Liliaceae

Lily Family

FAMILY OVERVIEW: Note that related plants may be found in the amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceae) or asparagus family (Asparagaceae). Certain members of the lily family are valuable resources, but other members are dangerous poisons. Bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes, and young stalks are the parts most often utilized as food in the lily family. Leaves, fruits, seeds, and other parts are rarely worth harvesting. Underground parts are important to observe when identifying members of this family. Major divisions are often based on the structure of these parts. Species producing bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes are of special interest to foragers. Bulbs (such as onions) are modified buds with stem-like cores enveloped by several layers of fleshy scales. Corms are thick, solid, modified stems surrounded by papery leaves. Tubers (such as potatoes) are thick, solid, modified roots or rhizomes lacking leafy coverings and lacking basal plates. A more simplistic though less precise interpretation is that bulbs are thickened leaves, corms are thickened stem bases, and tubers are thickened roots or rhizomes. New stems can arise from anywhere on tubers. In bulbs and corms they always arise from the top, and roots develop from basal plates on the bottom. Bulbs differ from corms by appearing layered in cross section rather than solid. Rhizomes are horizontal, underground, stem-like structures. Members of the lily family typically have leaves with parallel veins and flowers with 3 sepals, 3 petals, and 6 stamens. When sepals and petals cannot be readily differentiated, the terms “tepals” or “perianth parts” are often applied to indicate the similarity of these parts. Several members of the lily family are poisonous. Only members of the family that are known to be edible should ever be eaten.

Sego Lilies

FAMILY: Lily family (Liliaceae) – Calochortus genus.

SPECIES: #1 Arizona or doubting mariposa lily (Calochortus ambiguus (M. E. Jones) Ownbey). #2 golden mariposa lily (Calochortus aureus S. Watson). #3 winding mariposa lily (Calochortus flexuosus S. Watson). #4 Gunnison’s mariposa lily (Calochortus gunnisonii S. Watson). #5 Kennedy’s or desert mariposa lily (Calochortus kennedyi Porter). #6 sego lily (Calochortus nuttallii Torr. & A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Several species of the Calochortus genus are protected. All species listed above have edible bulbs that were important resources for Native Americans and early settlers. In addition, species 2, 4, and 6 have edible leaves and seeds, but these parts may be unsafe. Sego and mariposa lilies generally bloom from mid to late spring. Bulbs can be gathered at that time or any time they can be located. Leaves and seeds have a more restricted gathering season. The bulbs are considerably more valuable than the leaves or seeds, and the well-documented usage of the bulbs as food should negate any concerns over safety. Sego and mariposa lilies have the ability to grow on poor-quality soils. They often thrive where other plants would not endure the conditions.

Bulbs of sego lilies (C. nuttallii) have an appeal rarely found in wild foods. There’s nothing unpleasant about them except for trying to gather enough, which ranges from hard to harder depending on soil conditions. Sandy soils greatly ease the burden of gathering, but sego lilies seem to prefer rocky situations or the protective cover of woody shrubs. The energy required to obtain a meal can easily exceed what the meal provides in return. Vast colonies of these plants emerge from little bulbs in spring, or later in the year at higher elevations. Fresh bulbs have a smooth, crisp, uniform, nonslimy texture. Cooked bulbs have the consistency of baked potatoes. Any method of cooking yields sweet, starchy, delicious results that suggest potatoes rather than onions. No harsh accents compromise the flavor. Perennial root systems absorb water every chance they get, and sego lilies are no exception. Even when other parts look dry, brown, and lifeless, the bulbs remain moist, tender, and full of life. Because of this fact, the bulbs can be gathered anytime. The key is finding them. Sego lily fruits (dry capsules) may be less attractive than the flowers, but they act like signposts indicating where the bulbs are located long after the flowers wither and the seeds disperse. Knowing how to recognize the capsules effectively extends the harvest season several weeks, or even months. The capsules are light brown, 3-parted, and easy to spot. Eventually, all the aerial portions wither and blow away. At that point, bulb locations will be lost until the following year when young plants arise once again to continue the cycle. Sego lily bulbs are a top-quality wild food, but other parts are less appealing.

