The big picture

One of the biggest global challenges we face today is producing and distributing enough food to an ever growing population. In this subtopic we investigate how we can address these issues by considering terrestrial food production systems, factors influencing choice of farming practices and issues associated with food distribution.

One of the most significant periods of change in agriculture productivity was during the Green Revolution which began in the 1940s. Norman Borlaug is often referred to as the father of the ‘Green Revolution’. He combined the development of high yield cereals with the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation systems, mechanization and other technological developments to substantially increase food yields.

Figure 1. World cereal production per capita.

There are a variety of different farming methods ranging from large commercial farms that produce vast amounts of food for sale, to small family holdings that attempt to produce sufficient amount of food for their own needs.

Figure 2. Population density map.

Some parts of the world are more heavily populated than others. Production does not always match the needs within an area and there is significant movement of food across the world. Consider where your breakfast or dinner has come from, do you know which countries and the farming methods employed to produce them?

Figure 3. Which countries have the different components of this breakfast come from?

Low income countries are under a great deal of pressure. As their populations continue to grow they must secure increasing amounts of food. They do not have the financial means to import food so they must increase production. This can lead to the use of more intense food production methods and potentially more environmental problems. For example, within intensive farming methods:

• The high use of fertilizers and pesticides can result in pollution of aquatic systems.
• Irrigation can result in soil salinization.
• High crop production can result in soil nutrient deficiency and soil degradation.

Adopting appropriate farming strategies can alleviate these problems and minimize environmental damage. In turn, higher levels of food production can be achieved with less of an environmental impact.

Farming systems I

Farms can specialize in particular types of products e.g. arable farms will focus on crops such as corn and pastoral farms on rearing animals. Alternatively they can be ‘mixed’ farms and do both.

Figure 1. Mixed farm involving rearing animals and growing crops.

There are a wide range of different types of farms ranging from intensive commercial farms that often focus on specific products to subsistence farms, which produce a range of products mainly for family consumption.

The type of farming chosen and levels of food production will dependent on:

• Environmental conditions e.g. weather (precipitation, sunlight, temperature), topography and soil conditions that determine whether the area is suitable for growing specific plants or for rearing certain animals.
• Access to technology e.g. tractors and animal feeding systems.
• Available financial funds to purchase land and inputs e.g. seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, equipment and labour.
• Cultural and environmental value systems that influence methods of farming e.g. some communities will use specific traditional methods of husbandry whereas other communities with technocentric beliefs will embrace the use of modern technology.
• Government and political initiatives e.g. farmers can be encouraged through education programs and financial incentives to produce certain products or employ particular methods.

These factors vary from one place to another, resulting in different levels of food production around the world.

Figure 2. Technological developments such as mechanized milking systems reduces the amount of labour required, contributes to an increase in milking frequency and the milk yield per cow.

Intensive commercial farming

Both crops and animals can be commercially farmed with high inputs producing high yields.

Crop production

This includes large scale cereal production methods that are used in many developed countries e.g. parts of the USA and Prairie area of Canada. Often the farm specializes in growing a single crop, referred to as monoculture.

Figure 3. Harvesting on an intensive commercial farm in Prairie region of Canada.

Intensive commercial farming is based on economies of scale where high inputs and technologies are employed to produce the highest yields at minimum production cost. This involves the use of:

• High yielding crop varieties including genetically modified organism (GMOs).
• Fertilizers that provide nutrients to encourage maximum growth.
• Herbicides to kill weeds that compete with the crops for space, water and nutrients.
• Insecticides to kill insects that eat and damage the plants.
• Water (either via rainfall or irrigation) to encourage maximum growth.
• Mechanical equipment that allows large areas to be effectively farmed.
• Automated technologies that can be used to extend the scale of farming by reducing the amount of labour required to manage larger fields. E.g. automatic irrigation systems.
• more frequent sowing to increase the number of harvests each year, thereby improving annual yields.

High yields and relatively low production cost can reduce the cost of food to consumer and thereby improve accessibility to affordable food.

Figure 4. Mechanized collect of corn using a combined harvester.

Environmental impacts

Intensive commercial farming methods have a range of environmental impacts, for example:

• Pesticides kill non target organisms and can reduce overall biodiversity. Some non-biodegradable chemicals e.g. DDT can bioaccumulate and biomagnify building up concentrations through the food chain.
• Fertilizers use can result in nutrient run off that causes eutrophication of waters reducing biodiversity.
• Water abstraction for agriculture competes with other uses of limited water resources (subtopic 4.2 Access to fresh water).
• Monoculture increases risk of disease affecting all crops.
• Mechanical equipment uses non-renewable fossil fuels and emit greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide and nitrous oxides).
• Soil degradation e.g. excessive irrigation can increase nutrient run-off and also cause salinization.
• Loss of natural habitats e.g. forests, woodlands or grasslands are cleared for agriculture use. This also leads to loss of biodiversity.
• Loss of pollinators such as bees as a consequence of using pesticides and habitat clearance. This is further exacerbated by disease and climate change. Pollinators are vital for plant fertilization and crop production. In monoculture farming pollinators need to be present during flowering for pollination to occur. Watch the following short video ‘Pollination keystone of modern agriculture’:

Which crops would be lost without bees or other pollinators?

