Solanaceae

Nightshade Family

Cayenne Pepper

FAMILY: Nightshade family (Solanaceae) – Capsicum genus.

SPECIES: Cayenne pepper, bird pepper, or chilipiquin (Capsicum annuum L. var. glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The fiery fruits make a legendary seasoning, but the shrubs rarely grow outside of cultivation. Cayenne peppers hardly need a description. They’re noted here for regional significance. Cayenne peppers are a trademark of southwestern cuisine, but they’re of little importance to southwestern foragers, with the exception of foragers in dire need of some flavor to go with a burrito!

IDENTIFICATION: In the United States, the Capsicum genus is represented only by cayenne pepper (C. annuum var. glabriusculum), found in isolated locations from Arizona to Florida and southward into tropical regions. The white flowers bloom in summer after seasonal rains, and then quickly develop into berry-like fruits.

Description of cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum): FORM unarmed plants or shrubs; LEAVES simple; alternate; stalked; blades widely lance-shaped to heart-shaped; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or paired in the leaf axils; pedicels much longer than flowers; sepals 5; petals 5, fused, and white; stamens 5; FRUITS berries red, fleshy, and spicy; HABITAT isolated canyons in Arizona, to Florida, and southward into tropical regions; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: Cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum L. var. glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill): fruits Couplan (p. 348).

Greenleaf Five-eyes

FAMILY: Nightshade family (Solanaceae) – Chamaesaracha genus.

SPECIES: Greenleaf five-eyes (Chamaesaracha coronopus (Dunal) A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! The fruits (berries) are rarely reported to be edible and occasionally reported to be inedible. Consuming them may cause digestive problems. At best, they’re not very good. At worst, they’re potentially harmful due to solanine and other toxins. Consuming these berries is not advised.

The cream-colored berries are supposedly edible fresh or cooked. When eaten fresh, ripe berries taste acrid, bitter, and terribly unappealing. Unfortunately, that was the good news! Fleshy portions are scanty and void of sweetness. Interior portions are filled to capacity with seeds. Cooking fails to improve the flavor. Five-eyes are closely related to groundcherries. Gathering five-eye berries is easy, but removing the tight-fitting calyces is tedious. Exposed portions usually ripen first, but these berries just can’t ripen enough. In case that’s not enough problems, the berries become drier as they ripen, and the development of sweetness doesn’t seem to be part of the ripening process. Greenleaf five-eyes is common in the Southwest, but its value to foragers is negligible. Each berry is about 4-10 mm wide, and basically just a collection of seeds surrounded by a thin, rather dry skin. Greenleaf five-eyes blooms from April to October, so berries can be expected almost any time of the year. Once again, consuming these berries is not advised.

NOTES: The samples of greenleaf five-eyes came from the hills outside a small town called Alma in western New Mexico. I’ve seen them in many places, but only the Alma colonies produced substantial amounts of berries. 

IDENTIFICATION: The Chamaesaracha genus is currently represented by 7 species in the United States, all of which are similar and native to the Southwest.

Description of greenleaf five-eyes (Chamaesaracha coronopus): FORM small, spineless, perennial plant about 5-35 cm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile, or tapering to short stalks; blades lance-linear; margins irregularly wavy-toothed or short-lobed; surfaces hairy; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and usually solitary on long stalks emerging from the axils; calyces 5-lobed; corollas 5-lobed, white to yellowish-green with darker basal spots; stamens 5; FRUITS berry-like capsules white, dry, and partially covered by the persistent calyces; seeds rough-textured; HABITAT deserts, fields, washes, and open areas; primarily in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona; blooming April to October.

REFERENCES: Greenleaf five-eyes (Chamaesaracha coronopus): fruits Couplan (p. 349), Goodrich (p. 225), and Yanovski (p. 55); seeds Castetter (1935-a p. 21).

Wolfberries

FAMILY: Nightshade family (Solanaceae) – Lycium genus.

SPECIES: #1 Anderson’s wolfberry, desert-thorn, box-thorn, or desert tomato (Lycium andersonii A. Gray). #2 Berlandier’s wolfberry (Lycium berlandieri Dunal). #3 Baja wolfberry (Lycium brevipes Benth.). #4 Arizona or littleleaf wolfberry (Lycium exsertum A. Gray). #5 Fremont’s wolfberry (Lycium fremontii A. Gray). #6 pale wolfberry, fox-thorn, or rabbit-thorn (Lycium pallidum Miers). #7 Torrey’s wolfberry (Lycium torreyi A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Consuming large quantities of wolfberries can upset the stomach, so moderation is advised. Berries of all species listed above are edible fresh or cooked. All of them are hereby referred to as wolfberries. The following description is based on: Lycium andersonii, L. brevipes, L. exsertum, L. fremontii, and L. pallidum. Fruits of these species conform to the description with little variation. Orange and red berries tasted about the same.