Seeds of sego lilies (C. nuttallii) are round, flat, tan, and stacked like pennies inside dry, 3-parted capsules. Gathering a supply is easy. Mature capsules tend to remain upright. This orientation, along with the sturdy stems, prevents the seeds from dispersing in strong winds. Seeds can remain available well into summer. Upper seeds tend to fall, while lower seeds remain trapped. Sego lily seeds toast quickly and darken in the process. They smell absolutely wonderful—like pancakes or muffins. They’re bran-like in texture, grain-like in flavor, bitter, sweet, harsh, and acrid all at the same time. The overall combination is unpleasant. The carbohydrate value is high, but these seeds are a poor choice for making porridge due to the harsh overtones. Boiled seeds become clear yellow. The resulting broth is also yellow and less acrid than the seeds. Coarsely grinding the toasted seeds, followed by boiling, filtering, and concentrating, yields a delicious beverage that may be the best way to enjoy sego lily seeds. Chaff is generally not a problem, except for the capsule walls. Careful collection can yield pure seeds (still in the husks). Actual seeds are paper thin and essentially impossible to separate from the husks. Overall, sego lily seeds are a poor-quality wild food that may be unsafe, but the bulbs are excellent.

NOTES: Sego lily is the state flower of Utah. The name originates from a Native American word for the plant. Early settlers soon came to depend upon sego lilies after swarms of crickets (Anabrus simplex) devastated farmlands year after year. Even today, these crickets are considered a threat to agriculture and various management strategies (especially pesticide-laden bait) are employed to reduce losses. Technically, the crickets are katydids that grow about 4-7 cm long.

My experience with the Calochortus genus is based on sego lily (C. nuttallii) and winding mariposa lily (C. flexuosus). Although I found most species listed above, they were often in protected areas where gathering them would have been unlawful, so I left them alone. Differences in the edibility of sego lily and winding mariposa lily are insignificant. Bulbs of other species may also taste similar, but confirmation of this presumption would require samples. For some reason, I didn’t try the leaves of any species. Leaves in the Calochortus genus are generally grass-like. Only a few occur on each plant. Gathering enough for a meal might take all day. Native Americans rarely ate the leaves or seeds. Most references clearly indicate that the bulbs were the most-valued part.

Other species with edible bulbs include: Santa Catalina mariposa lily (Calochortus catalinae S. Watson); golden-bowl mariposa lily (Calochortus concolor (Baker) Purdy); smokey mariposa lily (Calochortus leichtlinii Hook. f.); yellow mariposa lily (Calochortus luteus Douglas ex Lindl.); Palmer’s mariposa lily (Calochortus palmeri S. Watson); butterfly mariposa lily (Calochortus venustus Douglas ex Benth.); and coast range mariposa lily (Calochortus vestae Purdy). Native Americans of southern California relied on the bulbs of these species (Moerman pp. 67-69).

IDENTIFICATION: About 70 species of the Calochortus genus are found in the United States, mostly in the West (especially California). Only 7 species occur in the Southwest, Great Basin, and southern Rocky Mountains. Recognizing the genus is easy, but exact species are more challenging to identify. Observing distribution patterns is helpful. Most species have a preferred territory. Sepals and petals often look similar in lily flowers, but these parts are clearly differentiated in the Calochortus genus. Sepals may match the petals in color, but they’re usually green and narrower. The conspicuous nectar glands at the petal bases are also helpful for recognizing this genus.

Description of mariposa lilies (the Calochortus genus): FORM small perennial plants emerging from bulbs; LEAVES simple; concentrated basally and alternating along the stems; blades linear, grass-like; margins entire; surfaces hairless; FLOWERS showy, regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or a few in clusters; perianth parts clearly differentiated into sepals and petals; sepals 3, free, and often green or narrower than the petals; petals 3, free, white, yellow, orange, pink, purple, or other colors; bases of petals hairy and bearing conspicuous nectar glands; pistils 1; styles absent; stigmas 3; stamens 6; FRUITS capsules 3-chambered, and often 3-angled or 3-winged; seeds numerous, arranged in 2 rows per chamber; HABITAT deserts, dry hillsides, open ground, and mesas across the Southwest; blooming in spring or summer.

REFERENCES: #1 Arizona mariposa lily (Calochortus ambiguus): bulbs Tull (2013). #2 golden mariposa lily (Calochortus aureus): bulbs, young leaves, and seeds Couplan (pp. 506-507). #3 winding mariposa lily (Calochortus flexuosus): bulbs Rhode (pp. 179-180) and Tull (2013). #4 Gunnison’s mariposa lily (Calochortus gunnisonii): bulbs, young leaves, and seeds Couplan (pp. 506-507). #5 Kennedy’s mariposa lily (Calochortus kennedyi): bulbs Rhode (pp. 179-180) and Tull (2013). #6 sego lily (Calochortus nuttallii): bulbs, young leaves, and seeds Couplan (pp. 506-507).

