cultivation really started. Much of the imagery of ancient Mesopotamia shows the gods and kings involved in cross-pollination of plants. Experiments in cross-pollination and plant-grafting would have been immensely important in the development of high-yield crops which were disease-resistant and pest-resistant.
The Sumer/Babylon numbering system used a base of 60: So the numbers 0, 1, 60, 61 would be something like "_", "Y", "Y_", "YY". The numerals would comprise a pair of radicals; one for the digits and one for the tens (see diagram). The Sumerians introduced the concept of dividing the day into 24 hours; each hour being 60 minutes; and, each minute being 60 seconds. They also invented the wheel and divided a circle into 360 degrees. Basically, they invented mathematics, geometry as well as calendars and astronomy.
Collectively, the Mesopotamians invented much of the systems that we take for granted today. They were the first to have the agriculture, the plough, irrigation & domestication of animals; the first to have cities, urbanisation, architecture & transport vehicles, the first to have government, employment, trade, medicine & democracy; the first to have medicine, dentistry & warfare; as well as literature and the arts.
Unfortunately, the Mesopotamians also practised bad stuff like slavery and human sacrifice. Dead rulers were buried with their guards, courtiers and servants (They likely took poison).
Society in Mesopotamia
Civilisation for Mesopotamia was basically the creation of the city-state wherein were formed a government, law & order, social structure and production of necessities like food and housing. The economic benefits of living within a city-state was the main attraction to lure-in the rural and mountain folk. The lure of civilisation is told in the tale of the wild-man Enkidu and his taming by the seductress Shamhat.
Their class structure was comprised of:-
● Ruler (king & nobility) - assumed to have a special relationship with the gods
● Priests (& Priestesses) - Religious Officials, Magi, Oracles & Healers
● Upper Class - Merchants, Professionals, Military Commanders, Teachers & Scribes
● Lower Class - Workers, Farmers, Builders, Smiths, Potters, Soldiers, Artisis & Musicians
● Slaves - Debtors, Criminals & Prisoners
[Video-Links: Nat Geo - Ancient Mesopotamia -/- Crash Course - Mesopotamia -/- In 7 Minutes - Sumerian Civilisation -/- Civilisations - Sumerians, Garden of Babel -/- Assyrian Empire - Rise & Fall]
Mesopotamia Map -source WikiCommons.
Mesopotamia Cities -source WikiCommons.
Pegasus imprint from cylinder seal -source British Museum.
Mesopotamia's numeral system - by Yala Abdullah.
Mesopotamian Creation Myths
Mesopotamian Creation Myths
Mesopotamian Literature
Mesopotamian Literature
Mesopotamian creation-myths are derived mostly from a handful of cuneiform literature:-
● "Instructions of Shuruppak" Sumerian c.2600 BC,
● "Enuma Elish" Babylonian c.1750 BC [1] [2] [3],
● "Atra-Hasis" Akkadian c.1700 BC [1] [2] [3] [4] [5],
● "Eridu Genesis" Sumerian c.1600 BC [1] [2],
● "Epic of Gilgamesh" Sumerian c.1700 BC,
● "Adapa & the Food of Life" various c.1300 BC [1] [2] [3],
● "Enki & Ninhursag" various [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
The ancient Mesopotamians had many gods but the council of elite gods were called the Anunnaki. They consist of the following gods:-
● An, Anu - (male) God of the sky; ruler the heavenly realm of the gods. [1] [2] [3] [4]
● EnLil, Elil - (male) God of the wind, air; ruled the earth's surface and weather [1] [2] [3]
● EnKi, Ea - (male) God of water, knowledge, creation, craft & mischief. [1] [2] [3]
EnKi is the provider & ruled the "sweet waters" (Abzu) within the earth, just below the surface.
● NinHursag, NinMah, NunTu - (female) Goddess of the nature, mountains & fertility. [1], [2], [3], [4]
NinHursag was the "Mother of all things"; in nature, plants and animal life.
● Ianna, Ishtar - (female) Goddess of love, desire, beauty, sex, politics, war as well as fertility and justice. [1], [2] [3]
● Utu, Shamash - (male) God of the sun, truth, justice & morality. [1], [2] [3]
● Nana, Suen, Sin - (male) God of the moon. [1], [2] [3]
Their names varied depending on the language; whether Sumer, Akkad, Babylon or Assyria. The gods' family tree was quite complex and evolved over time. A second tier of junior gods was called Igigi.
Origin of the Gods - from "Enuma Elish" - summary
Abzu (male) is spirit deity of fresh water.
Tiamat (female) is spirt deity of the salt sea.
The primordial waters churn; the chaos creates other deities which then begets all the gods
The younger gods are noisy which upsets Abzu, who then considers their genocide.
The younger gods' react and kill Abzu; Tiamat is enraged.
Tiamat produces 11 monsters to fight for her: Bašmu {Hydra}, Mušḫuššu {Griffin}, Mušmaḫḫū {Phoenix}, Ušumgallu {Chimera}, Uridimmu {Manticore}, Kusarikku {Minotaur}, Girtablullû (“Scorpion-Man"), Kulullû {Triton}, Laḫmu {Satyr}, Ugallu {Narasimha} and Umū dabrūtu (“Violent Storms")
while Tiamat transforms herself into a monstrous sea-serpent, to battle the gods, supported by her consort Kingu.
In the battle, Marduk destroys Tiamat and slices her.
From Tiamat's ribs, Marduk creates the vault of heaven and earth,
From her eyes become the Tigris and Euphrates,
From her tail becomes the Milky Way.
The victorious gods sacrificed Kingu & used his blood to create a Lullû-man (created-man).