Wolfberries range in color from orange to red, or occasional purple. They can also be globe- or egg-shaped. Based on the berries sampled for this reference, fresh wolfberries taste sweet, fruity, and similar to tomatoes. An accent suggesting the bitter rinds of citrus fruits is also present. Sweetness varies, but most berries are very agreeable and free of harsh accents. The texture is soft, juicy, and fleshy. Even the numerous seeds inside are soft. Wolfberries are the perfect ingredient for salsa, especially when combined with wild onions. Cooked berries taste roughly equivalent to fresh berries. Boiling yields a thick, sweet, tomato-like sauce with a slightly bitter accent. The sauce is ideal for any recipe involving tomato sauce. Wolfberries won’t stay fresh for very long, unless refrigerated. They need to be dried or consumed immediately. Dried berries resemble raisins and taste sweeter than fresh berries. Wolfberries are normally an early season resource. Shrubs bloom in late winter or early spring. Berries ripen in spring or summer. Good crops are reliable, even when rainfall is below average. Wolfberries are well adapted to desert climates. Second crops responding to summer rainfall are also possible. Gathering a supply is easy, but watch out for the thorns. Wolfberries were an important resource to Native Americans, especially in the northern Sonoran Desert (also called the Colorado Desert) where other fresh fruits are scarce. Almost every dry wash across the Southwest is lined with wolfberries, so the importance of these shrubs should not be underestimated. Birds eagerly consume the berries, but other competitors are less troublesome. Overall, wolfberry shrubs are a valuable resource in the southwestern deserts.

NOTES: A few species of the Lycium genus produce hard fruits, but fruits of all species listed above are soft, fleshy, and juicy. I can hardly recall a desert wash in southern Nevada, California, and Arizona without a generous supply of wolfberries.

IDENTIFICATION: The Lycium genus is represented by about 20 species in the United States, most of which are found in desert habitats of the Southwest. Most species are spiny shrubs with small, light purple, 5-lobed, trumpet-shaped flowers; red or orange berries; and tiny leaves arranged in clusters. Any shrub in the Southwest with that combination of characteristics is most likely a wolfberry.

Description of wolfberries (the Lycium genus): FORM thorny shrubs about 7-33 dm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate or clustered on the branches; sessile or short-stalked; often thick and fleshy; blades lance-, spoon- or club-shaped; margins entire; surfaces glabrous, scurfy, or hairy; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or clustered in the axils; calyces tube-shaped and 4-5 lobed; corollas bell-, tube- or trumpet-shaped, 4-7 lobed, white, greenish, or purple; styles 1; stamens 4-5, inserted or exserted; FRUITS berries soft, fleshy, juicy (dry in a few species), red, orange, or purplish; seeds numerous (or only 2-4 in a few species); HABITAT deserts and transition zones, especially along dry washes; nearly throughout the Southwest; blooming February to October, or potentially anytime.

REFERENCES: #1 Anderson’s wolfberry (Lycium andersonii): fruits Ebeling (p. 853), Hodgson (p. 236), Tull (2013 p. 225), and Yanovski (p. 55). #2 Berlandier’s wolfberry (Lycium berlandieri): fruits Ebeling (p. 853), Hodgson (p. 236), Tull (2013 p. 225), and Yanovski (p. 55). #3 Baja wolfberry (Lycium brevipes): fruits Ebeling (p. 853). #4 Arizona or littleleaf wolfberry (Lycium exsertum): fruits Ebeling (p. 853), Hodgson (p. 236), and Tull (2013 p. 225). #5 Fremont’s wolfberry (Lycium fremontii): fruits Ebeling (p. 853), Hodgson (p. 236), and Yanovski (p. 55). #6 pale wolfberry (Lycium pallidum): fruits Ebeling (p. 853) and Yanovski (p. 55). #7 Torrey’s wolfberry (Lycium torreyi): fruits Ebeling (p. 853), Tull (2013 p. 225), and Yanovski (p. 56).

Tobacco

FAMILY: Nightshade family (Solanaceae) – Nicotiana genus. 