Animal production

Intense animal husbandry uses the same principles as intense crop production with the aim of obtaining the maximum and cheapest output. A wide range of animals can be reared in this way e.g. cows, pigs and chicken. For example in battery farming, animals are kept indoors in a limited space to restrict their movements. This stops them moving around and using energy and so increases muscle mass which results in a higher final yield. It also have the advantage of making the meat more tender.

Figure 5. Chicken battery farm.

Concerns of intensive animal farming include:

• High density of animals increases the risk of rapid spread of disease through the population.
• Ethical concern over keeping animals under such confined conditions.
• Use of growth hormones to promote faster growth. There are concerns that hormone residues within milk and meat may cause health problems in humans such as development issues, reproductive problems and cancers. These growth hormones may also enter the environment through animal waste. Research studies have demonstrated that hormones in aquatic systems can effect the gender and reproduction within fish.
• Regular use of medication such as antibiotics to prevent diseases. Use of antibiotics increases the risk of developing resistance within bacteria. This makes future infections more difficult to treat.
• High concentration of organic waste matter produced that can pollute water systems.

Examiner Tip

Ensure you are able to consider farming systems as a model with distinct inputs and outputs.

Farming systems II

There are many different alternatives to intensive commercial food production systems. These include organic farming and subsistence farming systems.

Organic farming

Organic farming prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), chemical fertilizers and restricts the use of chemical pesticides. This helps to reduce chemical contamination of food and limits pollution e.g. pesticides and nitrate fertilizers being leached into nearby water courses. Organic farms use techniques such as:

• Physical removal by hand of pests or weeds.
• Biological predators to reduce pests instead of synthetic pesticides.
• Manure, compost and green manure plants as a source of nutrients and to improve soil structure instead of synthetic fertilizers.
• Crop rotation where a different group of crops are grown each year, on a rotation of typically 3 or 4 years. For example brassica crops require large amounts of nutrients and can deplete the soil of nutrients are replaced the following year by legumes which fix nitrogen into the soil. Crop rotation helps to maintain soil fertility and to reduce build-up of soil pests.
• Livestock are fed with organic feed and reared without routine use of drugs and growth hormones. They are allowed space to move around with access to outdoor areas.

Figure 1. Sweet clover increases nitrates and organic content of soils.

Organic farming is more labour intensive than intensive commercial farming and produces lower yields. Hence the cost of organically produced crops tends to be higher, which has led to accusations of organic food being elitist and not so readily accessible to all. Despite this the global organic market is growing especially in affluent countries within Europe and North America.

Organic farming is driven by consumers with:

• Greater concerns over health e.g. organic crops do not contain pesticide residues or meat is not contaminated with growth hormones.
• Concern over ethics of intensive animal husbandry.
• Increase awareness of production methods causing less environmental problems than conventional farming methods e.g. less pesticide and nutrient run-off into nearby watercourses.
• Increase income and standard of living.

Figure 2. Organic farming allows chickens access to outdoor areas.

In some countries it is a legal requirement for organic farms to adhere to specific standards and attain certification by either a governmental or food organization to be able to market their products as organic.

Figure 3. Organic labeling can be an important marketing tool.

Watch the following video 'The organic debate' and make notes on the difference between conventional and organic farming.

Subsistence farming systems

This includes shifting cultivation, nomadic livestock herding and intensive subsistence farming. The agriculture yields are focused at meeting the demands of the family or community.

Shifting agriculture

This method of cultivation involves clearing land, typically tropical forest by cutting and burning (often referred to as slash and burn). The land is farmed for a few years until crop yields fall due to loss of soil fertility. Then the farmer moves to a new area, again clearing the trees to use the land for cultivation. Overtime trees will begin to grow in the previously farmed area and gradually the soil and biomass will recover. At a low human population density this can be a sustainable system. However, with a high population there is a shortening of fallow periods leading to low crop yields and greater soil damage.

Figure 4. Clearance of forest area for farming using slash and burn method.

Inputs for this system are low in terms of technology and labour. Outputs are relatively low and the aim is usually for yields to be sufficient to meet the needs of the family.

