The Communication Process

When you think of the most successful communicators you know, what characteristics come to mind? Do they listen well, deliver clear and concise messages, or resolve conflicts effectively? Although communication competence may seem fairly straightforward, it is actually much more complex than simply getting your message across.

Becoming a competent communicator begins with an understanding of the primary elements and key principles of the communication process. In this section, we’ll explore these complex elements by examining the communication process.

A number of models depicting the communication process exist. A brief look at the evolution of models that visualizes the communication process demonstrates how our understanding of communication has developed.

Linear Model of Communication

The earliest model of communication, the linear model, describes communication as a one-way process in which a sender transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model (Figure 1.1) focuses attention on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is a part of the model, the receiver role is conceptualized as a target or end point. In other words, communication travels one way without regard to how a message is received. We are left to presume that the receiver successfully receives and understands the message or does not.

Although the linear model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed communication scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication.

Figure 1.1 Linear Model of Communication

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model (Figure 1.2) of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate roles as a sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which means communication is a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes verbal and nonverbal messages sent in response to other messages. For example, during a workplace training presentation, the speaker responds to a raised hand during the discussion and then pauses for you to ask a question or interject your idea.

The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver as in the linear model, the interaction model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Think of a tennis match in which the game continues based on each player’s skills in returning the ball to the other.

Figure 1.2 Interaction Model of Communication

Although the interaction model of communication portrays communication as a deliberate process, in reality, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver quickly and often without conscious thought. The interaction model is also less message focused as it is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The interaction model also takes physical and psychological context into account. The physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter, such as the size, layout, temperature, and lighting of an office space. For example, a presentation delivered in a small conference room will likely have a different feel than one delivered in a large auditorium. Likewise, a difficult conversation with a co-worker is likely best resolved in the context of a private office space rather than in an open break room where other listeners may influence the interaction.

The psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions such as anger or fear are just a few examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. Even seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of joy, can also affect communication. Including feedback and context elements make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process when compared to the earlier linear model.

Transactional Model of Communication

Both the linear and interaction models demonstrate a progression of our understanding of the communication as each model expands to account for the complexity of human interaction within the communication process. Eventually, scholars came to view communication as more than a process used to carry on conversations and convey meanings. We don't send one-way messages like computers, and we rarely alternate neatly between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating. Simply, communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the linear and interaction models in significant ways, and is useful because it further illustrates the complexity of the communication process and the challenges of creating and delivering effective messages.

The transactional model (Figure 1.3) of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, senders and receivers don’t just communicate to exchange messages; instead, they communicate to create relationships, form alliances, shape self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. The transactional model thus views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Figure 1.3 The Transactional Model of Communication

The roles of sender and receiver in the transactional model of communication also differ significantly from the previous models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in an encounter are referred to as communicators.

Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver (i.e., the tennis match), the transactional model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the model because it explains how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the messages we are simultaneously, perhaps non-verbally, receiving from our communication partner.

Finally, the transactional model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that either enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus solely on message transmission and reception. Since the transactional model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transactional model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Imagine you are in Lebanon. When you are introduced to the professionals with whom you are meeting, everyone is standing outside of a meeting room. Another professional arrives late, after the meeting has started and everyone is seated around a conference table. You sense a hesitation in his words and body language as you are introduced. You remember seeing that a Lebanese colleague with whom you have worked in the past always stood when greeting someone; you stand up to introduce yourself, and see a change in demeanor in the late arrival. You realize, through this non-verbal transaction, that standing up to first meet a person is a sign of respect that is important in this particular culture.

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