Yellow Fawn Lily

FAMILY: Lily family (Liliaceae) – Erythronium genus.

SPECIES: Yellow fawn lily, avalanche lily, glacier lily, trout lily, or dog-tooth violet (Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Although Native Americans consumed the corms both raw and cooked, consuming the corms raw or in quantity may cause nausea, vomiting, excess salivation, difficulties in breathing, or increased heart rate. Consuming the leaves is even more likely to cause these problems. Most edibility reports are for the corms, not the leaves. Some species are more harmful than others. Compounds called tuliposides, which are the same toxins found in tulips, are widespread in the Erythronium genus. Considering the extensive use of the cooked corms of Erythronium grandiflorum as food by Native Americans, concerns over the toxicity of this species can, for the most part, be dismissed. Some people could be more sensitive to these compounds than others and some Native Americans did consider the plants toxic. Nevertheless, the plants were a staple food item. From the plant’s perspective, tuliposides play a defensive role against fungal attacks. Most species of the Erythronium genus are native to North America. Wherever they grow, they tend to grow in colonies, and these colonies can be extensive. Only yellow fawn lily grows in the southwestern United States.

Yellow fawn lily (E. grandiflorum) corms taste very similar to potatoes, despite their onion-like texture and appearance. Outer skins are dark brown and papery. They easily peel away. No harsh overtones compromise the flavor. Any method of cooking yields good results. Fire roasting is particularly good. Yellow fawn lily is a small plant that arises in vast colonies soon after winter snowfall melts. Aspen forests are a good place to search for this wild food. The corms are typically buried about 15-25 cm deep, directly below the stem bases. Acquiring a supply requires some effort, but the reward is worth the effort. Corms average 7-12 mm in diameter and tend to be longer than wide, often much longer. All plants are roughly the same height, but some produce bigger corms than others. None of the aboveground features seem to correlate with corm size. Small colonies are best left alone until reaching a size sufficient for gathering. Traditionally, the corms were gathered from early summer to late autumn. Corms are smallest when the plants are blooming, so it’s best to gather them before or after that time. Overall, yellow fawn lily corms are an excellent, early-season resource.

Yellow fawn lily (E. grandiflorum) leaves were not sampled for this reference, but foraging expert Doug Benoliel describes them as good and slightly sweet. Each plant only has 2 leaves, so gathering enough for a meal would be time consuming. Gathering just one of the two leaves gives the plant a chance to survive. Despite reports indicating the leaves are edible, Native Americans generally gathered the corms rather than the leaves.

NOTES: Yellow fawn lilies can carpet the forest floor with a blanket of yellow soon after the snow melts. It’s still very cold in the mountains at that time, but yellow fawn lilies don’t seem to mind. They often grow in association with western springbeauty and Great Basin Indian potatoes. Tubers of these latter species can be gathered along with the corms of yellow fawn lilies. Various mustards are usually available as well. All these plants take advantage of the plentiful sunlight of early spring before deciduous trees develop leaves that shade the forest floor. Keep in mind that spring arrives later in the mountains than it does in the deserts. May might not sound early to a desert forager, but high in the mountains in the northern reaches of the Southwest the month of May can still be winter. Yellow fawn lilies grow over a wide range of elevations and bloom over a period of several months, usually April to July. The gathering season extends from this time until winter reclaims the landscape. Yellow fawn lily corms can be gathered anytime the aboveground parts are recognizable—even after the plants have produced seeds and started to wither. Authors of books about edible plants often use language intended to discourage people from eating certain plants, especially plants in the lily family. In my opinion, that type of language seems contradictory to writing about edible plants, but there is a reason for it. Members of the lily family often produce beautiful flowers that people want to protect, so they say things like: it’s rare, it’s difficult to gather, it’s too beautiful to justify eating, it tastes bad, it’ll make you sick, or it should only be eaten in an emergency. The truth is yellow fawn is abundant, reasonably easy to gather, and delicious. It’s certainly beautiful, but if gathered responsibly, it can be enjoyed without threatening its well-being. I believe in the truth and I leave the moral decision to you. Anyone that seriously intends to succeed at foraging needs a continuous supply of food year after year, so over-harvesting a colony of plants is in no one’s interest. Most foragers already understand this and compensate for any decline by planting a few seeds. I wrote this book assuming that people are going to eat plants, so language discouraging the interest in foraging is intentionally left out. Yellow fawn lilies were once a staple of life and an article of trade in the northwestern United States (Kuhnlein pp. 87-89). Plants of that stature cannot be rare or harmful. Families from faraway places once journeyed to areas where yellow fawn lilies thrived to partake in annual harvests. Digging sites were even maintained with controlled fires. Yellow fawn lily is a special plant that deserves a prominent place in a forager’s mindset.

