The big picture

Different groups of people will often have different reasons for conserving specific habitats and species. Some people will value a tree for its beauty whereas others may value it for the resources it provides e.g. fruit and timber.

There are also different approaches that can be taken to the conservation of biodiversity such as:

• Policies and legislation.
• Designation of protected areas.
• Education programmes.
• Promotion of sustainable activities such as ecotourism.
• Habitat restoration programmes.
• Species breeding programmes.

Many conservation strategies will incorporate a number of these approaches to maximize the probability of success.

The resources available to help conservation also vary from place to place. More economically developed countries (MEDCs) can afford to spend more money on biodiversity conservation. They have more advanced technological tools and are often home to world leading institutes on biological conservation. The world’s biodiversity is not distributed evenly, a large amount of the biodiversity is located in biological hotspots within less economically developed countries (LEDCs). To attempt to address this inequity, various conservation groups have formed to help share resources and expertise.

Figure 1. Map illustrating distribution of LEDCs and biodiversity hotspots.

It can be difficult to keep conservation continually on the political agenda and ensure that there is sufficient funding. We live in a world where marketing, advertising, peer pressure and individual desire encourage many of us to use large amounts of resources at the expense of our environment. We often fail to see the link between consumerism, environmental degradation and the loss of biodiversity. The conservation of a threatened species in a remote part of the world may be considered of little value by some people.

Figure 2. Tiger species under threat from extinction.

Would the loss of tigers in the wild be of concern to you? What are the reasons for your response?

To effectively use the limited resources we need to ensure there are collaboration and cooperation at international, national and local level.

Why conserve biodiversity?

This is a question that is frequently asked. Why be concerned about our biodiversity and spend resources, time and effort to preserve it? As discussed in subtopic 3.1, we are dependent on this biodiversity, both directly and indirectly. Our lives and well-being are inextricably linked to the natural world. If you have not already, watch the CSIRO video 'What is biodiversity and why is it important?' shown in the introduction to biodiversity.

Role of Environmental Value Systems

The reasons given for conservation of biodiversity vary and will depend on Environmental Value Systems. For example, deep ecologist with an ecocentric view would argue that it is our moral duty to conserve biodiversity and that every species has biorights, the right to exist. Deep ecologists adopt a holistic world view, valuing how biodiversity is interconnected and believe that the spiritual and aesthetic value is important to human well-being. At the other extreme of the scale, Cornucopians with a technocentric view would argue that exploitation and loss of biodiversity is acceptable and that human ingenuity will help replace any lost resources. Environmental managers with an anthropocentric view would consider the ecological environment, economic and social aspects with the aim of achieving sustainable development.

Figure 1. Sustainable development is achieved through consideration of interaction of environment, economic and social factors.

Reasons to conserve biodiversity

The reasons for biodiversity conservation can be grouped into various categories. Environmental managers often adopt an economic approach and divide the reasons according to their utilitarian and non-utilitarian values. Utilitarian value is where there is an economic value associated with the use of resources and non-utilitarian value is when use does not have any economic value.

Utilitarian values include:

• Direct use that can be sub-divided into:
  • Consumptive use e.g. goods that are harvested such as food, timber, medicines.
  • Non-consumptive use e.g. aesthetic, recreational and educational use.

• Ecological services e.g. carbon sink, production of oxygen, water filtration, waste assimilation, nutrient recycling, flood control. This value is estimated to be US$16-54 trillion per year.

• Option value is the potential value in the future e.g. from discoveries of new medicines.

• Bequest value, the passing of benefits to future generations.

Non-utilitarian values include:

• Intrinsic value, the right of a species to exist (biorights), an ethical based reason also supported by deep ecologist.

• Existence value, knowing the species exist. For example, many of us may never visit the Amazon rainforest but we gain satisfaction from knowing it exists.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) explicitly linked biodiversity to human well-being. The report categorized the values of biodiversity into the following groups:

1. Provision value e.g. food, freshwater, wood, fuel.
2. Regulating value e.g. climate change, flood regulation, water purification.
3. Supporting value e.g. nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production.
4. Cultural value e.g. aesthetic, spiritual, educational and recreational uses.

You will find an image illustrating this here.

Whose responsibility is it?

Who should take responsibility for conserving biodiversity? We all benefit from biodiversity and also contribute to its demise.

