Apiaceae

Parsley Family

FAMILY OVERVIEW: The parsley family (Apiaceae), also called the carrot family or the umbel family, is one of the best, one of the most difficult, and undoubtedly one of the most dangerous groups of plants. The deadliest plants in North America, spotted hemlock and water hemlock, belong to this family, so warnings about poisonous plants that look similar to edible ones should be taken very seriously. See the osha (Ligusticum) and water parsnip (Sium) articles for more details on these plants. Recognizing the parsley family is easy, but identifying the species can be difficult.

Special terms that apply to the parsley family are covered here. In the parsley family, leaves tend to be compound and arranged alternately. Flowers are ovary inferior and arranged in compound (or occasionally simple) umbels. Each flower has 5 free petals; 1 pistil with 2 chambers; 2 styles; and 5 stamens. The petals are typically white, yellow, or purple. Bases of the styles are often unusually thick. These extra thick style bases are called stylopodiums. Only certain species have them. The fruits are usually more distinctive than the flowers and usually necessary for identification. Always pay attention to the fruits in this family. The fruits (schizocarps) consist of two dry halves (mericarps) united by their faces (commissures). Each half has 5 ribs: 3 on the back called dorsal ribs, and 2 on the edges called lateral ribs. In some species the ribs extend into wings, ridges, or barbs. The fruit halves can be compressed side-to-side (also called laterally or perpendicular to the commissure) or face-to-face (also called back-to-back, dorsally, or parallel to the commissure). Mature fruit halves are attached by stalk-like structures called carpophores. These structures may be conspicuous or inconspicuous. Almost every genus in the parsley family has at least one similar-looking genus separated by the slightest details, and these details aren’t always consistent. Two final terms are involucres and involucels, which are also called bracts and bractlets, respectively. Involucres subtend the primary umbels, and involucels subtend the secondary umbels. These parts are important diagnostic features of the parsley family.

Young plants of just about everything in the parsley family look very similar, so never eat young plants in this family. Always wait until the flowers and fruits are available for examination. Both of these parts are needed to accurately identify anything in this family. Also, plants of the parsley family that are not reported to be edible should never be consumed. It’s not the kind of family to mess with. The human sense of smell, which isn’t very good compared to that of most animals, can be of help in recognizing certain aromatic members of the parsley family.

Furanocoumarins: Various parts of several members in the parsley family contain potentially harmful compounds called furanocoumarins (also known as phototoxins) that are capable of causing extreme sensitivity to sunlight, irritation in the mouth, contact dermatitis, and skin damage that heals very slowly. Consuming or handling the parts followed by exposure to sunlight triggers the adverse effects. These adverse effects are mainly limited to grazing animals, but humans are also susceptible, especially foragers subsisting on plants high in these compounds. Furanocoumarins are generally resistant to heat but soluble in water. So from a forager’s perspective, soaking or cooking the various parts in water is the most effective way to eliminate these compounds. A condition called “celery dermatitis” caused by exposure to furanocoumarins occurs in celery harvesters (celery is a member of the parsley family). This condition is characterized by blistering of the skin in areas exposed to sunlight. Handling other plants in the parsley family, such as cow parsnip, can cause similar problems. Foragers with sensitive skin should probably consider wearing gloves and protective clothing when harvesting members of the parsley family. Furanocoumarins are light-activated carcinogens. Risk assessments conducted by health authorities in the United States and other countries concluded that the average dietary intake of these compounds in commercially grown foods does not pose any significant health risks (Lawley pp. 270-272). Wild foods can be substantially higher in furanocoumarins, so limiting consumption of plants high in these compounds combined with adequate cooking is recommended.

Rabbit Lettuce

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Bowlesia genus.

SPECIES: Rabbit lettuce, hairy bowlesia, false cilantro, or desert cilantro (Bowlesia incana Ruiz & Pav.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Rabbit lettuce is edible fresh or cooked. Fresh leaves taste mild and similar to cilantro, which is also in the parsley family. Branched (stellate) hairs cover most parts of rabbit lettuce, including the leaves, but the hairs are too weak to cause irritation. Very few desert plants actually qualify as suitable for seasonings. Rabbit lettuce is one of those few. It makes an excellent seasoning. It’s not as good as cilantro, but the relationship is unmistakable. Dried leaves retain the pleasant flavor and aroma, and readily crumble into flakes that can be stored for future use along with other seasonings. The stems and flowers don’t need to be removed. These parts are delicate. Colonies of rabbit lettuce come up early in the filtered shade of shrubs and trees, seeming to prefer the north side where the shade arc is greatest. Look for rabbit lettuce in the desert anytime from January to April. Gathering a supply is easy, and well worth the effort.

