Bushidō
What is Bushidō?
Bushidō, translating to “Way of the Warrior”, was a code of honor and conduct utilized by the samurai warriors (or bushi) of feudal Japan. Many consider it to be comparable to the code of chivalry seen in feudal Europe, since both codes stress loyalty to a lord or master as well as bravery in battle. While there are similarities to be seen, bushidō’s more specific meanings and practices changed over many centuries and numerous eras in Japan’s history before it ultimately died out in 1945.
Bushidō's History
The Heian Period
An example of artwork created during Japan's Heian Era.
The Heian Era of Japan, lasting from 179-1185, was characterized by the refined culture of the aristocracy, emphasizing the idea of “aesthetic refinement” and led to the development of new kinds of arts, poetry, and literature (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). To that extent, two different ways of life developed- the more feminine Heian court traditions, and the masculine bushidō tradition of the samurai (Hogan 2009:3-4).
It was particularly during this time period that the samurai first became the quintessential armed retainers of the ruling class. This was because, though Japan had an emperor at this time, the aristocrats held their own power in privatized estates known as shōen. In order to protect these estates, local aristocrats hired martial artists in the area to serve as armed guards. (Latz 2021) As a result, the samurai class began to take form; the word “samurai” meaning “to serve”.
Thus, the samurai code of conduct- though it did not have a particular name yet- came to emphasize prowess and bravery in battle as well as a defiance of death (Kawakami 1952:5). This created a sharp contrast with the ideals of the aristocratic court who hired them which favored refinement and the arts (Kawakami 1952:5). However, there was still an idea of fidelity not just from the warrior to the lord, but to an extent the lord had to show some integrity as well; the samurai was obligated to protect the lord with his life, while the lord had to be strong enough to possibly protect his retainers and also be worthy of their trust (Kawakami 1952:6-7). As a result, fidelity also became an integral part of the warrior code.
A recreation of the kind of armor a samurai would typically wear.
The Kamakura Period
A portrait of Minamoto no Yorimoto, the founder and first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate.
This shifted with the rise of the Kamakura Era, which lasted from 1185-1333. It was during this time that the Heian court government was overthrown and replaced with the more militaristic Kamakura shogunate. Since Japan came to be ruled by a military government and the samurai held the true power, it stood to reason a more concrete warrior code of conduct would need to be established to ensure the integrity of the military and justice for the people. It is for this reason that the Kamakura period is widely considered to be when the true nature of bushidō (though it still had no particular name yet) took shape- the shift in government power at this time is no coincidence.
There were five ideas that made up the central core of bushidō in the Kamakura period: military valor, loyalty, fidelity, integrity (or “disinterestedness”), and frugality (Kawakami 1952:15).
Valor in battle was a principle preexisting in the Heian Era and carried over to the Kamakura Era, maintaining the more ‘masculine’ aura of the warrior class. Loyalty and faith between lord and vassal were also similar to how it had been in the previous era- again, the warrior was expected to show total loyalty to their lord, and the lord had to display “kindly consideration” to his soldiers (Kawakami 1952:10). Integrity also became a cardinal ideal of the code- it was expected that the soldiers had to provide for themselves in terms of food and supplies, and they were strictly not allowed to plunder for any supplies or riches (Kawakami 1952:12).
Perhaps the greatest contrast in the Kamakura Era’s bushidō compared to Heian court traditions was the principle of frugality. At that time, the families in the powerful ruling class were able to lead luxurious and brilliant lives due to the wealth they acquired (Latz 2021) (Kawakami 1952:14). By contrast, samurai in the shogunate were encouraged to deny themselves too many luxuries, to live only as necessary based on their position in life (Kawakami 1952:14). This was done in order to improve the warriors’ military abilities and to avoid coming off as “extravagant” (Kawakami 1952:14). This, as well as the other aforementioned virtues, were likely emphasized to mitigate corruption among the warrior class, as they were a vital part of keeping the military government of Japan in power.
The Edo Period
A portrait of Chinese philosopher Confucius, proprietor and founder of the philosophical belief set known as Confucianism.
Following years of internal strife and warring providences after the fall of the Kamakura shogunate, Japan found itself at peace yet again during the Edo (or Tokugawa) Era, lasting from 1603-1868. Since there was so little domestic or foreign conflict that Japan was involved in, this allowed the country to develop more commerce and a more money-based economy (Honjo 1927:2). As a result, the new class of commoners began to overtake the samurai class in influence in power, as the feudal system that gave them their power was quickly being made obsolete (Honjo 1927:2).
The idea of staying loyal to a lord and being valourous in battle, cardinal aspects of bushidō established centuries prior, had become ideas rooted in history (Honjo 1927:2). It was only natural that the samurai way of life and code of conduct would need to shift once more to account for such an era of peace, and shift it did. The samurai became more akin to government officials, performing tasks such as helping to maintain public order and maintaining transport infrastructure (Kazuhiko 2019). Thus, the code of bushidō came to describe and promote moral integrity rather than military honor and valor (Kazuhiko 2019).
This allowed the samurai to remain relevant in the grand scheme of the Edo Era’s political system. As the period progressed, bushidō became more infused with Confucian ideals and ethics, stressing the importance of obeying authority and fulfilling a duty, mirroring many of Confucius’ own teachings (Pletcher, 2019). These upper class samurai also went on to spread the “spirit” of bushidō to the general public as a way of “ethical cultivation” (Kazuhiko 2019). Such practices would go on to influence Japan’s culture for many years afterwards.