Often for conservation initiatives to be effective they need to:

• Involve action at the local level that leads to change.
• Be supported by policies, legislation and resources (e.g. training, advice and finance).

Decisions to conserve biodiversity are often made at international or national level and then implemented at local level. International agreements are vital in some situations, for example where:

• Biodiversity does not respect human created national borders. Many species including animals, birds and fish migrate from one area to another.
• Human activities have impacts on biodiversity beyond their borders such as the demand for exotic pets that can drive international trade and cause species loss. For example, the global demand for primates such as baby chimpanzees has contributed to a reduction of their wild populations in parts of Africa.

Figure 1. Animal crossing the Mara River during the great migration between Tanzania and Kenya.

Non-governmental organizations and intergovernmental organizations

There are many organizations around the world that campaign and work towards conserving biodiversity. These include intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental organizations.

Non-Governmental Organizations

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are non-profit, voluntary organizations usually funded by charitable donations and membership fees. The can vary from being focused on one specific problem in one location (e.g. Brainforest is focused on protecting rainforest in Gabon) to working at an international level focusing on a range of related concerns e.g. WWF, Birdlife International, Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.

Important

You should have knowledge of a NGO that is local to you. What are its aims and how does it hope to achieve them? Have they achieved any successes to date and if so, what key aspects have contributed to these successes?

As previously discussed in subtopic 1.1, the emergence of environmental NGOs began in the 1960s, when there were clear signs of the damage we humans were doing to the environment.

NGOs often try to change policies, legislation and behavior at the individual level in a variety of ways:

• Lobby governments who have the power to change the law e.g. through petitions, boycotts and protest marches.

• Use the media (e.g. TV, radio and social media) to bring the issue to the attention of the public and government. Social media is increasingly used as a tool to encourage the public to get involved with protests. The media is often interested in attention grabbing story lines and therefore may report extreme scenarios and situations. Many environmental groups have also been accused of portraying a doomsday scenario in order to attract the media and public attention.

Figure 2. Protest against fracking activity which also gains media attention and raises public awareness.

• Some NGOs use direct action, also referred to as ecotage, employing sabotage activities to stop ecological damage. Examples include putting themselves in danger by acting as a human blockade to the movement of bulldozers, confronting whaling ships, uprooting genetically modified plants, damaging equipment and buildings. Some of these tactics are illegal and these NGO members may be arrested and charged. However, the use of such tactics can also receive significant media attention and raise public awareness.

• Use education to improve understanding, change behavior and potentially influence future policies. E.g. production and distribute of educational resources on biodiversity conservation to schools. This may involve field based visits and online activities that engage participants and encourage them to think about how they can contribute to biodiversity conservation.

Figure 3. On-site environmental education.

• Through research assess the situation, identify threats and potential solutions.

• Purchase and manage threatened habitat areas and protect biodiversity for future generations.

• Work together with governments, businesses and local communities to reduce biodiversity degradation and improve the habitat and species numbers. This could be achieved through improved legislation, better enforcement, education and training that reduces damaging practices and promotes practices that are beneficial to biodiversity conservation.

• Serve as watchdogs, monitoring activity to ensure laws are not broken and government agencies are enforcing legislation. When laws are broken some NGOs sue businesses that are carrying out illegal activity and also government agencies for not fulfilling their role.

Intergovernmental organizations

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) consist of members from different countries. They are funded by its members. E.g. the United Nations (UN) founded in 1945 currently consist of 193 members and has specialized agencies that are independent international organizations with their own specific aims e.g.:

• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• Food and Agricultural Organizations (FAO)
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The International Union for Conservation for Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is another IGO, whose members include 74 countries, 105 governmental agencies and 647 NGOs. The IUCN vision 'is a just world that values and conserves nature'.

Key features of IGOs include:

• Their ability to make decisions at an international level, provide guidelines and international treaties, including enforcement of agreements through legislation. NGOs do not have this authority to produce legislation. However, what do you do if a nation does not adhere to international law? Enforcement can be difficult with penalties such as fines and sanctions that could cause further political issues.

• Provision of information to the public of latest reviews, reports and scientific papers analyzing global and national trends. They work together with scientists and NGOs on international research and can act as forums for discussions.

• Direct communication with the media informing them of changes in policies and legislation. Convention meetings are often covered by the world press.