NOTES: Rabbit lettuce came to me by luck, somewhat like finding a coin as you’re walking across a parking lot. Only a few authors mention it as an edible plant and they don’t describe it as very appealing, so I wasn’t expecting it to be very good. After trying rabbit lettuce for the first time in the Little Horn Mountains of western Arizona, I soon discovered my expectation was way off target. Rabbit lettuce was delicious. Additional samplings from central Arizona confirmed the initial sampling. In places like the Little Horn Mountains, it’s normal for small plants to congregate in the protective shade of shrubs and trees, and that’s because plants failing to “find shade” tend to get cooked by the desert sun, rather promptly. Winter temperatures in the Little Horn Mountains are equivalent to summer temperatures across the northern United States, which means plants can grow year-round. The selection of plants is rather limited, but the ones that are available tend to be very common. All the rabbit lettuce I gathered was young, healthy, and mild-flavored. It’s possible that older plants develop a strong flavor, and that this may account for some of the less favorable reviews by other authors. It’s also possible that plants growing in certain areas or under certain conditions are less suitable for consumption, or perhaps my taste buds simply approve of this wild food. In any case, I’ve never had any bad experiences with rabbit lettuce.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Bowlesia genus is found in the United States. Rabbit lettuce has simple leaves and simple umbels, both of which are uncommon trends in the parsley family. These features combined with the distinctive leaf shape and branched hairs covering most parts are sure signs of rabbit lettuce.

Description of rabbit lettuce (Bowlesia incana): FORM aromatic, annual plant about 3-30 cm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate or opposite; stipules present; stalks long; blades rounded in outline and shortly palmately lobed; surfaces covered with branched hairs (stellate); FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in simple few-flowered umbels on short stalks emerging from the axils; bracts small; calyx teeth prominent; petals 5, free, white, yellow, green, or purple; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps plump, weakly compressed back-to-back (dorsally), and covered with stellate hairs; HABITAT deserts, frequently in the shade of shrubs; blooming in late winter or early spring.

REFERENCES: Rabbit lettuce (Bowlesia incana): leaves Austin (pp. 40-41) and Kane (2011).

Wavywings

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Cymopterus genus.

SPECIES: #1 bulb wavywing (Cymopterus bulbosus A. Nelson). #2 globe wavywing (Cymopterus globosus (S. Watson) S. Watson). #3 Fendler’s, Greeley’s, Higgins’ or plains spring-parsley (Cymopterus glomeratus (Nutt.) DC. = Cymopterus acaulis (Pursh) Raf. – including all former varieties). #4 longstalk wavywing (Cymopterus longipes S. Watson). #5 purplenerve wavywing (Cymopterus multinervatus (J. M. Coult. & Rose) Tidestr.). #6 Newberry’s sweetroot (Cymopterus newberryi (S. Watson) M. E. Jones). #7 widewing wavywing (Cymopterus purpurascens (A. Gray) M. E. Jones). #8 purple wavywing (Cymopterus purpureus S. Watson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Various parts of species in the Cymopterus genus contain compounds called furanocoumarins (also known as phototoxins) that are capable of causing sensitivity to sunlight, irritation in the mouth, contact dermatitis, and blistering of the skin. These problems are mainly limited to grazing animals, but humans are also susceptible. According to Burrows (pp. 70-71), Cymopterus ibapensis = Cymopterus watsonii, is the only species clearly known to cause problems, and these problems are in sheep. Lawley (pp. 270-272) reports that furanocoumarins are generally resistant to heat and soluble in water. So from a forager’s perspective, soaking or cooking plants of the Cymopterus genus in water would be the best way to eliminate these compounds.