Note : Lullû-man is not mankind. Lullû-man was custom-engineered to do the work of the gods. This first created-man becomes Adapa (see story below), the first of the seven divinely created Abgallu (or Apkallu), sage-magi of great wisdom who would also be sage-visirs for the human Kings.
Adapa & the Food of Life - summary
To Adapa, a diligent priest, the god Ea bestowed wisdom & some supernatural ability.
Whilst fishing, the sea splits in half, the South Wind blows,
Adapa's boat is struck, capsizes and Adapa is drowning.
Adapa curses the South Wind deity damaging it's Wing, which stops the wind blowing.
Adapa is to be summoned to an inquest by god Anu up in the "realm of the gods".
Adapa is pre-instructed by Ea to; favour praise to a few lower guardian-deities;
also when offered, do not eat the Food of Death, do not drink the Water of Death,
but do dress up in the garment, and do anoint himself with the oil.
At Anu's inquest, Adapa adeptly complies with Ea's instructions:
They offered and he did not eat the Food of Life; and he did not drink the Water of Life.
Anu actually offered immortality, but obedient Adapa declined.
Adapa is sent back to earth {remaining a mortal}.
Note : EnKi (Ea) and NinMah (NinHurSag) are asked to fashion more variations of created-men after Lullû-man. NinMah mixes "heart of clay over the abyss" making 6 more; including 1 barren woman & 1 asexual human (which EnKi assigns jobs as house-maid and eunuch respectively). EnKi's poor attempt at the clay creates a crippled mess whereupon NinMah becomes angry and leaves.
Creation of Mankind - from "Atra-Hasis" - summary
The gods Anu, EnLil & EnKi were assigned to rule the air, earth and water respectively.
The lower gods, the Igigi, are tired of their divine chores and refuse to work.
Under pressure, the Anunnaki's solution is to create humans.
To do so, they kill their brother god Ilawela (Geshtu-e, god of intelligence) in a sacrifice
and mix his flesh & blood with clay and with their spit.
The gods create a womb, and 10 months later, the humans are born.
Thus humans are created to be labourers working with the gods toward a mutually beneficial purpose.
Note: The sacrificial death of a god to benefit mankind is a recurring theme in mythology.
Note: Creation of man using clay is a recurring idea in mythology.
Mother of all Living Things - from "Enki & Ninhursag - summary
Dilmun is the garden of paradise at the beginning of the world.
Dilmun is a pure, holy, and pristine place.
In Dilmun, NinHursag rests during the winter.
EnKi goes to Dilmun and falls in love with NinHursag
EnKi & NinHursag beget a daughter named NinSar (Lady Greenery) who matures in 9 days.
While NinHursag returns to her duties, EnKi mistakes NinSar for her.
EnKi & NinSar beget a daughter named NinKurra (Lady Pasture) who matures in 9 days.
While NinHursag continues her duties, EnKi mistakes NinKurra for her.
EnKi & NinKurra beget a daughter named Uttu who matures in 9 days.
EnKi inseminates Uttu, realises she is not NinHursag and wanders away.
Uttu asks NinHursag to remedy the mistake of EnKi's insemination.
NinHursag tells Uttu to remove the seed in her womb and plant it at Dilmun.
9 days later, 8 new plants have grown there.
EnKi unknowingly passes by and eats the 8 plants.
NinHursag is exasperated, curses EnKi & leaves Dilmun.
EnKi falls ill from the plants, slowly dying & cannot be cured. He desperately sends for NinHursag.
NinHursag comes to heal EnKi; for every pain she extracts from EnKi, it becomes a new deity.
8 deities are made: Abu ("Lord of plants", growth), NinSikila ("Lord of hair", metal), then NinKirutu ("Lady of nose", healing), NinKasi ("Lady of mouth", beer), NanZi ("Lady of throat", morality), then Azimua ("Lady of arm", healing), NinTi ("Lady of Rib", giver of life) and EnSag ("Lord of side", fertility).
EnKi is healed, repents & is forgiven. Praise be to EnKi.
Note: The contamination of plants by a God's seed appears also in ancient Egyptian mythology. In the contest between Horus and Set, Horus contaminates some lettuce with his semen which Set unknowingly eats; consequently Horus wins.
Beliefs in Mesopotamia
The Gods in general had a wide variety of characteristic. While some gods were caring and kind, others were vengeful and petty. For example: EnLil wanted to destroy mankind because they were making to much noise. The gods were sometimes fighting with each other and wanting to take over each other's territories.
The ruling kings strived to do great deeds in the hope that, upon their death, they would be granted immortality and whisked away to live in paradise. For the mere mortals, expectations were different.
Most people (not nobility) would be buried below their house. Mesopotamians believed that, after death, they would continue to live a shadowy existence eating dust & dirt in the netherworld which was below the ground's surface, generally dark & dismal. The netherworld is called Kur (or Irkala or Aralu or Kigal) and was ruled by goddess Ereshkigal. Every dead person had their names recorded by goddess Geshtinanna. The netherworld was home to many gods, including Nergal, but was also where demons lived; for example Pazuzu and Lamashtu.
Apkallu (sage-magus) c.870 BC from Nimrud, palace of King Ashur-Nasir-Pal II of Assyria - Brooklyn Museum.
Gryphon battle - Relief drawing from Palace of Sennacherib, Nimroud, Nineveh -source WikiCommons, touch-up repair by Yala Abdullah.
Griffin-Lion from Darius I palace at Susa -source Louvre, darkened edit by Yala Abdullah.