• Long and lengthy decision making process. Gaining a consensus for change between many different nations can take a long time. The level of bureaucracy can also lead to a slow response time compared to an NGO.

• Politically driven decisions rather than decisions determined by the best strategy to achieve conservation biodiversity. There have been cases in the past where some countries have been accused of selling their votes for either trade or aid. Conversely, NGOs can be idealistic and choose the most appropriate conservation practice.

• Sometimes IGOs are considered to have an unfavorable bureaucratic image with little understanding and connection with the local communities affected by environmental damage. In comparison, NGOs are often perceived more favorably by putting themselves at risk for their principals and beliefs (i.e. they hold the high moral ground).

Examiner Tip

Ensure you are able to compare and contrast the roles of a named NGO and IGO in conserving biodiversity.

International conventions on biodiversity

As global resources and biodiversity are finite and human activities in one area can have consequences elsewhere, we need to ensure we work together and take a holistic approach to biodiversity conservation. Intergovernmental organizations often attempt to address global issues through agreements on policy and action to be taken. However, not all nations have to agree to comply or may at a later stage decide to withdraw which could undermine the action that is taken elsewhere. In addition, the level of enforcement within each nation can vary; with limited resources available for some countries conservation of biodiversity may be lower down on their list of national priorities.

Collaboration between nations

In addition to obtaining agreement from nations to take action within their own country, the conventions above are increasingly promoting collaboration between nations to help conserve biodiversity. Examples from the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) include (i) consortium of scientific partners, (ii) South-south cooperation and (iii) triangular cooperation.

Consortium of scientific partners

In order to help achieve targets within the CBD strategic plan, a consortium of scientific partners was set up in 2006. This originally consisted of six leading scientific institutions that were able to share their expertise and experience to help develop education and training opportunities in less economically developed countries (LEDCs). More than 20 scientific institutes from across the world have now become partners of this consortium.

Figure 1. Member of consortium of scientific partners: Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew in London has one of the largest plant and seed collections in the world.

South-south cooperation and triangular cooperation

The CBD strategic plan for 2011-2020 includes the need of south-south and triangular cooperation. ‘South’, refers to less economically developed countries (LEDCs) and ‘north’ to more economically developed countries (MEDCs).

Figure 2. Countries designated as either north or south.

The CBD strategic plan recognizes that through traditional north-south countries, some LEDCs countries have built up considerable knowledge, experience and expertise on biodiversity conservation. Hence these countries are now in a position to also help other LEDCs, though exchange of knowledge, technology and resources.

Triangular cooperation consists of collaboration between two or more LEDCs and a third party which could be a MEDCs or organization with the appropriate knowledge and resources.

Species conservation

Species conservation has received significant attention over the years. For more than half a century environmental movements have used large species such as whales and tigers to raise public awareness about the threats to biodiversity and the environment.

Figure 1. The World wildlife fund for Nature uses the Giant Panda as its emblem.

Species used as symbols of conservation are known as flagship species. They are typically charismatic and large animals. Action taken to improve the survival of flagship species can also benefit the whole ecosystem.

Other important groups of species in conservation biodiversity include:

• Umbrella species: these are often large species requiring large habitat areas. Protecting the habitat of this species also protects the habits of other species.The Giant panda is both a flagship species and an umbrella species.
• Keystone species: these species interact through the food web with other species in the community and if lost could lead to the demise of other species. Conserving a keystone species helps to protect the integrity of the community.

Figure 2. Wolves are a keystone species, in their absence deer numbers increase preventing seedlings growing into trees and providing habitats for birds and other species.

When species numbers are low, how can we try to conserve them? Approaches taken to conservation are wide ranging and two approaches include:

1. In-situ conservation: protection of species in their habitat.
2. Ex-situ conservation: improve the probability of survival of the species by taking them out of their habitat and breeding them in captivity; with the intention of re-introducing them back into the wild in the future.

In-situ conservation

To prevent a species becoming extinct, the reasons for species loss need to be addressed. For example, if poaching is the main threat, it is necessary to stop the poachers. In some situations where the habitat has been degraded or lost, habitat restoration could be required which can be a difficult and lengthy process.