Nomadic herding

This involves moving with animals (e.g. cattle and goats) in search of suitable grazing areas.

For example, the Maasai tribes, in East Africa have traditionally lived in areas with sparse vegetation and low rainfall that restricts any settled agriculture. Instead the Maasai are nomadic and move to find fresh pasture for their cattle.

Figure 5. Maasai warriors herd their cattle, Ngorongoro crater, Tanzania.

Within this farming systems, input and outputs are both low. The later includes meat, milk and hides for the tribe.

Intensive subsistence farming

This type of farming tends to be widespread in many parts of Asia. Families farm on a plot of land and aim to produce enough food to feed their families with some surplus to sell. They often employ traditional farming methods that are labour intensive e.g. terracing of paddy fields. Other inputs include manure and other animal waste to fertilize the crops and irrigation.

Figure 6. Traditional method of ploughing with bulls

Comparison of farming systems

The following table compares some inputs and outputs of different farming systems.

How do you think inputs and outputs of organic farming would compare against the farming systems in this table?

Watch the following video ‘Climate – smart agriculture: helping the world produce more food.’ by the World Bank and consider how resilience against climate change be improved?

Examiner Tip

Ensure you are able to compare and contrast different farming systems. This should include inputs, outputs, techniques used and environmental impacts.

Theory of Knowledge

How do cultural and belief systems influence choice of farming methods?

Food availability and choices

As discuss in the previous section, the production of food is unequal around the world. Once food is produced it needs to be distributed to where it is required. In some societies there is a wide range of food products available that allows consumers to make a choice on which to purchase. This can in turn influence the type of farming methods used. With rising awareness of the environmental impacts of farming this is a current drive to more sustainable practices.

Food availability

The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have calculated that enough food is produced each year to feed the world. So, why are millions of people around the world still hungry?

There are many reasons for hunger and include:

• Poverty that prevents people being able to afford food.
• Poor infrastructure that limits access and distribution to food.
• Extreme weather events e.g. drought or floods.
• War and associated displacement of people.
• Food waste. The FAO estimate that approximately a third of food produced is lost or wasted each year.

Figure 1. Food distribution in a refugee camp.

Food waste

The Global Food Waste Scandal (TED talk)

Food losses can occur at the harvest stage, during processing, packaging, transport, at the market place or just prior to reaching the consumers plate. This loss of food represents a waste of inputs in producing the food e.g. wasted labour, water, energy, fertilizers and reduces the national food security. In 2014, the estimated loss of food was equivalent to US$1 trillion.

Figure 2. Food production and supply chain.

Where most food loss occurs along the food supply chain varies between countries:

• Within less economically developed countries (LEDCs) food loss tends to be associated with stages from production to the market. This includes severe losses to pests (e.g. rats, insects and fungal infestations) whilst food is in storage. Also transportation infrastructure may be poor and with the lack of adequate refrigeration results in the loss of perishable produce before reaching the market place.
• In more economically developed countries (MEDCs), food loss tends to be associated with consumer behaviour together with food policies and regulations. For example, misunderstanding of data on the foods to meet health and safety regulations can result in additional wastage e.g.:
  • Food is unsold and disposed of as waste if it passes the ‘display by date’.
  • Food is thrown away by the consumers if it exceeds the ‘best before date’.

Figure 3. Misshapen vegetables are often rejected by consumer and retailers.

The FAO, governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) around the world are aiming to reduce food waste by:

• Attempting to change individual behaviour at all levels by raising awareness of food waste and its impacts.
• Encouraging collaboration and coordination between groups involved with the food supply chain to identify where problems are occurring and how to best resolve them. This may involve:
  • Farmers ensuring production matches the requirements of the market.
  • Improvements to preservation and packaging methods.
  • Improvements to the transportation of produce.

Watch the following short video which provides an overview of ‘Food waste footprint’ by FAO:

International-mindedness

Distribution of food to where it is required is a global issue and requires international cooperation and coordination.

Consumer choice

The use of technology to harvest and process food and then distribute it around the world has:

• Increased the variety of food available in many supermarkets around the world.
• Allowed food to be available beyond their usual season (e.g. strawberries previously only available during the summer months in the Northern European countries can now be found in the supermarkets throughout the year due to imports from countries with warmer climates).

Figure 4. Strawberries are now available throughout the year in many countries.

Processing, packaging and transportation of food requires the use of fossil fuels that contributes further to pollution emissions (e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide).