Apkallu (sage-magus) with eagle-head c.870 BC from Nimrud, palace of King Ashur-Nasir-Pal II of Assyria - British Museum
Gilgamesh of Uruk
Gilgamesh of Uruk
Gilgamesh of Uruk was ruler of Mesopotamia circa 2800 BC - 2500 BC. As is common with all great rulers, actual history is displaced by a popular romanticised version, and Gilgamesh's is referred to as the "Epic of Gilgamesh".
Epic of Gilgamesh
Epic of Gilgamesh
Several versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh have been found. The most complete cuneiform tablets were found in the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, in Nineveh (today, Mosul in Iraq), written by a shaman Sîn-lēqi-unninni (from circa 1300 BC - 1000 BC).
The Epic of Gilgamesh tells of Gilgamesh's heroic deeds and his wish to gain immortality from the Gods. Although, in the epic, his deeds did not reward him with immortality, the existence of this epic-story does, in a sense, bring him immortality.
Tablet-11 on the Great Flood or Deluge became a popular story in subsequent mythologies. Here, the god Ea instructs the hero Utnapishtim to build a giant boat to save the animals before the upcoming flood occurs.
The Ark of Utnapishtim - Summary -
Instigated by the god EnLil, a group of gods conspire to bring on a great flood to destroy mankind.
The god Ea warns Utnapishtim of this and commands him to build a huge boat to save the living things.
Because of the god EnLil, Utnapishtim becomes an outcast of the city and sets up his boat-building site at a further away at a marshlands.
The god Ea provides that area with plenty of rain, poultry, fish and wheat.
Ea instructs Utnapishtim on the design of the boat: Same length & width of 120 cubits {appx 55m},
6 decks comprising of 7 & 9 compartments, with a covered roof.
Local workers helped him build the boat and he rewarded them with food and drink. They used a lot of bitumen & oil.
After completion, he loaded the boat with his wealth and the living things in his possession.
He summoned his relatives and workers aboard.
He herded all the animals (beasts & field animals) aboard.
The doorway for the boat is sealed up.
And then the storm began; thunderbolt & lightning, very very frightening; even the gods cowered and cried.
The flood and winds lasted 6 days and 6 nights;
The power of the deluge had flattened the land and all in its path.
In the calm of the 7th day, Utnapishtim freed a dove, a swallow & a raven.
As the raven (finding land) did not return & so he dispersed out his livestock.
At a mountain-temple, he made a sacrificial offering of sheep dedicated to the gods, except not to the god EnLil.
EnLil seeing his destructive handiwork thwarted by survivors then blames Ea.
The god Ea chides EnLil for his lack of compassion.
Ea blesses Utnapishtim & wife with eternal life and transports them to reside at the Rivers' Mouth (paradise).
Note : The flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh is a re-telling of a Sumerian creation-myth also found in earlier literature; "Eridu Genesis" (tablet c.1600 BC) & "Atra-Hasis" (tablet c.1650 BC). It is essentially the same story with the ark-builder named as Ziusudra (in Sumerian) or Atrahasis (in Akkadian). Ziusudra was a Sumerian King c.2900 BC from Shuruppak.
Note : In Atra-Hasis epic, the ark is apparently a coracle design (cylindrical ship) of diameter appx 68m.
Note : The story of the flood is told to Gilgamesh by Utnapishtim, who has achieved immortality. Tablet-10 tells of how Gilgamesh had to cross the Hubur ("The River") using the ferryman, Urshanabi, to get to Utnapishtim in the Netherworld.
Cuneiform tablet of the Great Flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh [source- British Museum]
[Statue of Gilgamesh in palace of Sargon II [721 BC - 705 BC] in Dur Sharrukin, Assyria (Khorsabad, Iraq) now at Louvre.]
More details on the Epic of Gilgamesh can be found as follows:-
- Epic of Gilgamesh [New Translation] - A. George, 1999 Penguin Classics [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
- Epic of Gilgamesh - M.G. Kovacs, 1998 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
- Hebrew Deluge Story In Cuneiform - A.T. Clay, Yale Oriental Series, Researches, vol 5, pt 3, 1922 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
- Old Babylonian version of the Gilgamesh Epic - M. Jastrow & A.T. Clay, Yale Oriental Series, Researches, vol 4, pt 3, 1920 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
- Epic of Gilgamesh - N.K. Sanders, Assyrian Int'l News Agency [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
- Websites : History Wiz, Spark Notes, Grade Saver, Uni. Winsconsin Oshkosh, Course Hero
The Ark of Shraddha-Deva Manu
The Ark of Shraddha-Deva Manu
From of Ancient India, the story of Shraddha-Deva Manu has comparable similarities. "Manu" refers to a first original man or progenitor of mankind of which there have been several cycles and will be more "Manu" as the aeons pass. Shraddha-Deva is the Manu for our current aeon (the 7th aeon). The story is mentioned in several Vedas (indian scripture) and literature, the earliest being Satapatha Brahmana (c. 700 BC).
In this story, Shraddha-Deva Manu encounters a destitute fish and nurtures it until it is so large that it has to be transferred to the ocean. The fish reveals itself to be Matsya, an avatar of god Vishnu, and tells Manu of the coming great flood and how Manu can save humanity. Manu has to build a strong ark and take aboard it the 7 Sages, seeds of all things as well as pairs of each animal. When the flood came, Manu tied the ark to the horn of Matsya. While the world was drowned, Manu's ark was towed away to safety.
Matsya & Manu -source WikiCommons -original IndianMinaturePaintings
Matsya rescues Manu & the 7 Sages -source British Museum
The Ark of Noah
The Ark of Noah
The Tanakh is the main collection of Judaism's religious texts. The first part is the Torah, of which the first Book is named Genesis. Herein is the story of Noah whom the god Yahweh told of the coming Flood and to build an Ark to save the animals and some worthy humans. The earliest known Book of Genesis is part of the Dead Sea Scrolls called Genesis Apocryphon 1Q20 dated to c.100BC.