Native Americans once utilized all species listed above as a source of roots and leaves. Additional species are likely to be edible. However, the Cymopterus genus is complex and some species could be harmful. Most species appear early in the season, often emerging through melting snow, hence the name spring-parsley. These plants have no fear of snow and seem to understand that rain may not fall for a while. Elevation influences when spring starts in the Southwest, so these plants bloom closer to summer at higher elevations where the name summer-parsley might be more appropriate. Roots of the various species sampled for this reference consistently tasted similar to parsnips, often with an earthy, resinous, or alkaline accent. Some roots tasted sweeter than others, but they all tasted reasonably good. Leaves had a broader range of flavors. Some leaves were suitable for salads, while others challenged the limitations of palatability. Only a few species had leaves that tasted like parsley, so the name spring-parsley seems a little off target. Species listed above are best utilized as a source of roots rather than leaves.

Bulb wavywing (C. bulbosus) grows primarily in the Four Corners region and northward to Wyoming. It produces good-quality roots and fair-quality leaves. The leaves are mild enough to eat raw, but they taste better cooked. Either way, they tend to have an alkaline flavor. The roots taste much better than the leaves. Fresh roots are moist, tender, and similar to potatoes with a parsnip accent. Peeling the skins reduces any alkaline overtones. Chewy, stringy, fibrous material is minimal in this species. The roots are almost pure starch. Seasonal growing conditions and soil composition affect root quality. Roots of bulb wavywings are much larger than the aboveground parts seem to indicate. Baking the roots produces a fine-quality meal. Relatively few wild plants produce roots that are suitable for baking, but those of bulb wavywings are indeed suitable for this method of cooking. Boiling the roots also produces good results. Overall, bulb wavywing is a fine resource.

Globe wavywing (C. globosus) is a native species found primarily in the Great Basin. The name refers to the tightly-packed, globe-shaped flower/seed heads. Paiute Indians called this plant “yaditsi” and utilized the roots and leaves as food. Globe wavywing was the only species listed above that I didn’t find, so I can’t describe its flavor or assess its potential to serve as food. Globe wavywing prefers sandy soils in valleys and foothills. Like most species, it blooms early, typically from April to May. That may not sound early to southwestern foragers, but winter’s grip doesn’t let go as early in the Great Basin. Flowers are either white or purple. Very few Cymopterus species have globe-shaped flower/seed heads, so that feature can assist foragers in recognizing this age-old wild food.

Plains spring-parsley (C. glomeratus) grows from Texas to North Dakota and westward to the Great Basin. It produces excellent roots and leaves. Fresh leaves taste mild enough to enjoy in salads, even as a main ingredient. They’re essentially free of acrid resins and possess a faint sweetness combined with a parsley-like overtone. Very few members of the genus have leaves tasting so mild and flavorful. Upper leaf surfaces are glossy, tacky, and often covered with sand. Entire plants can be uprooted, chopped, and tossed into a stewpot. The roots taste even better than the leaves and rank among the best wild foods in the Canyonlands. People that walked the ancient trails long before cities appeared must have greatly appreciated these hearty little roots. After brief boiling, the flavor approaches sweet and the texture becomes tender. An earthy accent accompanies the starchy sweetness. These qualities are based on the formerly recognized fendleri and greeleyorum varieties from southeastern Utah. Overall, plains spring-parsley is a top-quality species.

Ibapah wavywing (C. ibapensis) is found primarily in the Great Basin. This species is not reported to be edible and the leaves are known to cause problems in grazing animals. Based on flavor, Ibapah wavywing produces excellent roots, but this is not an endorsement for the safety of these roots. Freshly dug roots are pleasantly aromatic, yet low in resins. Strong aromas prevalent in the parsley family often indicate the presence of acrid resins, so the lack of aromas is generally a good sign. Roots of Ibapah wavywings taste mild, starchy, sweetish, and similar to parsnips. The texture is nonfibrous and completely chewable. A trace of bitterness is noticeable in the skins, so peeling the skins may be desirable. All cooking methods produce good results, especially baking, steaming, or sautéing. Simmering the roots produces a hearty broth that’s ideal for soups. The broth also compliments whole grain entrées. Harvesting the roots requires some effort, but the reward is worth the effort. Based on flavor, texture, and aroma, Ibapah wavywings seem to be an excellent resource, but confirmation of its edibility was not possible.