A portrait of Chinese philosopher Confucius, proprietor and founder of the philosophical belief set known as Confucianism.
Modern Bushidō
World War II
A photograph of a group of Japanese kamikaze pilots.
Today, bushidō is not seen in mainstream practice as it was decades ago, but many of its ideas maintain prominence in Japanese culture. During events such as the Meiji Restoration and World War II, bushidō was utilized as a method of heightening Japanese nationalism and boosting morale (Pletcher, 2019).
Particularly in World War II, bushidō was used as a form of galvanizing young men into being loyal to their country, even at the cost of their own lives (Powers 2017). Since bushidō initially came into being and was further molded into its most recognizable forms during times of conflict and war, it stands to reason the Japanese political and military leaders would use this history and correlation to strengthen the resolve of its armies. It also emphasized the idea of dying with honor instead of falling to an enemy, resulting in the suicide pilots known as kamikaze or soldiers fighting until killed or committing suicide (Powers 2017).
Overall, these propaganda-esque ideals were not entirely accurate to the true nature of bushidō. Even so, many Japanese soldiers and militarists wholeheartedly believed in it, since the country had undergone major societal upheaval over the prior eight decades and needed something concrete to latch onto (Powers 2017). Thus, the use of bushidō in such a way resulted in the idea of Japan never surrendering to the enemy, leaving many young men with the belief that they had no other alternative other than death when it came to a losing battle, causing even greater losses in terms of both soldiers and civilians (Powers 2017).
Bushidō Today
After Japan surrendered in 1945, bushidō was no longer formally instructed, and it soon died out in the mainstream. However, the influence of the code can still be seen in many aspects of modern Japanese society. For example, the martial arts form kendo involves “moral instruction through strict adherence to a code of etiquette” (Haruko 2011). The exercise is considered spiritual and mental as well as physical, conquering the “self” of the fighter and emphasizing nobility rather than simply defeating an opponent, reflecting the bushidō idea of disinterestedness (Haruko 2011).
A photograph of a pair of individuals participating in a kendo match.
Additionally, large companies known as zaibatsu formed following the Japanese army’s disbandment in 1945; employees of these companies were expected to show utmost respect and loyalty to the business as well as to their bosses (Clark 1996). Another bushidō ideal, having integrity and being trustworthy, also became a major aspect of proper economic conduct in Japanese business dealings- being deceitful in any way would dishonor the employee and the employee’s company (Kazuhiko 2019) (Clark 1996).
Even today, the Japanese people stress the importance of remaining loyal to their country and keeping their family name honorable- both of which were values seen in medieval bushidō as far back as the Heian or Kamakura periods (Clark 1996).
Learn More
This paper by Tim Clark that gives a brief but detailed overview of the history of the samurai as well as describing the different virtues associated with the bushidō code: https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/Samurai%20and%20the%20Bushido%20Code.pdf
This article and short video defining and discussing the act of seppuku (or hara-kiri), a ritualistic form of suicide performed by many samurai warriors in order to atone for or avoid a perceived act of dishonor: https://www.history.com/news/what-is-seppuku
This journal article by G. Cameron Hurst III discusses the actual concept of bushidō, its most iconic core values, and whether or not it has any real links to aspects of Japan’s historical traditions or practices: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399355
This journal article by Colin Holmes and A. H. Ion discussing bushidō as it affected Japanese ambitions and policies towards foreign powers in 1894-1914, particularly through the lens of Great Britain: https://www.jstor.org/stable/312416
Works Cited
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2013). Heian period. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 29, 2021 (https://www.britannica.com/event/Heian-period).
Clark, J. (1996). “Bushido Today”. Pacific University Asian Studies. Retrieved on October 1, 2021 (https://web.archive.org/web/20050507164604/http://mcel.pacificu.edu/as/students/bushido/b2day.html).
Haruko, H. (2011). “Samurai Spirit Still Animates Japan.” Nippon.com. Retrieved on October 1, 2021 (https://web.archive.org/web/20181111232856/https://www.nippon.com/en/column/g00009/).
Hogan, J. (2009). “Discourses of National Identity in Japan.” Gender, Race and National Identity: Nations of Flesh and Blood. Routledge: London. Retrieved on September 29, 2021.
Honjo, E. (1927). THE DECAY OF THE SAMURAI CLASS. Kyoto University Economic Review, 2(1 (3)), 38–51. Retrieved from JSTOR on September 30, 2021 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/43217253).
Kawakami, T. (1952). BUSHIDŌ IN ITS FORMATIVE PERIOD. The Annals of the Hitotsubashi Academy, 3(1), 65–83. Retrieved from JSTOR on September 29, 2021 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/43751264).
Latz, G. , Masamoto, . Kitajima , Watanabe, . Akira , Masai, . Yasuo , Jansen, . Marius B. , Notehelfer, . Fred G. , Toyoda, . Takeshi , Hurst, . G. Cameron , Hijino, . Shigeki and Sakamoto, . Taro (2021). Japan. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on September 29, 2021 (https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan).
Kazuhiko, K. (2019). “Bushidō: An Ethical and Spiritual Foundation in Japan.” Nippon.com. Retrieved on September 30, 2021 (https://web.archive.org/web/20191108042249/https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g00665/bushido-an-ethical-and-spiritual-foundation-in-japan.html).
Pletcher, K. (2019). Bushidō. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on September 29, 2021 (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bushido).
Powers, D. (2017). “Japan: No Surrender in World War Two.” BBC.com. Retrieved on September 30, 2021 (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/japan_no_surrender_01.shtml).