In this story, the earth had become corrupted and violent; so Yahweh would destroy it all in a great Flood. Yahweh instructed the righteous Noah on the design of the Ark; built of wood, 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide & 30 cubits tall {137m x 23m x 14m}; 4 decks {storeys} with rooms, window and door; pitched (bitumen) throughout. The Ark would carry Noah, his 3 sons, and their wives, together with male and female of all living creatures, plus food for all of them.
Noah entered the ark in his 600th year, 2nd month, 17th day. The great flood came from underground fountains and rain for 40 days and 40 nights, the highest mountains were covered 15 cubits, and all life on earth perished except for Noah and those in the Ark. After 150 days of high-water, Yahweh remembered Noah, and, after 150 days more, the underground fountains stopped, the water subsided; & after 40 days, Noah freed a raven and dove, which returned; 7 days later, freed the dove, which returned; 7 days later, freed the dove. As the dove (finding land) did not return & so he dispersed out his family and livestock.
Noah built an altar dedicated to Yahweh & made sacrificial offerings of animals. Smelling this, Yahweh promised that the seasons would continue uninterrupted; & not to smite mankind again, no more floods; by the token symbol of the rainbow.
Noah's Ark by Miskin -source WikiCommons
The Vara of Yima
The Vara of Yima
In the Zoroastrian religion, the religious texts are collectively called Avesta. Vendidad is a part of the Avesta and tells the story of the winter storm. The oldest Avesta is dated 1323 AD and was created from a Sassanid (224 - 651 AD) archetype master-copy, now lost.
In this story, the world that god Ahura Mazda had created was a utopia where mankind was immortal. As the population grew, the world became overcrowded. At the request of king Yima [son of Vivanghat], the world was swelled & expanded three times by Ahura Mazda to fit the overpopulation. But the world size limit was reached and Ahura Mazda would obliterate everything in a great winter freeze.
At the behest of Ahura Mazda, king Yima built a Vara, a very large fortress in the ground. The cavernous enclosure would be have 2 square sections; 3km by 3km each; 1 for mankind and 1 for the animals & plants. The Vara was built by stomping the earth and forming that clay. Yima also added flowing water to create evergreen fields and endless food supply. He also built streets with houses. Into the Vara, Yima brought the best pairs (male & female) of every species and type of humans (1000 pairs), animals and plants. The Vara is sealed with gold while self-lighting windows were added. Within the Vara, the sun would rise and set but once a year. The great frost came and the world was destroyed, all except for Yima's fortress and its inhabitants who lived there happily.
Petra: rock-cut buildings. Coloured lithograph by Louis Haghe after David Roberts, 1849. Credit: Wellcome Collection. CC BY
Baby hidden in a Basket
Baby hidden in a Basket
Sargon of Akkadia
Sargon of Akkadia
Sargon I of Akkadia conquers the Sumerians and other city-states forming a larger empire. He was the son of a garden-keeper, became cup-bearer to king Ur-Zababa of Kish, eventually usurping the throne from Lugal (king) Zage-si of Uruk. Sargon was ruler in Mesopotamia 2334 BC - 2279 BC. Whereas the previous Sumerians unified the empire through cuneiform writing, the Akkadians further unified the empire through promoting their semitic Akkadian language. The romanticised version of his story is referred to as the "Sargon Legend".
Sargon Legend
Sargon Legend
The cuneform tablet bearing the Sargon Legend was excavated in Nineveh, capital city of Assyria. Nineveh was a major religious centre for the goddess Ishtar during 3000 BC - 2000 BC. Ishtar is mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh as well as in the Sargon Legend.
From the Sargon Legend, the chapter about Sargon's birth & childhood became a major influence in popular mythology.
The Birth of Sargon
Sargon, strong king, king of Agade, am I.
My mother was a high priestess, my father I do not know.
My paternal kin inhabit the mountain region.
My city (of birth) is Azupiranu, which lies on the bank of the Euphrates.
My mother, a high priestess, conceived me, in secret she bore me.
She placed me in a reed basket, with bitumen she caulked my hatch.
She abandoned me to the river from which I could not escape.
The river carried me along: to Aqqi, the water drawer, it brought me.
Aqqi, the water drawer, when immersing his bucket lifted me up.
Aqqi, the water drawer, raised me as his adopted son.
Aqqi, the water drawer, set me to his garden work.
During my garden work, Istar loved me (so that) 55 years I ruled as king.
...from Brian Lewis' The Sargon Legend (American Schools of Oriental Research, 1978) quoted in Sargon vs Moses
Cuneiform tablet of the Sargon Legend [source- Mostly Dead Languages]
King Sargon of Akkad in Mesopotamia - Louvre Museum
- Other translations - - The Ancient Near East - J.B. Pritchard, Volume I, pg 85-86 quoted in Ancient.eu
- Legends of the Kings of Akkade - J.G. Westenholz, p39 quoted in WikiPedia
- Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham University
- The History of the Ancient World - S.W. Bauer, p.95 quoted in Ancient.eu
Sargon of Akkad - British Museum
Karna in Mahabharata
Karna in Mahabharata
From Ancient India, the story of the warrior Karna is found in the sanskrit epic story, the Mahabharata, which earliest copies date back to circa 400 BC. The Mahabharata story is about 2 rival royal families named as Pandava and Kaurava who, despite being cousins, are eventually drawn into a terrible war.