Longstalk wavywing (C. longipes) is found primarily in northern Utah, southeastern Idaho, and the adjacent parts of Colorado and Wyoming. It has white- and yellow-flowered forms. This plant is very similar to Ibapah wavywing described above, except the roots tend to be chewier and the leaves tend to be more acrid. Based on the white-flowered plants that I sampled, the taste, texture, and aroma varied to some extent, but these aspects were consistently agreeable.

Purplenerve wavywing (C. multinervatus) can be found in desert settings and other arid situations from New Mexico to California to southern Nevada and Utah. It produces excellent-quality roots, but the leaves are terribly unappealing. Consumption of the leaves, fresh or cooked, is not recommended due to a strong burning sensation similar to that caused by oxalates. This burning sensation is unaffected by cooking. Resemblance to parsley is not a trait of this species. The roots taste vastly superior and lack the problems associated with the leaves. Acquiring the roots is relatively easy, since they grow near the surface in moderately soft soils. Open juniper woodlands fed by melting snow are prime habitats to search in early spring. Purplenerve wavywing roots are available when few other resources can be found in such abundance. They must have been a welcome sight in the past. Freshly dug roots are white with brown skins, and lack the aromatic qualities typical of the family. Lack of aroma is actually a good sign. Aromatic resins may smell good, but they taste awful. For the best flavor, peeling the skins and boiling the roots is recommended. After brief boiling, the roots taste similar to a combination of parsnips, potatoes, and squash. A resinous accent may be apparent, but the flavor is excellent. The texture is light, firm, airy, spongy, and stringy. Higher-quality roots taste sweetish. Lower-quality roots taste bland. Overall, the roots are an excellent wild food, but the leaves are best left alone.

Newberry’s sweetroot (C. newberryi) produces roots and leaves that taste roughly equivalent to those of the better-quality species described above.

Widewing wavywing (C. purpurascens) produces roots and leaves that are essentially the same as those of purplenerve wavywing (C. multinervatus) described above. Roots of both species are highly palatable, but the leaves are terribly unappealing. Widewing wavywing is found in poor-quality soils throughout the greater Intermountain Region.

Purple wavywing (C. purpureus) grows in poor-quality soils throughout the greater Intermountain Region. It produces fairly good roots, and the leaves are often mild enough to consume fresh. A resinous flavor permeates the herbaceous parts. Simmering the leaves highlights this resinous flavor and infuses the surroundings with the aroma of parsley, vegetables, and air freshener. A foul accent may also be present. Overall, the leaves are mild, chewable, and suitable for salads. They rank as a decent vegetable, but note that allergic reactions may be an issue. As with many species, the roots are a better resource than the leaves. Roots of purple wavywings rank as moderately flavorful and moderately fibrous. They’re not as starchy as roots of other species, but chewing them won’t take all day. Peeling the skins is recommended to improve the flavor. Steaming is also recommended because boiling washes out the flavor and baking toughens the texture. Traditionally, Native Americans steamed food items in pits lined with hot coals. A thin layer of dirt, sand, or gravel was placed over the coals, which formed a stove-like surface. Food items were then wrapped with leaves and placed on the hot surface. The leaves created steam that kept the items moist. Items requiring extended cooking were buried in these “earth ovens” and left to cook overnight. Note that the leaves impart flavor and only nonpoisonous leaves should be used. Birch, maple, or willow leaves are safe choices. Purple wavywing roots are well suited for this traditional method of cooking. Overall, the roots and leaves of purple wavywings are good resources.

NOTES: Wavywings are good plants. A few species have unappealing leaves, but the roots are consistently good. At worst, the roots may taste bland, but even these bland roots are free of harsh flavors. Based on the species I sampled, which was most of the species commonly used by Native Americans, I would say wavywings (Cymopterus) are better than biscuitroots (Lomatium), with a few exceptions. Wavywings thrive in poor-quality soils. Any foragers seriously considering the Southwest should be familiar with these little plants. The first species I found was widewing wavywing (C. purpurascens) in the Pahroc Mountains of southern Nevada. Terrain doesn’t get much more desolate than that place, but enough roots were there to provide several meals. There was also a spring. Foraging options are rather limited in the Pahroc Mountains, but skilled foragers will recognize those options. I found wavywings in abundance almost everywhere I searched for edible plants including: the Henry Mountains, San Pitch Mountains, Valley of the Gods, Smithsonian Butte, Comb Ridge, Whipsaw Flat, and many more places that nobody would seriously try to farm. The last addition to my wavywing collection was longstalk wavywing (C. longipes) from the Wasatch Mountains in northern Utah. I was looking for the yellow form, but I found the white form instead. Wavywings may not look very impressive, but their importance should not be underestimated.