SPECIES: #1 coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata Torr. ex S. Watson). #2 desert tobacco (Nicotiana obtusifolia M. Martens & Galeotti).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: (smoke plant only): Warning! DO NOT EAT TOBACCO! All parts of all species in the Nicotiana genus are inedible. In fact, they are poisonous due in part to solanine, nicotine, and other alkaloids. Ingestion of raw or cooked leaves of any species in the Nicotiana genus can result in poisoning or even death (Turner 1991 pp. 218-220). Coyote and desert tobacco are hereby included only as smoke plants because smoking is considered a type of consumption. A third inedible species called tree tobacco (N. glauca) was never utilized for smoking. Cultivated tobaccos (N. tabacum or N. rustica) do not grow in the wild (Elzebroek pp. 19-24).

NOTES: Dried leaves of coyote tobacco (N. attenuata) and desert tobacco (N. obtusifolia) can be rolled with cornhusks and smoked as cigarettes. Both species produce a similar product. Differences occur in appearance rather than smoking characteristics. Fresh leaves are covered with sticky hairs emitting a strong odor that few people would dare to describe as appealing. Entire plants reek of this musty odor. Upon drying, much of the odor subsides. Stickiness also subsides and the leaves crumble into a texture ideal for rolling. Care should be taken to exclude the stems. Coyote and desert tobacco generally don’t cause burning, choking, or coughing. Instead, the smoke is smooth, thin, and less abrasive than commercially prepared tobaccos. All are members of the same genus. People unaccustomed to smoking cigarettes may experience headaches. Coyote and desert tobacco make fine bases for smoking blends. Mint, spruce, osha, mullein, fennel, dogwood, or kinnikinnick can serve as additions to impart flavor. Finding leaves suitable for smoking can prove challenging because insects seem to crave coyote and desert tobacco. Diseases are also troublesome. Native Americans considered these plants sacred.

IDENTIFICATION: The Nicotiana genus is represented by 15 species in the United States, of which only 3 occur in the Southwest and Great Basin.

Description of coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata): FORM upright, malodorous, annual plant about 2-8 dm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; stalked; blades lanceolate; margins entire; surfaces moderately covered with glandular hairs; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, nocturnal, and arranged in terminal racemes or panicles; calyces 5-lobed; corollas tube-shaped with 5 spreading lobes, white, yellowish, greenish, or light purple; styles 1; stamens 5; FRUITS capsules dry, 2-4-valved, and not prickly; seeds numerous; HABITAT desert washes, mesas, and juniper woodlands; nearly throughout the Southwest; blooming June to October.

Description of desert tobacco (Nicotiana obtusifolia): FORM upright, malodorous, perennial plant about 2-8 dm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile; bases clasping the stems; blades fish-shaped, lance-obovate or lance-oblong, narrower at the bases; margins entire; surfaces densely covered with glandular hairs; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, diurnal, and arranged in terminal racemes or panicles; calyces 5-lobed; corollas tube-shaped with 5 spreading lobes, white, yellowish, greenish, or light purple; styles 1; stamens 5; FRUITS capsules dry, 2-4-valved, and not prickly; seeds numerous; HABITAT desert washes, mesas, and juniper woodlands; nearly throughout the Southwest; blooming February to October, or potentially anytime.

REFERENCES: #1 coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata): leaves (smoked) Ebeling (p. 629). #2 desert tobacco (Nicotiana obtusifolia): leaves (smoked) Austin (pp. 268-269) and Ebeling (pp. 390 and 629).

Groundcherries

FAMILY: Nightshade family (Solanaceae) – Physalis genus.

SPECIES: #1 sharpleaf groundcherry (Physalis acutifolia (Miers) Sandw.). #2 cut-leaf groundcherry (Physalis angulata L.). #3 thickleaf groundcherry or yellow nightshade groundcherry (Physalis crassifolia Benth.). #4 Fendler’s, ivyleaf, or heartleaf groundcherry (Physalis hederifolia A. Gray var. fendleri (A. Gray) Cronquist = Physalis fendleri A. Gray). #5 clammy groundcherry (Physalis heterophylla Nees). #6 longleaf groundcherry (Physalis longifolia Nutt.). #7 hairy groundcherry or husk tomato (Physalis pubescens L.). #8 New Mexico groundcherry (Physalis subulata Rydb. var. neomexicana (Rydb.) Waterf. ex Kartesz & Gandhi = Physalis neomexicana Rydb.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Unripe fruits contain solanine, which is capable of causing pain, burning in the mouth, diarrhea, abdominal distress, headache, dizziness, or more serious health problems. Seeds of certain species may also have excessive amounts of solanine. The list of species noted above includes nearly everything a forager might encounter in the southwestern United States. All these species are native, and were utilized as food by Native Americans.