In this story, the teenage Lady Kunti, using a secret mantra, mistakenly summons Surya, god of the Sun. As part of the intercourse, Kunti is impregnated by Surya. She hides her pregnancy and eventually gives birth to Karna. As avowed by Surya, Kunti regains back her virginity and Karna is bestowed with divine armour & earrings, making him immortal. Kunti puts baby Karna into a padded sealed basket and floats him on the river and down to the Ganges. After a lengthy journey, the basket is found by Rhada and Adhiratha, a charioteer (and poet); and they adopt Karna as their son.
Kunti marries king Pandu and, again using the secret mantra, queen Kunti becomes mother of the Pandava princes Yudhishthira (by god Yama), Bhima (by god Vayu) and Arjuna (by god Indra) as well as step-mother to the princes Nakula and Sahadeva.
Karna is portrayed as the righteous hero who fights for the wrong side. Karna grows up, befriends prince Duryodhana and Karna becomes a great archer & warrior for the Kaurava. Due to his loyalty to Duryodhana, in a gambling argument with princess Draupadi, Karna repulsively insults her modesty despite himself loathing this action. With the war becoming imminent, lord Krishna (an avatar of god Vishnu) reveals to Karna of his real mother, Kunti, with the offer for Karna to join the Pandava and lead them (thus protecting Arjuna by avoiding the conflict). But Karna declines Krishna's offer as Karna was deeply devoted to his humble adoptive parents. Later, Karna is warned by Surya of Indra's planned deceit to negate Karna's immortality by removing his divine armour & earrings. Indra incognito begs Karna to donate away his divine armour & earrings and Karna, aware of the deceit, still complies to "win the glory" of the situation. Indra is impressed and awards Karna a single-use projectile weapon called Vasavi-shakti.
In the ensuing Kurukshetra war, both sides take heavy losses. At the height of a battle, Abhimanyu (Arjuna's son) is killed by Karna's arrow while Abhimanyu was trying to dislodge his stuck chariot wheel. Although saving the Vasavi-shakti to kill Arjuna, Karna is ordered to use it on Ghatotkacha (Bhima's son) who is wreaking massive damage on the Kaurava forces. Karna reluctantly but dutifully obeys using the single-use Vasavi-shakti to kill Ghatotkacha. Arjuna is enraged and enters the battle with his arsenal of divine weaponry with Krishna as his charioteer. Karna's charioteer is the unfriendly king Shalya. As they battle incessantly, Karna's deadly volleys are deflected by Krishna's magic. Then Karna's chariot wheel becomes stuck, he signals a ceasefire and proceeds to dislodge the wheel. Krishna commands Arjuna to shoot his divine weapon called Anjalika which then beheads Karna.
Karna slays Ghatotkacha with divine weapon - from Razmnam -source WikiCommons -original Asian Art Museum San Francisco
Arjuna slays Karna with divine weapon, from Razmnama -source WikiCommons -original Art Institute of Chicago
The Birth of Moses
The Birth of Moses
...insert Moses' Birth story here...
Romulus & Remus
The myth of Romulus & Remus [1] [2] [3] [4] tells of the legendary founding of Rome and the Roman Kingdom. Rome ws founded c. 750 BC and the earliest known written account of is c. 250 BC.
King Numitor of Alba Longa in Latium had a daughter, Rhea Silvia. His brother, Amulius, deposed of Numitor and forced Rhea Silvia to be a vestal virgin. Later Rhea Silvia, through a relationship with the god Mars, gives birth to the twins, Romulus & Remus. King Amulius imprisons Rhea Silvia and orders the twins to be put into a basket to be floated down the Tiber river to kill them.
The basket floated down the Tiber river but the twins did not die as the god Tibernus intervened by landing the basket ashore under a fig-tree. The god Mars sends a she-wolf and a woodpecker to rescue, to suckle and to feed the twins. They are later found by shepherd Faustulus and raised by him and his wife, Acca Larentia.
As the twins became young adults, they became embroiled in the politics of Alba Longa; Remus is arrested; Romulus rescues Remus; they kill Amulius and restore the rightful king Numitor.
Later, the twins venture off to build their own city. The find a suitable area but disagree on location. Romulus builds on Palatine Hill; Remus builds on Aventine Hill. Romulus builds a separation wall; Remus jumps over the wall.The dispute escalates and Romulus kills Remus.
Note: A twin brother murdering the other is a recurring theme in mythology
Oedipus Rex
The story of Oedipus Rex [1] [2] [3] was a theatrical play written by Sophocles and first performed c. 429 BC.
King Laius and queen Jocasta of Thebes beget a son, Oedipus. An oracle foretells that Laius will be kill by his own son. To circumvent the oracle, Laius orders that baby Oedipus is to be killed by binding his legs and being left on a mountain to die. He is found and rescued by a shepherd, who brings baby Oedipus to Corinth; where king Polybus and queen Merope adopt Oedipus as their son.
Later, as an adult, Oedipus meets the oracle who then foretells that he will mate with his own mother and kill his father. To circumvent the oracle, Oedipus leaves Corinth and travels to Thebes. On the way, Oedipus bumps into king Laius who is incognito; both on their chariots, an altercation ensues; Laius tries to hit Oedipus but instead Oedipus kills Laius. Further along the way nearing Thebes, Oedipus meets the Sphinx which blocks the road challenging travellers with an unsolved riddle, "What is the creature that walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three in the evening?"; to which Oedipus answers correctly, "Man"; besting the Sphinx, which jumps off a cliff, thereby liberating the road to Thebes. The Thebans celebrate this victory by making Oedipus the king and giving him the hand of newly widowed queen Jocasta.