IDENTIFICATION: About 20 species of the Erythronium genus are found in the United States, none of which are common in the Southwest. Yellow fawn lily (E. grandiflorum) has 2 subspecies. Only the grandiflorum subspecies grows southward to the northern half of the Southwest.

Description of yellow fawn lily (Erythronium grandiflorum): FORM scapose, perennial plant about 5-30 cm tall emerging from a corm; LEAVES simple; occurring in 1 pair that’s apparently basal and opposite; blades lanceolate; margins entire; surfaces hairless and uniformly green or slightly mottled; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, showy, nodding, and arranged individually or a few in open racemes; bracts not present; tepals 6, free, all similar, yellow, strongly reflexed, and about 20-35 mm long; styles 1; stigmas 3; stamens 6; FRUITS capsules; HABITAT pine, spruce, and aspen forests, margins of melting snowfields; northern New Mexico to northern California and northward into Canada; blooming April to July.

REFERENCES: Yellow fawn lily (Erythronium grandiflorum): roots (corms) Couplan (p. 509), Kuhnlein (pp. 87-89), Moerman (p. 112), and Tilford (p. 64); leaves Benoliel (pp. 91-92), Couplan (p. 509), Olsen (p. 107), and Tilford (p. 64). References to toxicity: Burrows (p. 795) and Turner (1991 pp. 221-222).

Fritillary

FAMILY: Lily family (Liliaceae) – Fritillaria genus.

SPECIES: #1 Spotted fritillary or leopard lily (Fritillaria atropurpurea Nutt.). #2 yellow fritillary or yellow bells (Fritillaria pudica (Pursh) Spreng.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Many species are rare and protected. Both species listed above produce small bulbs and even smaller rice-like bulblets on the sides that are edible. Since these plants prefer more northern latitudes, they’re of minor importance to southwestern foragers.

Spotted fritillary (F. atropurpurea) produces clusters of tiny bulbs at the bases of short stems. Fresh bulbs have a crispy texture and bitter flavor. Cooking softens the texture and brings out a sweet, starchy, potato-like flavor. Any method of cooking yields excellent results, especially baking. Some bitterness may persist, but usually not enough to compromise the appealing flavor. Spotted fritillary bulbs are rather small and seem intent upon lodging between a rock and a hard place, but they’re worth the effort of gathering if a sizable colony can be located. Beware of death camas (of the Zigadenus genus) when gathering these bulbs. Death camas bulbs are poisonous. To ensure the correct bulbs are being gathered, observe the aboveground portions of the plants (particularly the leaves and flowers) and make sure they connect to the spotted fritillary bulbs. Overall, spotted fritillary is a fine resource. Conservation and cultivation are encouraged to help ensure the continued survival of this remarkable plant.

Yellow fritillary (F. pudica) bulbs are essentially the same as spotted fritillary bulbs described above, at least in terms of taste, texture, aroma, and size. Gathering and processing dynamics are also essentially the same. Throughout its natural range, yellow fritillary was an important resource for Native Americans. It’s common in the northern extremes of the Southwest and northward into Canada. In Montana, the bulbs were traditionally gathered in May along with bitterroots that were also ready at that time. The fruiting pods of yellow fritillary are also reported to be edible. Author and botanist Jeff Hart (p. 47) described them favorably when prepared with butter, salt, and pepper. Yellow fritillary is a sign of spring. 

IDENTIFICATION: The Fritillaria genus is represented by 20-25 species in the United States, all of which are native to the West, mainly California, Oregon, and Washington. Only the 2 species described below occur in the Southwest, mainly in the northern extremes.