Fully ripe fruits of all species listed above are edible, but other parts are poisonous. Many species from regions beyond the southwestern United States also have edible fruits. The following notes are only based on three species: New Mexico groundcherry, thickleaf groundcherry, and the other one unidentified because the flowers were unavailable at the time. Groundcherries are surrounded by dry, inflated, angled, net-veined, papery husks. Nothing else in the nightshade family or any other family produces similar fruit structures. Groundcherries come in a variety of colors including: yellow, orange, red, purple, and green. Several species are cultivated, including tomatillo (P. ixocarpa). Fruit quality ranges from excellent to worthless. Better-quality fruits are sweet, juicy, berry-like, and may be marked with accents suggesting the rinds of citrus fruits or tangy tomatoes. Lower-quality fruits are dry, bitter, void of sweetness, and basically just skins covering seeds. Groundcherries prefer floodplains, washes, and agricultural areas. Only a few species are well established in the wild, so their fruits are more of a snack than a main course.

NOTES: Groundcherries are often described quite favorably. I’ve had some excellent ones, but I’ve also had some terrible ones. Fruits of New Mexico groundcherry (P. subulata) were dry and seedy. They were more like capsules than fruits, and the numerous seeds inside caused a terrible burning sensation. These fruits looked perfectly healthy, but I would question any claims to their edibility. Fruits of thickleaf groundcherry (P. crassifolia) also had some problems. They seemed to mature rotten. Instead of maturing into delicious little fruits, they just deflated and withered. I believe this was due to poor health, perhaps a fungal infection or a consequence of drought. All the plants I observed in Shavers Valley of southern California succumbed to this fate. Fruits of thickleaf groundcherry are reported to be good, but the ones I found were unfit for consumption. The third species of the Physalis genus I tried was from Arizona. I’m not sure which species it was, but it was fantastic. Fruits of this third species restored my faith in the southwestern members of this genus. They were delicious fruits with a citrus-tomato overtone. Beyond these notes, the Physalis genus is still new to me. Always more to discover.

IDENTIFICATION: About 25-30 species of the Physalis genus are currently found in the United States. Groundcherries are easy to recognize as a group thanks to their distinctive berry-like fruits surrounded by thin, papery, net-veined, balloon-like calyces. Exact species are more challenging to identify. No other southwestern members of the nightshade family have balloon-like calyces.

Description of groundcherries (the Physalis genus): FORM spineless plants or small shrubs; often rhizomatous; sparsely to densely covered with simple, dendritic, stellate, or glandular hairs, or hairless; LEAVES simple; alternate (or sometimes paired); blades lanceolate, rhombic, triangular, ovate, cordate, or other shapes; margins entire, toothed, or lobed; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or a few in axillary clusters; calyces 5-lobed, greatly enlarging as fruits mature; corollas bell-, funnel- or wheel-shaped, 5-lobed, white, yellow, or purple, often with prominent basal spots and veins; styles 1; stamens 5; anthers shorter than filaments, and splitting open lengthwise; FRUITS dry or fleshy berries; each surrounded by a dry, papery, angled, net-veined, balloon-like calyx; seeds numerous; HABITAT washes, open areas, agricultural fields, riparian areas, mesas, mountain meadows, and other habitats; nearly throughout the Southwest; blooming spring to autumn, often in response to summer rainfall.

REFERENCES: #1 sharpleaf groundcherry (Physalis acutifolia): fruits Hodgson (p. 238). #2 cutleaf groundcherry (Physalis angulata): fruits Hodgson (p. 238). #3 thickleaf groundcherry (Physalis crassifolia): fruits Ebeling (p. 853). #4 Fendler’s groundcherry (Physalis hederifolia var. fendleri = Physalis fendleri): fruits Couplan (pp. 350-352). #5 clammy groundcherry (Physalis heterophylla): fruits Couplan (pp. 350-352). #6 longleaf groundcherry (Physalis longifolia): fruits Couplan (pp. 350-352). #7 husk tomato (Physalis pubescens): fruits Couplan (pp. 350-352). #8 New Mexico groundcherry (Physalis subulata var. neomexicana = Physalis neomexicana): fruits Couplan (pp. 350-352).

Wild Potatoes

FAMILY: Nightshade family (Solanaceae) – Solanum genus. 

SPECIES: #1 Fendler’s or blue potato (Solanum fendleri A. Gray ex Torr. = Solanum stoloniferum Schltdl.). #2 James’ or white potato (Solanum jamesii Torr.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Species listed above contain harmful compounds (solanine and chaconine) that are unaffected by cooking and capable of causing pain, burning in the mouth, diarrhea, abdominal distress, headache, dizziness, or more serious health problems. Green parts of cultivated potatoes (S. tuberosum) have the same problem. 