Many years later, as the fates would have it, the story unravels; Jocasta hangs herself; Oedipus pokes his eyes and blinds himself.
Ares (in Greek) or Mars (in Roman) -source WikiCommons
Romulus kills Remus -source WikiCommons
Sphinx from palace of Darius I at Susa c.500 BC-source Louvre, darkened edit by Yala Abdullah.
Oedipus kills Laius - by Joseph Blanc -source WikiCommons
Laws as given by God(s)
Laws as given by God(s)
Code of Hammurabi
Code of Hammurabi
Hammurabi [c.1810 BC – c.1750 BC] was king of Babylon from c.1792 BC and was successful in conquering nearly all of the city-states of Mesopotamia and bringing then under Babylonian rule.
Code of Hammurabi refers to a Legal Code made of 282 laws engraved in Akkadian cuneiform on a 2.25m stone stele. It is one of the oldest deciphered law writings, definitely the best preserved.
Note: The older legal codes found were Code of Ur-Nammu (c.2050 BC), Laws of Eshnunna (c.1930 BC), and the Codex of Lipit-Ishtar (c.1870 BC).
The Code of Hammurabi expounds basic concepts like "an eye for an eye", "presumption of innocence" and "proof of guilt by evidence". Punishments were graded depending on the social strata, status and gender. The major sections in the code are legal procedures, contract law, family law, slavery law, and religious law. The bulk of the code covers contract law including basic wage rates and damages. The code also covers family law including divorce and inheritance.
The Codes are expressed as conditions; "If {crime}, then {punishment}". Examples:
22. If any one is committing a robbery and is caught, then he shall be put to death.
129. If a man's wife be surprised (in flagrante delicto) with another man, both shall be tied and thrown into the water, but the husband may pardon his wife and the king his slaves.
195. If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off.
196. If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.
The Code of Hammurabi also has its own romanticised myth mentioned in the Prologue & Epilogue [1] [2].
Prologue: - summary
The gods Anu, Bel, Marduk, Ea & the Igigi bless the dominion of Babylon.
Both Anu & Bel by divine right specifically appoint Hammurabi to rule Babylon,
to bring righteousness, justice, equality;
to rule all the black-headed people as does the god Shamash
to enlighten the land, to further the well-being of mankind;
Hammurabi, the prince, called by the god Bel,
[one by one, Hammurabi calls the names]
{name of god} blessed of {name of city-state & temple}
[until all the city-states in the empire are called]
[finally] Babylon, Sumer & Akkad.
The King (am I), obeyed, beloved by goddess Ninni,
sent by god Marduk to rule, to bring sovereignty, righteousness and justice.
Epilogue: - summary
King Hammurabi is wise, protecting, dutiful, peaceful, enlightening, trusted visionary
Appointed to rule by the great gods Bel, Marduk, Ea, Zamama, Ishtar,
These laws established are just, righteous and pious.
I bring security, protection and peace without disturbance
I am the salvation-bearing shepherd, whose staff is straight,
King Hammurabi is father to the people, who serves Marduk,
who will bless the empire, bringing order.
The laws are given by god Shamash
May the future kings follow the Code without modification.
May the gods {named one by one} uphold the Code
and curse any future kings {describes curses one by one} who do not obey fully.
Carving atop Code of Hammurabi stone stele shows Hammurabi (standing) being conferred his insignia by Shamash, god of the sun (seated) -source Louvre
Apkallu (sage-magus) with fish-man head-dress, from Temple of Ninurta, Nimrud -source WikiCommons.
Negative Confessions of Ma'at
Negative Confessions of Ma'at
From Ancient Egypt, the goddess Ma'at personifies truth, morality, law and judgement. Ma'at's earliest mention is in the Pyramid Texts of Unas from c.2360 BC but Ma'at is better known from the Book of the Dead from c.1550 BC.
The Book of the Dead refers to a compendium of papyrus literature called funerary texts which are instructions to guide the souls of eminent dead persons so that they may enter the realm of the Gods. In this collection, the Papyrus of Ani (c.1250 BC) reveals the process of afterlife assessment.
In the spirit realm called Duat, the soul of the eminent dead person (usually accompanied by his wife) has to pass 2 major tests to be allowed into the realm of the Gods: (1) the weighing of the heart, and (2) the Assessors of Ma'at.
The Assessors of Ma'at is made up of the 42 district-deities of the main 42 nomes (important districts) of the ancient egyptian empire; examples Heliopolis and Memphis. For each district-deity, the dead eminent person has to declare "Hail {name of deity} coming from {name of nome-district}, I have not {description of transgression}". Although there are 42 negative confessions to be made, there are really only a handful of transgressions because much of it is re-worded each time.
Examples of Negative Confessions:
3. Hail, Fenti, who comest forth from Khemenu, I have not stolen.
4. Hail, Am-khaibit, who comest forth from Qernet, I have not slain men and women.
21. Hail, Uamenti, who comest forth from the Khebt chamber, I have not debauched the wives of other men.
27. Hail, Kenemti, who comest forth from Kenmet, I have not blasphemed.
Hieroglyphs from Papyrus of Nebseny - British Museum
Book of the Dead: Papyrus of Ani - "Ani's Judgement" (Frame 3) c. 1275 BC -source WikiCommons -original British Museum.