The role of legislation including international agreements to remove threats to species was discussed in the previous section. In subtopic 3.3 we also considered the conservation of humpback whales and Lear’s MaCaw parrot that demonstrate how international agreements and legislation can reduce over-exploitation. In summary:

• Following the commercial banning of humpback whales by the International Whaling Commission in 1966, species numbers in the wild have increased and are no longer considered at threat by the IUCN Red List.
• Trade in Lear’s MaCaw is restricted by CITES (discussed below) and national law in Brazil. Monitoring of illegal activity coupled with enforcement and working with local communities has led to improvements in bird numbers in their natural habitats.

Poaching activities can be very difficult to stop. For those living in poverty, it could be one of only a few ways they are able to earn any money. For others the deterrent of fines and imprisonment is not sufficient to compete with high potential profits.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

CITES aims to ensure international trade does not endanger threatened species. It is a tool that can be used to support conservation strategies.

Strengths of CITES:

• Restricts trade which threatens species becoming extinct.
• Encourages education about endangered species.
• Increases awareness of endangered species and changes perception about their use e.g. as pets or ornaments.
• Can stimulate funding into research and conservation activities.

Weaknesses of CITES:

• Participation is voluntary, not mandatory.
• Focuses on preservation of species and not sustainable use. If people are allowed to benefit from the wildlife (e.g through tourism revenue or trade of natural income), they have an incentive to protect them.
• Focuses on species conservation, whereas the main threat to biodiversity is habitat loss.
• Effective enforcement can be difficult.
• Trade is often driven underground (illegal/black market).
• Many countries with limited resources have other national priorities.

Case study

African Savanna Elephant

(Loxodonata africana africana)

The African savanna elephant is the world’s largest terrestrial mammal and is categorized as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN Red List.

In the past colonists in Africa hunted elephants for trophies and tusks and by the 1940s elephants had become endangered in some regions. The solution to declining numbers was to exclude local people and develop game reserves that attracted tourist from around the world. Revenue from tourism helped conserve these new parks.

In the 1970s the price of ivory rose and in some countries such as Kenya the associated increase in ivory poaching resulted in numbers of elephants falling dramatically. The WWF estimated that between 1973 and 1989, the number of elephants in Kenya declined by 85%. Richard Leakey (at the time Head of Wildlife Services) established a "shoot to kill poacher policy" and lobbied to ban the ivory trade. In 1989 against opposition from some countries, elephants were moved to Appendix I of CITES and trade in ivory banned. The demand for ivory fell and so did poaching. Where there was adequate protection, elephant numbers started to recover. However, in areas where the elephants are not so securely protected an illegal market for ivory and elephant meat has continued. In recent years there has been an increase in poaching and illegal trading through organized crime syndicates.

In southern Africa, elephant populations are large and continuing to grow. This increasing elephant population in some areas has led to competition with the growing human populations. Elephants can be highly destructive, destroying crops, properties and killing people. Where elephants exceed the carrying capacity, the high feeding rate (average of 200Kg of vegetation per day) is resulting in damage to the habitat and a decline in overall biodiversity.

Control of elephant numbers to conserve biodiversity is important. Methods used have included:

1. Elephant contraceptive vaccines which is difficult to administer in the wild.
2. Managed culls, an extremely stressful and difficult job for park rangers.
3. Use of trophy hunting e.g. charging over $10,000 to kill an elephant. In schemes such as Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe, half the money raised from trophy hunting goes to the local communities to spend on local needs e.g. health clinics and schools. People see the wildlife as a resource and therefore protect it from poachers and scare elephants from their homes and crops using pepper sprays.
4. Translocation, the movement of elephants into other areas which can support them. In 2002, the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park was established connecting South Africa’s Kruger National Park, Mozambique’s Limpopo National Park and Zimbabwe’s Gonarezhou National Park. The removal of fence between the national boundary, allowed elephants to move freely and reclaim historic migratory routes.

In the past money from ivory sales has been used to run and manage national parks. Countries in southern Africa want to lift the CITES ban so they can use the money raised for conservation projects. However, there is concern that if the ban is removed poaching will increase in areas such as East Africa, where the populations are not so healthy. Some people also believe it is morally wrong to lift the ivory ban.

Ex-situ conservation

This can be a long and expensive process in which organisms are taken out of their natural habitat in order to be conserved. The application of ex-situ conservation to plants and animals is discussed below.

