Freshwater Mussels are filter-feeding benthic (bottom dwelling) invertebrates. This makes them sensitive to pollution, and indicators of ecosystem health. For this reason, freshwater mussels have been utilized in stream monitoring studies. These studies give us a better understanding of the environmental price we pay when mining, farming, building infrastructure and more.
The state of Wyoming is the leading producer of coal and ranks in the top ten for production of crude oil and natural gas (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2025.). Coal alone accounted for 11.3% of state collected incomes in 2014 (Center for Energy Economics and Public Policy, 2015).
Figure 7. Open Pit Coal Mining (Shermac , 2021)
Ecological economics aims to explain and address the relationship between ecosystems and economics (Farley, 1989). As biological indicators, mussels can give us valuable insight into the price our ecosystems pay for economic gain.
Mining wastewater contains toxic pollutants such as oil, chlorides, sulfates and trace chemicals called major oxides. This pollution is point source (traceable to a single location), which is valuable for study. While according to the Environmental Quality Council toxic substances are not allowed in mining wastewater, the term is loosely defined. This can lead to gaps in management.
Figure 8. Gill tissue sampling technique (Beaver et. al. 2019)
Bioaccumulation is the process of a substance becoming concentrated in the body. Filter feeders such as mussels bioaccumulate chemicals through feeding. Due to a small chemical structure major oxides found in mining wastewater quickly bioaccumulate in the tissues of mussels and other filter-feeding invertebrates. This bioaccumulation is a tracer for exposure to mining wastewater.
Figure 9. Sampling graphic
As seen in Figure 9:
Ten, ten-meter transects will be set perpendicular to the shore
Five transects will be upstream of the pollution source and five will be downstream
Each transect will be sampled for mussels 1 meter above and 1 meter below using SCUBA and snorkeling equipment
A technique called 'racooning' will be employed where one pinches through the substrate to discover mussels below the surface
At each transect, a minimum of three mussels will be measured for age, length, width, and height, and a small gill tissue sample will be acquired
Laboratory analysis will be done to quantify bioaccumulation of major oxides in gill tissue samples
Figure 10. Mining wastewater in Wyoming (NPR, 2013)
Very few studies have been conducted on the impacts of mining wastewater on freshwater stream ecosystems. There have been no studies directly linking mining wastewater to freshwater mussel health. Data on the impacts of mining waste on our most sensitive stream invertebrates could better inform conservation efforts and policy implementation. Additionally, the economic gain of mining comes with an environmental price. Studies such as this one would allow us to better understand the environmental price we are paying and inform environmental economics.
Denise J Gardner
gardnden@mail.gvsu.edu
2023 - 2024: GVSU S3 Program and John Ball Zoo Undergraduate Research Fellow
(In Progress) Freshwater Mussels Influence on Macroinvertebrate Communities at Confluences in the lower Grand River
Gardner, D. Kosak, G. Powers, E. Snyder, E.
My undergraduate work with mussels was mentored by Dr. Eric Snyder and previous graduate student Grayson Kosak as well as aquatic biologist Matt Bain. This work allowed me to explore the Grand River ecosystem and gain critical skills in field biology, identification and microscopy.
2025 - 2026: Lead Aquatic Mussel Biologist with the Wyoming State Fish and Game Department
My post-graduate work will be in the state of Wyoming surveying streams in the eastern portion of the state for mussel populations to formulate baseline data.