Description from the British Museum: Ani's Judgment: the scene is the Hall of Judgment. Centrally placed is a balance, holding in its two pans; Ani's heart (on the left) and a feather (on the right) representing Maat, the divine personification of truth and order. The crossbar of the balance hangs from a feather-shaped peg attached to the upright support, on the top of which squats a small baboon. This creature is a form of the god Thoth, who acts in a different form and with a different duty elsewhere in this "trial". The god Anubis, here shown as a jackal-headed, human-bodied, kneeling deity, described as "he who is in the place of embalming," holds the cord of the right-hand pan, and steadies the plumb bob of the balance. To the right of the balance stands Thoth, here in human form with ibis head; he is the scribe of the gods, and he holds a scribe's palette and a reed brush, ready to note down the results of Ani's interrogation. On a mat behind Thoth sits a monster ready to spring forward to consume Ani's heart if he fails to pass the test. This creature has the head of a crocodile, the forepart of a lion, and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus. At the top of the scene the great gods of Egypt are shown, formally seated on thrones, waiting to deliver judgment: Ra-Horakhty, Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Isis and Nephthys, Horus and Hathor, joined by gods personifying the divine word (Hu) and perception (Sia). Other deities observe the proceedings: to the left of the balance, Shay (fate) and, strangely, two birth goddesses, Renenutet and Meskhenet. Ani's soul or 'ba' bird, which will allow him freedom of movement in and out of the tomb after death, perches on a shrine-shaped building, ready to be released if judgment is given in Ani's favor. Into this formidable gathering comes Ani, accompanied by his wife Tutu. They enter from the left, bending forward in proper humility, and Ani mutters the words of Spell 30B of the 'Book of the Dead', which are addressed to his heart in the balance. All, it seems, goes well for Ani; he has qualified for the Afterlife.
Book of the Dead: Papyrus of Hunefer - "Hunefer's Judgement" (Frame 3) c. 1275 BC -source WikiCommons -original British Museum.
Goddess Ma'at - Mural from Tomb of Siptah [KV47], Luxor c.1194 BC -source image Egypt-Museum - digitally repaired/ reconstructed by Yala Abdullah
Further Connections
Further Connections
The Connection to India
The Connection to India
The story of Enki & the World Order, mentions assignments to 3 places:-
Meluha, Magan & Dilmun.
"I will admire its green cedars. Let the lands of Meluha, Magan and Dilmun look upon me, upon Enki. Let the Dilmun boats be loaded with timber. Let the Magan boats be loaded sky-high. Let the magilum boats of Meluha transport gold and silver and bring them to Nibru for Enlil, king of all the lands."
It is thought that Meluḫḫa or Melukhkha was part of the Indus Valley civilisation (in India).
The ancient Mesopotamian and ancient Indian civilisations would have existed around the same time. There would have been trade routes between the two by land and by sea. It is likely that the "gold and silver" was referring to "tin" (which, with copper, is used to make the alloy bronze) and Meluhha was a source of tin was in the somewhere around Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Unfortunately, we currently know very little about the Indus Valley civilisation.
City-States and City-Temples
City-States and City-Temples
The Epic of Gilgamesh reveals much about ancient Mesopotamian society. The story revolves around how Gilgamesh befriends Enkidu and welcomes Enkidu from the primitive backwoods to join the civilised utopian life in a city-state. This story alludes to encourage the inviting of rural folk to join the city community; enticing them to the benefits and treating them as brethren.
From the epic story, we can glean that every citizen is designated a work-occupation, a dwelling and even a spouse. Every civilian has a role to contribute and, in exchange, the city-state will care and provide for them. The success of this system means the city's expansion needs more and more inhabitants.
The epic tale also gives insight into the relationship between the city-authority and its main temple. There are many gods and they each have their representative temples of worship. However, every city has its own patron-deity with its central temple of paramount importance. The city-state and it's patron-deity are symbiotic. The patron-god's temple reflects the city's economic and political stature.
Whereas the city-authority provides for its citizens' material needs, the city-temple provides for their social and spiritual well-being. The city-temple is a place of gathering for many things including food, drink (beer) and sex. In the epic story, the lady Shamhat from the city-temple provided sexual services to Enkidu.
Political Evolution of the Gods
Political Evolution of the Gods
Although the gods Abzu (fresh water) and Tiamat (salt water) created all the other gods, they were not highly worshipped. This is similar in Hinduism to the god Brahma, who is the creator (and is important) but is less worshipped (compared to the other gods).
During the Sumerian and Akkadian eras, the gods An (heaven/ sky), EnLil (air/water), EnKi (water) and NinHursag (sacred mountain) were the top gods and commanders of the Annunaki. Gods were also patron deities of cities: Anu (An) for Uruk city; Elil (EnLil) for Nippur city, and; Ea (EnKi) for Eridu city.
During the Babylonian era, the patron deity of Babylon city, Marduk (storms), became elevated in the divine pantheon. As apparent in “Enuma Elish”, the gods Ea and Belit-ili (NinHursag) bore parental roles for Marduk. The god Elil was conceptually absorbed into another name, “Bel”.
Similarly, during the Assyrian era, the popularity of Ishtar / Inanna (lust), patron deity of Uruk city, blossomed as she was favoured by the cities of Assur, Nineveh and Arbela; the political centres for the Assyrians. Ishtar would eventually even take over the temple of An (her father).
“Bel” evolved to become a title for Marduk, which alters the blessing from the Code of Hammurabi, “The gods Anu, Bel, Marduk, Ea & the Igigi bless the dominion of Babylon”. Eventually, the deities Elil and Dumuzid (Inanna's consort) became merged with Marduk into a single deity, Bel.
Priest King c.2150 BC from Mohenjo-Daro, Indus-Harappa region; now at National Museum of Pakistan [source- WikiCommons]
Enkidu and Gilgamesh fighting wild animals; Oriental Institute Museum [source- WikiCommons].
Ishtar, Queen of the Night of Babylon, Iraq from 1800 BC - 1750 BC now at British Museum, dark edit by Yala Abdullah.