Description of spotted fritillary (Fritillaria atropurpurea): FORM small, perennial plant emerging from a bulb; several additional bulblets often present; LEAVES simple; alternate or sub-whorled; blades linear; margins entire; surfaces hairless; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, nodding, and arranged individually or a few in open racemes; tepals 6, all similar, free, yellow with purplish-brown spots; each tepal base with a glandular area and tiny nectary; styles 1, united at the bases and splitting into 3 branches; stamens 6; FRUITS capsules with 3 chambers; HABITAT rocky mountain meadows and open woodlands; throughout much of the western United States; blooming April to July. 

Description of yellow fritillary (Fritillaria pudica): FORM small, perennial plant emerging from a bulb; several additional bulblets often present; LEAVES simple; alternate or sub-whorled; blades linear-oblanceolate; margins entire; surfaces hairless; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, nodding, and usually solitary; tepals 6, all similar, free, and yellow; each tepal base with a tiny nectary; styles 1, unbranched; stigmas disk-like; stamens 6; FRUITS capsules with 3 chambers; HABITAT rocky mountain meadows and open woodlands; northern Colorado to northern California and northward into Canada; blooming March to June.

REFERENCES: #1 spotted fritillary (Fritillaria atropurpurea): bulbs Benoliel (p. 39) and Couplan (pp. 509-510). #2 yellow fritillary (Fritillaria pudica): bulbs Couplan (pp. 509-510), Hart (p. 47), and Tilford (p. 168); fruiting pods Hart (p. 47).

Clasping Twisted Stalk

FAMILY: Lily family (Liliaceae) – Streptopus genus.

SPECIES: Clasping twisted stalk, wild cucumber, liver-berry, or scoot-berry (Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) DC.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Toxic saponins capable of causing digestive problems and the destruction of red blood cells (hemolysis) render all parts of clasping twisted stalk dangerous to consume in quantity. The shoots, leaves, and berries are reported to be edible, but caution is strongly advised.

Mature berries are red, ellipsoid, about 10-12 mm long, and filled with many seeds. When eaten fresh, they taste soapy, fruity, and very similar to cucumbers. Sweetness is minimal. Acrid and resinous qualities are also minimal. It’s not a very inspiring combination of flavors, and the texture is terribly slimy. Only a few berries occur on each plant, and the plants are uncommon in the Southwest. Berries turn from green to orange and finally to red when fully mature. The slimy pulp is also red. Seeds immersed within the pulp are soft and whitish-tan. Overall, clasping twisted stalk berries seem to be of minor importance to southwestern foragers.

NOTES: My experience with clasping twisted stalk is limited to a lone colony in the Abajo Mountains of southeastern Utah. This is hardly enough to base a review on, but my experience is consistent with those of other authors, with the exception that some authors describe the berries as being sweeter than what I’ve indicated. Since wild foods tend to have a range of flavors, it’s likely that additional samplings would confirm, or possibly refute, that some colonies produce sweeter berries. Wetter climates could also affect the flavor. Clasping twisted stalk grows primarily in the northern United States and Canada. The Abajo Mountains are toward the southern extent of its range, where the drier climate may produce berries of inferior quality.

IDENTIFICATION: The Streptopus genus is represented by 4 species in the United States, of which only twisted stalk (S. amplexifolius) grows in the Southwest. It looks similar to plants of the Maianthemum (formerly the Smilacina) genus. The difference is that twisted stalk has only 1-2 flowers apparently emerging from the leaf axils and Maianthemum species have numerous flowers in terminal clusters.

Description of clasping twisted stalk (Streptopus amplexifolius): FORM perennial plant about 5-12 dm tall emerging from a rhizome; stems branching; LEAVES simple; alternate; bases clasping the stems; blades lance-ovate; margins entire; surfaces hairless; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, bell-shaped, and arranged individually or in pairs on distinctively twisted stalks partially fused to the stems so that they apparently emerge from the leaf axils; tepals 6, all petal-like, free, greenish-white to yellowish, and with narrow spreading to recurved lobes; styles 1, undivided; stigmas minutely lobed; stamens 6; filaments short, broad, and flat; FRUITS berries ellipsoid, red when mature, and many seeded; HABITAT moist canyons or marshy meadows; Rocky Mountains of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico; blooming May to July.

REFERENCES: Clasping twisted stalk (Streptopus amplexifolius): shoots, leaves, and berries Angier (p. 236) and Moerman (pp. 252-253); berries Ebeling (p. 468), Kirk (pp. 161-163), and Tilford (p. 146).