In recent years, various protest movements have emerged as a response to this global trade in food. For example, the ‘Slow Food’ movement is anti-globalization and instead advocates local food production. There has been an increasing trend to consider:

• Provenance of food – the source of the produce. Consumer demand for local, regional and national grown products has been increasing.
• Method of farming used. As previously discussed a desire for ‘healthier’ and ethically produced foods has driven the rise in demand for organic produce in recent years.
• Food miles - the distance travelled and the mode of transport, with air travel having the highest impact in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. Although the overall environmental impact of the food product will also be dependent on the method of production.
• The role of consumers in supporting local economies.

Changes in public attitude to food have provided an opportunity for some local producers to sell their produce directly through farmers markets.

Demand for meat

Global consumption of meat continues to rise. Contributing factors include:

• Population growth.
• Increase in affluence and the ability to afford more meat.
• Urbanization and improved infrastructure.
• Status value of buying and eating meat within some cultures. E.g. In parts of Asia it can be prestigious to eat rare and expensive meat, demonstrating an individuals wealth and position in society.
• Increased levels of cheap meat production.
• High protein content of meat.

Figure 5. Meat consumption levels.

International-mindedness

Food choices in one region can affect food production systems used in another region of the world.

Theory of Knowledge

Is it morally and ethically justified for food not to be fairly distributed?

Food production and sustainability

To feed a growing world population, large areas of land will continue to be farmed. Although as population numbers increase the amount of space per capita is reduced. The amount of land available is also further limited by land degradation practices and growth of our cities and towns.

Figure 1. Urban expansion reduces land available for agriculture.

To achieve sustainable food production many different factors need to be considered. These include:

• Political commitment to sustainable development with the will to make changes e.g. legislative and economic support for sustainable farming systems.
• Understanding of the ecology of farming systems and how they are interconnected to the wider environment. This can be used to inform policies and guidelines that support sustainable farming.
• Change in social and individual behaviour.

Sustainable farming strategies

There are a variety of strategies that can be ued to reduce our environmental impact and allow us to strive towards more sustainable food production. These include legislation, pollution management, reduction of food waste, changing the crops that are grown, adoption of different farming methods and reduction in the amount of meat consumed.

Legislation

Legislation can be used to restrict use of certain substances and set regulation standards for food production. This can include:

• Controlled use of drugs and growth hormones.
• Controlled use of pesticides.
• Regulation of environmental conditions required for rearing and transporting livestock e.g. minimum space requirement per animal within intensive farming systems.

​Pollution management

Pollution management strategies can be use to reduce pollution and its impacts e.g.:

• Reduce use of pesticides and fertilizers through best management practices.
• Land management practices to contain and use animal waste.
• Remove pollutants from the environment e.g. via buffer zones.

Figure 2. Anaerobic digesters in the background that use animal waste such as dung to generate fuel in the form of methane gas.

Reduction of food waste

About a third of all food produced is wasted. Strategies to reduce these losses were discussed in the previous section.

Growing indigenous crops

In some areas there is a shift towards using indigenous crops that are adapted to grow in areas of low fertility and low rainfall. Replacing conventional crops with indigenous crops that are more resilient to drought and disease can help to reduce poverty and increase nutrition.

Watch the following video ‘Ancient crops make a comeback in Peru by Al Jazeera and consider the key benefits of growing Quinoa.

Polyculture farming

Use of polyculture instead of monoculture farming involves growing multiple crops rather than focusing only on one. Traditional and organic farming favour polyculture for example:

• Use of inter- cropping, where low growing crops can be planted between taller growing crops. The low crops provide ground cover and reduce weed growth, intercept water flow and prevent soil erosion. For example, corn may be grown with beans and squash. The beans use the corn as a pole to grow up and the squash provide ground cover repressing weeds.
• Use of companion planting can reduce pest attack. For example, marigolds are often planted with tomatoes as they produce an odour that deters aphids. Marigolds also attract hoverflies, whose larvae feed off aphids.

Figure 3. Marigolds are often grown with tomatoes to reduce pests.

Reduction of meat consumption

This involves reducing meat consumption in favour of a more vegetarian based diet. There is less energy loss lower in the food chain and products tend to be cheaper to produce. The ecological footprint of meat production is significantly greater than for crop production:

• More resources are required e.g. energy, land and water.
• More waste is generated e.g. carbon dioxide and methane emissions.

Figure 4. Comparison of carbon dioxide emissions per kilogram of different types of food.

Source: EWG

Watch the following video ‘Industrial vs sustainable agriculture’ by Davide Baresi which discusses the role of large corporations in supporting intensive commercial farming and the role of alternative farming methods. Consider what you could do to improve the sustainability of food production?

International-mindedness

Sustainable methods of food production can be encouraged around the world through sharing of knowledge and providing poorer nations with financial and technological support.

Examiner Tip

Ensure you are able to evaluate strategies used to increase sustainability of food production systems.