Gnostic Concepts in Mesopotamia
Gnostic Concepts in Mesopotamia
Introduction to Gnosis
Introduction to Gnosis
Gnosis is a philosophy applying to religious beliefs. Gnostic literature from Ancient Greece show its influence c. 300 BC in Helenistic Religions and Helenistic Judaism. Modern religious sub-divisions which have evolved with gnostic teachings are collectively referred to as Gnosticism. Gnosticism exists today but is not well known and is sometimes thought of as a sect or as a religion, which does cause confusion.
Gnosis is a philosophy, like how Buddhism is a philosophy. Gnosticism is "to a religion" like how Shinto-Buddhism is a sub-division of a religion. Gnosticism and Buddhism do have some similarities. Examples of modern gnosticism are Manichaeism and Mandaeism. Gnosticism has many modern variants, however, our interest is only in Gnosis ideas.
In Gnosis (as a category of religion), there is an ultimate "God" referred to as Monad or The One. Monad exists in a different dimension and is "ineffable"; ie incomprehensible, indescribable. In general, Monad is represented as having emanations (called Aeons) such as wisdom ("sophia"), thought ("ennoea"), profundity ("bythos"), silence ("sige") & grace ("charis"). Monad demands nothing from us humans; not prayer, not worship, no rules. In return, Monad gives us nothing.
In gnosis (as a philosophy), the highest valued asset is knowledge (gnosis means "knowledge"). As sentient beings, our ultimate objective is for our soul to transcend or "flow" (called Emanationism) into the cosmos or abyss or void; this is part of Monad.
Monad comparison
The gnostic description fits quite well with our modern interpretation of God. This is more obvious for monotheistic religions. In Islam, God is described as incomprehensible. In Buddhism, the goal is to attain enlightenment. In Hinduism, when completing the cycle of rebirth to become a brahmin, brahmins only believe in one god, Brahman, and a brahmin's end is soul liberation. However, in classical antiquity, this kind of description of God was heresy.
Also, Monad is not the creator of our universe nor of mankind. In gnosis, our material universe, world and creation are just accidents of probability. At this stage, gnosis may not even qualify as a religion as (a) Monad is not the creator, (b) there is no afterlife [per se], and (c) worship and prayer will not grant any favour from Monad. So, for our material universe, gnosis offers the concept of a Demuirge, the creator of our universe (in a traditional sense).
Demuirge comparison
Gnosis (as a philosophy) allows for any number of demuirges (artisans), to shape our material universe. As such, this concept fits well with polytheist religions like Hinduism and Chinese Folk religion as well as the religions of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
For the further development of religious practices, gnosis offers the concept of Archons, the servants of the Demuirge(s). In the abrahamic religions, these archons would be the equivalent of angels or nephilim. In Hinduism, these could be the avatars of the gods. In the ancient greek and roman religions, these could be the titans or perhaps the lower gods.
Hang on! Does this mean that any religion can be gnosified? And then absorbed as a sub-division of gnosis? Is this like early Hinduism when every new god encountered was absorbed to become a Hindu god? Anyone can add any number of demuirges and with their set of supporting archons? Is gnosis just an excuse for assimilating all other religions and cultures? It does seem like it. And yet, where is gnosis today?
Gnosis in Mesopotamian Religion
Gnosis in Mesopotamian Religion
However little we know about early gnosis, we do know that Mesopotamian religion predates it by 2,000 years; and had profound influence on religions like Hinduism and Judaism.
Syrian Gnosis as told by Irenaeus (c.130–202 AD) describes a great Mother-principle of the universe -or- First woman -or- the Holy Spirit (rūha d'qudshā) moving over the waters -or- the mother of all living, who controls the elements of water, darkness, abyss, and chaos. Was Irenaeus unknowingly referring to goddess Tiamat from Enuma Elish? Assuming Tiamat was the original Demuirge, that role was later taken over by the trinity of An (sky), Enlil (earth) and Enki (freshwater).
Gnosis mentions a concept of seven archons called Hebdomad. Just as Hinduism has 7 sages in the Sapta-Rishi; Abrahamic religions have 7 holy angels in the Book of Enoch; Mesopotamia has the 7 original Apkallu. In contrast, Zoroastrianism has 6 (plus 1) spenta-immortals in the Amesha Spenta; while Chinese mythology has the 8 immortals.
The archons represented whatever their society treasures the most. In Judaism, the angels & nephilim represent power; in hellenistic religions, the titans represent strength; in mesopotamian religion, the apkallu represent wisdom.
Among Monad's mentioned emanations are wisdom, thought, profundity, grace and the elusive idea of "silence". The mesopotamian gods needed to have silence. In Enuma Elish, it was the noise of the lower gods that upset Tiamat such that Apsu considered their murder. In the great flood from Gilgamesh et al, it is the noise of mankind that upset Enlil to the extent of implementing mankind's destruction.
Throughout the mesopotamian religious myths, the gods were very busy, having so many jobs and chores to do. In Atra-Hasis, the Igigi actually revolt and threaten to overthrow the Anunnaki because of too much work. For whom was all this work being done? Nowhere does it tell us. Perhaps that was too ineffable to mention.
Portae Lucis by Joseph Gikatilla c.1290 - Book on the Kabbalah, the mystic systems associated with Gnostic Judaism -source WikiCommons.
Chinese Manichaean art of Buddha Jesus on Song dynasty silk scroll at Seiunji Temple, Kōshū, Yamanashi, Japan -source WikiCommons.
Fall of the Titans by Peter Paul Rubens c.1637 -source WikiCommons
Eight Immortals -source Walters Art Museum
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