IDENTIFICATION: Approximately 30-35 species of the Cymopterus genus are found in the United States, most of which are native to the Great Basin. Recognizing the genus is fairly easy, but exact species are more challenging to identify. The majority of species are stemless plants bearing white, yellow, or purple, ovary inferior flowers arranged in compound umbels or globe-shaped heads. Each flower has 5 free petals, 1 pistil, 2 styles, and 5 stamens. Fruits are required to confirm the genus. They usually have well-developed wings (both lateral and dorsal), hence the name wavywings. Fruits of related plants called biscuitroots (Lomatium genus) differ by having only the lateral wings well developed. 

Description of wavywings (the Cymopterus genus): FORM small, perennial plants emerging from thick rootstocks; STEMS absent or short; LEAVES compound or deeply dissected; basal or nearly so (occasionally cauline); leaflets often poorly defined; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels; involucre bracts present or absent; involucel bractlets usually present and well developed; calyx teeth obsolete or evident (if evident then usually short triangular-ovate rather than linear-lanceolate); petals 5, free, white, yellow, or purple; pistils 1, with two chambers; styles 2; stylopodiums absent; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps strongly compressed back-to-back (dorsally or parallel to the commissure), not bristly; lateral and dorsal wings usually well developed HABITAT diverse, often in sandy soils.

REFERENCES: #1 bulb wavywing (Cymopterus bulbosus): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 328-329) and Ebeling (p. 845). #2 globe wavywing (Cymopterus globosus): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 328-329) and Ebeling (p. 846); roots (Sturtevant 1986 p. 70). #3 plains spring-parsley (Cymopterus glomeratus = Cymopterus acaulis): roots and leaves Ebeling (p. 845 cited as Cymopterus fendleri). #4 longstalk wavywing (Cymopterus longipes): roots and leaves Ebeling (p. 846). #5 purplenerve wavywing (Cymopterus multinervatus): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 328-329). #6 Newberry’s sweetroot (Cymopterus newberryi): roots and leaves Ebeling (p. 846). #7 widewing wavywing (Cymopterus purpurascens): roots and leaves Ebeling (p. 846). #8 purple wavywing (Cymopterus purpureus): roots and leaves Ebeling (p. 846).

Carrots

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Daucus genus.

SPECIES: #1 wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota L.). #2 American, western, southwestern, or rattlesnake carrot (Daucus pusillus Michx.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of species listed above are edible fresh or cooked, and wild carrot (D. carota) also has edible leaves and flowers.

Wild carrot (D. carota) is a biennial “weed” native to Europe and Asia that’s now widespread in North America, Australia, and elsewhere. The carrots of cultivation were first domesticated from wild carrots growing in Afghanistan and the surrounding countries 2,000 to 3,000 years ago (Cumo p. 223). Original varieties were white, purple, or yellow. Orange varieties originated more recently in Europe during the 17th century. Domesticated carrots were among the first plants brought to North America by the pioneers. Roots of wild carrots are usually smaller, tougher, and more aromatic than those of cultivated forms. Roots of wild forms are also white rather than orange due to the absence of beta-carotene, but they taste and smell similar to cultivated forms. Gathering young plants is imperative. Wild carrots live for 2 years. First-year plants look like clusters of leaves. Second-year plants develop stems, flowers, and seeds. Roots should be gathered anytime prior to when stems appear. After that point, the roots become woody as stored nutrients are utilized by the growing plants. Older plants can help identify younger plants growing nearby, even in winter. Note that poisonous plants may also be nearby. Autumn to spring is carrot season. Summer is less favorable because taproots of new plants haven’t fully developed, while taproots of older plants are being depleted. This life cycle dynamic applies to most biennial plants. Wild carrot is much more common in the eastern United States than in the western United States. Even though it’s a top-quality wild food, its potential to southwestern foragers is minimal at this point in time.

