Chinese drawing of a man overlooking a woman binding her own feet with cloth (University of California, San Diego).
Foot Binding is a form of permanent body modification where a female's foot is manually constricted to fit an extremely small shoe. The goal of the foot binding was to stunt the natural growth of the foot for social advantages. The foot was broken and manipulated so that it permanently healed to be shorter in length than if development was not interfered with, resulting in a foot approximately three to four inches in length (Drucker 1981:179). Usually, the compression of the feet began when a girl is in her adolescence between the ages of five to eight; however, feet were bound at other stages in life as well (Cartwright 2017).
Close up image of what bound feet look like. Notice how this woman's toes curl under her foot and how the bottom of the foot is level with the absence of a foot arch (Wellcome Collection).
According to Cartwright, when a family's daughter became of age to get their feet bound (around five to eight years old), they would pick out a special day to begin the foot binding process (2017). Next, they would make offerings and pray to the "Tiny-Footed Maiden Goddess" and the "Buddhist figure of Guanyin" who they believed protected women (Cartwright 2017).
After this preparation, either a professional foot binder or an elder family member would carry out the binding of the foot. Gao wrote that girls were eager to meet all of the qualifications to have their feet bound so that she could eventually gain respect and praise from her future husband and in laws because she was capable of with standing the pain. However, it was reported that some daughters screamed and protested against the binding of their feet (Tsao 1912: 64). Tsao explained that although girls are put through an immense amount of suffering during this process, their mothers continued to have it done to their daughters because they could not remember the pain and they want their daughters to be proud of having small feet like they were (1912:64).
This photo shows a plaster mold of someone who had bound feet and an example of the silk shoes that they wore (Rabe 1912).
In Cartwright's article, he explains the entire process of how the feet of young girls in China were bound. The people who performed this body modification kept the largest toe in place facing forward while they curled the four remaining toes under the foot. After the feet were placed in this position, the foot was compressed by hand while it was tightly wrapped in long strips of cloth to restrict any more growth. As a result, the girl's arch grew to be pronounced. The feet were unwrapped once every month to treat the skin and any sores that appeared. These clothes were secured by sewing them on the girl's legs (Ko 2005:223). This monthly tasked occurred until the girl went through puberty and reached her adult size. Some adult women continued to wrap their feet when they went out in public (Cartwright 2017).
Foot binding is a cultural practice found throughout many centuries of China's history and its beginning is heavily argued among sources. However, evidence of foot binding in China dates back as early as the Shang Dynasty that lasted from 1766 B.C.E. to 1122 B.C.E. (Drucker 1981:179). Others, like Cartwright and Gao claim that the custom began during the Tang Dynasty which occurred from 618 C.E. to 907 C.E. First, the bound feet of upper class women were a way to distinguish them from working class peasants. Lower class people eventually used foot binding as a way to up their social status (Cartwright 2017).
Cartwright shares that this cultural practice is theorized to have begun with a dancer named Yaoniang (2017). Dancers during this time wore shoes called "bow-shoes" with upward facing toes. These dancers were also known for their small feet. Overtime, foot binding evolved beyond dancing and it then symbolized "not only elegance but also moral virtue and modesty," which attracted potential husbands (Cartwright 2017). The new social values of the foot binding practice influenced families to modify their daughters' feet. This created a long lasting tradition and costly social standards of beauty and richness.
Map of China during the Shang and T'ang Dynasties when foot binding is believed to have made its first appearance (Cartwright 2017).
In Drucker's article, the author explains that the practice initially held popularity in imperial courts and then progressed down China's social class system (1981:179). She suggests that individuals were initially drawn to this body alternation for the visual communication that a family was so wealthy that they had plenty of leisure time in addition to aesthetic appeal.
As royals adopted this custom, it eventually spread throughout the socio-economic hierarchy and those people began to imitate foot binding into their family practices (Gao 2003:119). Gao wrote that Foot Binding went by various names, all having spiritual or symbolic significance, such as "lily," "golden lily," and "fragrant lily" (2003:119). These names were chosen from the "central life symbol of Buddhism" (Cartwright 2017). These poetic names began to appear in romantic literature as the foot binding was sexualized by men. Women whose feet were bound were seen as erotic, beautiful and dainty. The painful process and lifelong consequences of foot binding was "worshiped by men" (Tsao 1912: 64) which was enough justification for women to continue the practice and pass it down to their kin.
The pressure to have your feet bound in china was so strong that the tradition lasted for over 750 years. When women bound their feet, they felt beautiful and desirable (Drucker 1981:180). However, no judgement can be made towards the Chinese women who had bound feet because body modifications for beauty, sex appeal, and social status are also common in the west. European and American women wore tight corsets to make their waists as small as possible throughout history. Women in the present day also modify their body with cosmetic surgeries and injections.
During this time in China when foot binding was practiced, men would not consider marriage with women who had unbound feet. Drucker wrote that Since most women keep their feet wrapped and with their shoes on the majority of the time, it became "erotic" for men because it was a vulnerable part of the women's body. Women only revealed their feet when they were intimate or changing their clothes (1981:180). Having bound feet was considered to be extremely attractive.
Women were desperate to have bound feet because of the elevated status it would give them. For women, foot binding made them feel more beautiful, wealthy, and admirable. Foot binding was a rite of passage for girls in China (Smith 2018). Foot binding was a necessity for Chinese girls to thrive in society. It was also the only way for men and their families to accept a daughter to marry. (Gao 2013:119). Additionally, women felt pressured by their husbands, families, and peers to bind the feet of their daughters. The responsibility was put on them to carry on the tradition and provide a promising future for their daughters (Tsao 1912:64).