American Geosciences Institute. (n.d.). Which states are the largest producers and consumers of coal? Retrieved January 27, 2025, from https://profession.americangeosciences.org/society/intersections/faq/which-states-are-largest-producers-and-consumers-coal/
Beaver, C. E., Geda, S. R., & Johnson, N. A. (2019, October 4). Standardizing a non-lethal method for characterizing the reproductive status and larval development of freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionida). Journal of Visualized Experiments. https://doi.org/10.3791/60244-v
Center for Energy Economics and Public Policy. (2015). The impact of the coal economy on Wyoming (R. Godby, R. Coupal, D. Taylor, & T. Considine). Wyoming Infrastructure Authority. https://wyoenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/2015-Impact-Coal-Economy-Wyoming-Report.pdf
Chen, Y., Wang, B., & Wang, H. (2021). A comprehensive review on the fate and removal of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants. Journal of Environmental Management, 293, 114239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114239
Farley, J. (1989). What is ecological economics? Retrieved from https://www.uvm.edu/~jfarley/EEseminar/readings/What%20is%20ecological%20economics.pdf
Frosch, D. (2019). Coal mine closures shake Wyoming [Photograph]. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/coal-mine-closures-shake-wyoming-11567589404
Gorobets, O. B., Bashkin, V. N., & Kolesnikov, S. I. (2021). The ecotoxicity of nanoparticles Co₂O₃ and Fe₂O₃ on Daphnia magna in freshwater. Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology, 43(6), 589–595. https://doi.org/10.3103/S1063455X21060023
iNaturalist. (n.d.). Cylindrical papershell (Mussels of Crane Meadows National Wildlife Refuge). iNaturalist. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.inaturalist.org
iNaturalist. (n.d.). Plain pocketbook (Canaiad's Freshwater Mussels of Canada). iNaturalist. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.inaturalist.org
iNaturalist. (n.d.). Western pearlshell (Canaiad's Freshwater Mussels of Canada). iNaturalist. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.inaturalist.org
iNaturalist. (n.d.). White heelsplitter (Canaiad's Freshwater Mussels of Canada). iNaturalist. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.inaturalist.org
Jones, R., Wagner, M., Slack, W., Peyton, S., & Hartfield, P. (2019). Identification and distribution of freshwater mussels in Mississippi.
Knowles, S., Dennis, M., McElwain, A., Leis, E., & Richard, J. (2023). Pathology and infectious agents of unionid mussels: A primer for pathologists in disease surveillance and investigation of mortality events. Veterinary Pathology, 60(5). https://doi.org/10.1177/03009858231171666
Kosak, G. (2024, July 23). Fat mucket [Photograph]. iNaturalist. Retrieved from https://www.inaturalist.org
Laboratory Needs Solutions Ltd. (n.d.). The ultimate guide to centrifuges. Laboratory Needs Solutions Ltd. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.laboratoryneedssolutions.com/the-ultimate-guide-to-centrifuges
Mapcarta. (n.d.). Alkali Creek Patch Map - Stream - Park, Wyoming, USA. Mapcarta. Retrieved February 1, 2025, from https://mapcarta.com/23979664
Missouri State University. (2020, May 21). California floater mussel. Missouri State University. Retrieved from https://news.missouristate.edu/2020/05/21/california-floater-mussel/
NPR. (2013, August 7). EPA wants to allow continued wastewater dumping in Wyoming. NPR. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/2013/08/07/209832887/epa-wants-to-allow-continued-wastewater-dumping-in-wyoming
Pereira, L. S., Tavares, D. S., & Silva, E. R. (2016). Chemical elements in pearl oysters (Paxyodon ponderosus), phytoplankton, and estuarine sediments from eastern Amazon, Northern Brazil: Bioaccumulation factors and trophic transfer factors. Academia.edu.
Shermac. (2021). Water carts - the unsung hero of the coal mining industry (Image #53) [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.shermac.com.au
Statista. (n.d.). Crude oil production in the United States in 2021, by state (in 1,000 barrels). Retrieved January 27, 2025, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/714376/crude-oil-production-by-us-state/
Szymon Kalisz, K., Kibort, K., Mioduska, J., Lieder, M., & Małachowska, A. (2022). Waste management in the mining industry of metals ores, coal, oil and natural gas - A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 304, 114239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114239
Svärdh, L. (2003). Tissue sampling from live blue mussels, Mytilus edulis: A field study from the Swedish west coast. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 296(2), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1385-1101(03)00003-0
Thuermer, A. M., Jr. (2024, March 20). Creeks tainted by drilling unable to sustain aquatic life, regulators say. WyoFile. https://wyofile.com/creeks-tainted-by-drilling-unable-to-sustain-aquatic-life-regulators-say/
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2025). Electric power monthly: January 2025. Retrieved January 27, 2025, from https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/current_month/january2025.pdf
WebElements. (n.d.). Periodic table: Iron: Iron oxide. WebElements. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.webelements.com/iron/oxide.html