Ex-situ conservation of plants

Samples of plant species under threat may be removed from their habitat and placed in botanical gardens or herbariums. Organizations involved with ex-situ plant conservation are able to maintain the genetic stock and are usually extensively involved with biodiversity conservation programmes (e.g. role of Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew in the CBD Consortium of Scientific Partners discussed in the previous section). Scientists are able to conduct research and extend our knowledge and understanding about these plants.

The dormant stage of seeds also allows for long term storage and they can be preserved for future use. The Millennium seed bank project at Kew and the Nordic Gene Bank for seeds in Svalbard, Norway, both have extensive on-going seed collections. Where appropriate for some plants, pollen preservation or tissue preservation is used.

Ex-situ conservation of animals

This usually involves removal of the species from their natural habitat and placing them into captivity (e.g. zoo or aquarium) as part of a breeding programme to increase numbers. In some cases reproductive technology can be used to achieve greater success rates. The aim is to reintroduce the species back into the wild where they can help repopulate the area.

Often species loss has occurred as a consequence of habitat degradation or loss. Therefore habitat restoration and protection must occur prior to re-introducing the animals back. The animals are unlikely to survive if the original threats are not eradicated.

Figure 4. Captive breeding and reintroduction programme has increased the number of Golden Lion Tamarins in the wild.

Advantages of ex-situ conservation:

• Increase numbers and decrease risk of extinction.
• Opportunity to learn more about the species biology and behaviour.
• Use of zoos, aquariums and botanical gardens to educate public about the species and gain financial and political support.
• Genetic pool can be enhanced (including use of reproductive technology eg artificial insemination).
• Provides a temporary safe place to live while habitats are being restored.

Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation:

• Require resources including finances to undertake ex-situ conservation.
• Does not address causes of habitat loss.
• Genetic pool may be small, not representative of original populations and could result in inbreeding problems.
• They may not be able to survive in the wild if re-introduced. Need to develop hunting skills and migratory patterns which are difficult to learn in captivity.
• Captivity can be detrimental to their health and also lead to aggressive behaviour.
• They may be susceptible to disease when concentrated in a small area.
• Breeding in captivity can be difficult for some species e.g. the giant panda has a poor success rate of breeding in captivity.
• There are ethical concerns about keeping animals in captivity.

Protected Areas

In order to protect species diversity, their habitats also need to be protected. In 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defined a protected area as:

‘… a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values’.

There are many different types of protected areas around the world such as national parks, nature reserves and wilderness areas, each with varying levels of protection. The number of protected areas has increased over time rising from 13.4 million km2 in 1990 to more than 32 million km2 in 2014. They cover more than 15% of the earth's land surface and over 3% of the ocean area.

Reasons for designating a protected area include:

• Level of biodiversity (e.g. by protecting biological hotspots a diverse range of species can also be protected).
• Presence of endemic species.
• Rarity of habitat type.
• Geological features.
• Aesthetic value often referred to as natural beauty.
• Amenity value.
• Cultural and religious value.
• Educational value.
• Scientific value.

Two of the biggest sites are the Chagos Marine Protected Area south of the Maldives and Northeast Greenland National Park.

Figure 1. Location of Chagos and Northeast Greenland National Park

Protected areas play a vital role in conserving biodiversity. It is now also recognized the important functions ecosystems perform in the stability of our environment.

Design of protected areas

How can you maximize biodiversity conservation through design of a protected area? In 1975 Jared Diamond attempted to answer this question and his suggestions were adopted in 1980 by the IUCN in their World Conservation Strategy. Key features include reducing edge effect, selecting optimal shape and size, having a single large reserve rather than several small reserves, close proximity of reserves to each other and connections between reserves. It is also important to consider proximity of the reserve of any potential human influence.

What is edge effect?

Sometimes there is dramatic change in the composition of the vegetation at the boundary e.g. where an area is fenced and cleared around the reserve creating an ‘abrupt edge’. This clearance of land at the forest edge increases sunlight to the lower forest levels, increases temperature, lowers humidity and can result in an increase of air movement. These changes in abiotic factors can adversely affect the habitat conditions and threaten some species. Also the risk from predation and hunting by humans can increase near the edge.

To avoid the dramatic change in abiotic conditions at the edge of a reserve, a gradual change in vegetation away from the reserve is more favourable than an abrupt change.

The UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme recommend the use of three distinct zones in designing protected areas:

• Core area - the pristine natural environment under protection.
• Buffer zone - found between the core area and transition zone. To minimize any harm in this area, use is limited e.g. for scientific research, training and education. This area acts as a barrier to protect the core area from human activities in the transition zone.
• Transition zone - where there is sustainable use of natural resources. This area can be affected by human activities outside the transition zone such as intensive farming.

Figure 2. UNESCO recommended zonation within a protected area.

What is the ideal shape?

The optimal shape is a circle because it has a minimum edge to area ratio. Also within a circle the centre will be further away from the edge than any other shapes of the same area.

Figure 3. Circle has the lowest perimeter and therefore the lowest amount of edge effect.

Is there an ideal size?

Larger reserves can in theory support more ecosystems, habitats and species so generally the larger the reserve the better. Also large or migratory animal species need bigger areas to provide adequate resources to support a viable population. Sometimes, small reserves are fragments of larger ecosystems and need to be carefully managed. For example, in the case of migratory species, movement between reserves may need to be considered and planned e.g. by examining past migratory routes and using this information to create suitable routes between reserves.

Single large or several small reserves – which is better?

There has been considerable debate between scientists over whether a single large or several small (SLOSS) reserves covering the same area is better? The answer varies for individual species. Large species like elephants require large areas whereas for small plants and insects smaller areas could be suitable. Some species may be able to attain all their requirements for a viable population by moving between the smaller reserves. Notably, with several small reserves there will be a greater edge effect than having one large reserve.

What is the value of connecting reserves?

Reserves can be connected using wildlife corridors which are areas of habitats that are retained or created for animals to move through.

Figure 4. Example of a wildlife corridor, a bridge connecting two forested areas within the Banff National Park, Canada.

Linking the reserves has various advantages:

• It can allow migration between reserves and reduce isolation of the population.
• Immigration from other reserves can increase the gene pool in the reserve.
• It can allow for seasonal migration.

There are also some disadvantages associated with wildlife corridors connecting reserves:

• Increase spread of disease from one reserve to another.
• Increase threat from invasive species.
• Increase threat from predators and hunters.

Proximity to human influence

Activities within nearby human settlements may adversely affect behaviour of some species within the reserve. This can vary from noise disturbances, light pollution at night to atmospheric and aquatic pollution of a shared watershed. If reserves are near to human settlements, large animals may venture out of the reserve and raid crops and even attack people. Hence the proximity of reserves to urban areas needs to be carefully considered in the planning stages, with consideration of a buffer zone.

Difficulties of creating a protected area

Establishing and running a protected area can be financially expensive, from the cost of buying the land to its management.

Historically creation of protected areas has often resulted in removal of people and communities. Compensation has varied but in some cases people have been left homeless and without any livelihood. In addition the heritage and culture of a community may be inextricably linked to the ecosystems they have been removed from. Attitudes have now changed and it is recognized that plans for protected areas should not increase the hardship of local people but consider them as partners, often with extensive knowledge about the ecosystem. Conservation strategies that utilize the knowledge and services of local communities are now becoming more popular.

Example: Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve

Watch the following video and make notes on the activities and characteristics which contribute to the success of the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve.

Figure 5. Location of Kristianstads Vattenrike biosphere reserve in Sweden.Kristianstads Vattenrike biosphere reserve in Sweden.

Source: Tuvendal, M., and T. Elmqvist. 2011. Ecosystem services linking social and ecological systems: river brownification and the response of downstream stakeholders. Ecology and Society 16(4): 21.

Can you give examples of the following using Kristianstads Vattenrike as a case study:

• Community participation.
• Source of funding.
• Activities which improve understanding of the species and habitats in the biosphere.
• Education of the community and visitors.

Examiner Tip

Ensure you are familiar with at least one example of a protected area which can be used to illustrate key characteristics of a successful project.

Key features of a successful protected area:

• Community support and involvement, if local people are involved they are more likely to help to conserve biodiversity.
• Adequate funding (money from government agencies or private funds).
• Increasing understanding through research.
• Education to promote sustainable use of resources.
• Effective management to enhance or maintain habitats and species (management plan).
• Legislation and effective enforcement e.g. park rangers to deter or arrest poachers or illegal loggers.
• Legal status as protected areas to provide support for conservation efforts e.g. National Park.
• Variety of biodiversity in the area.