Tubers of blue and white potatoes are safe to eat in moderation. ALL OTHER PARTS ARE POISONOUS. Berries of species in the Solanum genus are generally poisonous, but those of a few species (see the references below) are considered to be edible. Even these “edible” berries vary in their edibility. They can be safe in one region and harmful in another region. Factors influencing the chemistry of nightshade berries are poorly understood. Consuming the berries of any species in the Solanum genus is risky and not recommended.

Blue and white potatoes (S. fendleri and S. jamesii) produce tubers that vary greatly in quality. The ones sampled for this reference were fairly good and similar to cultivated potatoes—except in size. Essentially no differences were noticed between the tubers of blue and white potatoes, so they are hereby treated as the same. Tubers of these species are white with brown skins and about 10-30 mm in diameter. They can be situated near the surface or buried deep in the soil. Each plant usually has one main tuber, and possibly a few smaller ones branching off the sides. Only the main tubers are large enough to be worth gathering. Wild potatoes taste inferior to cultivated potatoes, partially due to a mild burning sensation caused by the presence of various toxins. The flavor is slightly bitter, astringent, and indeed potato-like. Most of the bitterness is confined to the skins, so peeling the skins improves the flavor. Cooking also improves the flavor. Wild potatoes can be prepared like cultivated potatoes. Baking, boiling, frying, or sautéing produce good results. Differences between blue and white potatoes are seen in the leaves and flowers rather than the tubers. Tubers of both species stay fresh for several weeks, but long-term storage requires dehydration. Wild potatoes can be gathered anytime they can be found, and their distinctive leaves assist with the identification process. Wild potatoes usually appear in response to summer rainfall. They’re fairly common in the southwestern mountains. The Apache, Hopi, Navajo, Isleta, Tewa, Zuni, and other Indians ate wild potatoes, at least when more preferable foods became scarce. Some of these people considered wild potatoes to be a food of desperate times. When preparing wild potatoes, they sometimes added magnesia clay to the cooking water to help counteract the irritants. The potatoes I prepared were simply peeled and then boiled in spring water. They were not overly bitter or astringent. Wild foods tend to vary in quality. Considering the Native American viewpoint, harsh qualities can be expected in some populations of wild potatoes. Wild foods usually taste worse than I expect, but wild potatoes were fairly good. Overall, wild potatoes seem to be a valuable resource.

IDENTIFICATION: The Solanum genus is represented by 50-60 species in the United States, of which about 15 occur in the Southwest and Great Basin. Wild potatoes have single-pinnate leaves with 5-11 leaflets. They produce berries rather than capsules, and always arise from tubers.

Description of blue potato (Solanum fendleri): FORM perennial plant about 10-40 cm tall emerging from a rounded tuber; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades odd pinnate; leaflets 5-9, rounded; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or a few in clusters arising from the terminals, axils, or near the axils (extra-axillary); calyces 5-lobed; corollas bell- or wheel-shaped, 5-lobed, and sky blue; styles 1; stamens 5; anthers opening by terminal pores or slits; FRUITS berries, not enclosed by the calyces; HABITAT juniper, oak, and pine woodlands; primarily in Arizona and New Mexico; blooming in summer.

Description of white potato (Solanum jamesii): FORM perennial plant about 10-40 cm tall emerging from a rounded tuber; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades odd pinnate; leaflets 5-9, lanceolate; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or a few in clusters arising from the terminals, axils, or near the axils (extra-axillary); calyces 5-lobed; corollas bell- or wheel-shaped, 5-lobed, and white; styles 1; stamens 5; anthers opening by terminal pores or slits; FRUITS berries, not enclosed by the calyces; HABITAT juniper, oak, and pine woodlands; primarily in Arizona and New Mexico; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: #1 blue potato (Solanum fendleri): tubers Couplan (p. 353), Harrington (pp. 213-215), and Moerman (p. 248). #2 white potato (Solanum jamesii): tubers Couplan (p. 353), Harrington (pp. 213-215), and Moerman (pp. 247-248).

Fully ripe berries of black nightshade (S. nigrum), cutleaf nightshade (S. triflorum) and purple nightshade (S. xanti) are reported to be edible (Moerman p. 248). Fully ripe berries of American nightshade (S. americanum) and greenspot nightshade (S. douglasii) are also reported to be edible (Hodgson p. 239).