Men wanted their wives to have bound feet for their own elevation in society. Drucker discussed in her journal that foot binding served as insurance for a reputation of being a good husband. She said that a wife with bound feet implied male ownership "by showing that his woman was useless, expensive, and had to be supported in idleness" (1981:179). Gao wrote that foot binding itself was simply a symbol of seclusion and suppression because it forced wives to be dependent on their husbands and they were unable to have any authority over themselves (2013; 119).
Throughout the long history of the foot binding custom in China, many Anti-Foot Binding groups and movements were created to put an end to the painful procedure that girls were forced to endure. During the Qing Dynasty, emperor Kangxi banned foot binding in 1662. This ban eventually ended in 1668 because the Chinese did not obey the law (Smith 2018). Dorothy Ko stated that sometime women would attempt to unbound their feet and reverse their body modification, which was extremely painful because the women's bodies adapted to their bound feet. These feet were called "liberated feet" and they were harder to walk on than when their feet were bound (2005:11). According to Smith's article, counter movements succeeded in 1912 when, after the Nationalist Revolution in 1911, the practice was outlawed. However, the tradition did not fully end until the People’s Republic of China was created in 1949 (2018).
The process of foot binding was extremely painful and physically exhausting. Additionally, these consequences of foot binding remained with women for the rest of their lives. They were mostly irreversible. According to Cartwright, women sometimes lost toes and developed serious infections, such as gangrene (2017). Dorothy Ko wrote that women's feet were so small and their shoes were so tiny that it was impossible for them to walk (2005:204). However, elite women in China during the time that the foot binding tradition was practiced were not expected or encouraged to walk, or even go outdoors (2005:11). Women depended on their husbands to bring them food and to dress them (2005:21). As women aged, it became more painful for their feet to be constricted and they experienced more pain.
This is an x-ray of what a human foot looks like that has has not been bound (Dixon 2015).
This is an x-ray of what a human foot looks like that has has been bound (Minett 1920)
However foot binding did not impact the woman's ability to work if her husband did not provide enough income. Since the women who had their feet bound were practically unable to move freely, they stuck with the"traditional household employment of spinning, weaving, sewing, and embroidery" (Cartwright 2017). Foot binding was not as common in rural areas where labor on farms was necessary.
Body Modification Book -
Demello, Margo. 2007. Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Retrieved November 4, 2021, (https://books.google.com/books?id=s0122BsqrZwC&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false).
Novel About Foot Binding -
Feng, Chi-tsài. 1994. The Three-Inch Golden Lotus. Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_k2k7/page/n11/mode/2up).
Smithsonian Article on Foot Binding -
Foreman, Amanda. 2015. “Why Footbinding Persisted in China for a Millennium.” Smithsonian. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-footbinding-persisted-china-millennium-180953971/).
Podcast on Foot Binding -
Frey, Holly and Tracy Wilson. 2014. China’s Foot Binding Tradition. Stuff You Missed in History Class. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from iHeart (https://www.iheart.com/podcast/stuff-you-missed-in-history-cl-21124503/episode/chinas-foot-binding-tradition-30207655/).
Foot Binding and Women's Labor Book -
Gates, Hill. 2015. Footbinding and Women's Labor in Sichuan. Routledge. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://books.google.com/books?id=jEK2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false).
Written Article from Radio Broadcast -
Lim, Louisa. 2007. “Painful Memories for China's Footbinding Survivors.” National Public Radio. Retrieved November 4, 2021, (https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=8966942).
Informational Short Documentary on Foot Binding History -
Mütter Museum of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. 2020. “The History of Foot Binding in China.” Retrieved November 4, 2021, from YouTube (https://youtu.be/d5aeFRp7Qzg).
Kanopy Documentary on Foot Binding -
2017. China's Bound Feet, Brides, and Widows. The Great Courses. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from Kanopy (https://bradley.kanopy.com/video/chinas-bound-feet-brides-and-widows).
Cartwright, Mark. 2017. "Foot-Binding" World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://www.worldhistory.org/Foot-Binding/).
Dixon, A. 2015. “Normal Foot X-Rays”. Radiopaedia. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-36688).
Drucker, Alison. 1981. “The Influence of Western Women on the Anti-Foot Binding Movement 1840-1911.” Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 8(3): 179-199. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/41298767).
Gao, Xiongya. 2003. “Women Existing for Men: Confucianism and Social Injustice against Women in China.” Race, Gender & Class 10(3): 114–125. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/41675091).
Ko, Dorothy. 2005. Cinderella's Sisters: A Revisionist History of Footbinding. University of California Press. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://books.google.com/books?id=UIaIP0jyBPAC&lpg=PA14&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false).
Minett, E. 1920. “X-ray: Bound Foot.” Wellcome Collection. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from JSTOR (https://jstor.org/stable/10.2307/community.24864789).
“Photograph: Foot Binding” Wellcome Collection. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from JSTOR (https://jstor.org/stable/10.2307/community.24864786).
Smith, Tiffany. 2018. “Foot Binding.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved November 4, 2021, (https://www.britannica.com/science/footbinding).
Tsao, Li. 1912. “The Life of a Girl in China.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 39: 62–70. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1012072).
Rabe. 1912. “Plaster Model of Right Foot Deformed by Foot-Binding.” Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://jstor.org/stable/10.2307/community.26464121).
“View of China and Neighboring Lands.” 907 CE. University of California, San Diego. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://jstor.org/stable/community.13580978).
“Woman Binding Her Own Foot.” University of California, San Diego. Retrieved November 4, 2021 (https://jstor.org/stable/community.13568742).