Western carrot (D. pusillus) is a small, native, annual plant that appears very early in the growing season across the southern United States. Roots of western carrot may seem too small to be worth gathering, but they can be gathered efficiently, which adds to their value. About 100-200 are needed to equal 1 commercially grown carrot. Although these roots are taproots, they look like solitary strands of fibrous roots. Despite their small size, they’re big on flavor and aroma. These aspects are indeed similar to commercially grown carrots. Attempting to peel western carrots would be an exercise in futility. Root diameter rarely exceeds a few millimeters. Peeling the roots is unnecessary. They can simply be tossed into a stewpot. Leaves of western carrot, which are not reported to be edible, are hairy, bitter, resinous, and aromatic. Young leaves are tender and apparently suitable for salads, but the texture is a little raspy. Old leaves are better as potherbs. Western carrots develop barbed fruits (schizocarps). Initially, the barbs are soft and harmless. Once they stiffen, they pose a serious choking hazard, so using the fruits as seasonings would not be wise. Western carrots grow in colonies, often hiding in the shade of desert shrubs and trees. Hedge parsley, also known as false carrot (Yabea microcarpa), is almost identical. Mistaking the two is of no consequence to foragers, because the roots of both species are edible.

NOTES: The notes under hedge parsley (Yabea microcarpa) also apply to western carrot (Daucus pusillus) described above.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Daucus genus occur in the United States. Wild carrot (D. carota) can be found in all 50 states, but it’s uncommon in the Southwest. A native relative called western carrot (D. pusillus) is the predominant southwestern species. Both species have distinctive fork-like involucral bracts subtending the primary umbels. Carrots also have distinctive fruits. Only a few members of the parsley family, including carrots, produce bristly fruits. Wild carrots look fairly unique, but a number of plants resemble western carrots including: hedge parsley (Yabea microcarpa), field parsley (Torilis arvensis), desert sand-parsley (Ammoselinum giganteum), and bristly scaleseed (Spermolepis echinata). All these plants inhabit the same region as western carrots. Hedge parsley is distinguished by the following features: fruits that are compressed side-to-side rather than back-to-back, bristle tips that are hooked but not barbed, prominent calyx teeth, and prominent stylopodiums. Other look-alikes are distinguished by the absence of deeply divided bracts. None of these features are absolutely reliable.

Description of wild carrot (Daucus carota): FORM nonnative, biennial plant about 3-12 dm tall and covered with firm hairs (hirsute); LEAVES alternate; compound or deeply pinnately dissected; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in dense compound umbels; bracts and bractlets usually well developed, foliaceous, and pinnately divided into narrow segments; rays 10-50; calyx teeth obsolete; petals 5, white, free; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps rounded, strongly flattened back-to-back (dorsally or parallel to the commissures), and armed with stout bristles; tips of bristles barbed; HABITAT fields, roadsides, fence lines, and disturbed areas nearly throughout the United States; uncommon in the Southwest; blooming in spring.

Description of western carrot (Daucus pusillus): FORM native, annual plant about 1-6 dm tall and covered with firm hairs (hirsute); LEAVES alternate; compound or deeply pinnately dissected; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in open compound umbels; bracts and bractlets usually well developed, foliaceous, and pinnately divided into narrow segments; rays 5-15; calyx teeth obsolete; petals 5, white, free; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps rounded, strongly flattened back-to-back (dorsally or parallel to the commissures), and armed with stout bristles; tips of bristles barbed; HABITAT deserts, washes, and mesas, often in the shade of shrubs or prickly-pear cacti; primarily of southern Arizona and California; blooming in late winter or early spring.

REFERENCES: #1 wild carrot (Daucus carota): roots, leaves, and flowers Brill (pp. 203-206) and Couplan (pp. 329-331). #2 western carrot (Daucus pusillus): roots Couplan (p. 331) and Yanovski (p. 48).

Sweet Fennel

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Foeniculum genus.

SPECIES: Sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds are edible fresh or cooked. All the parts are saturated with a fennel-like aroma and flavor. Sweet fennel is a shrub-like plant that grows in colonies where adequate water is available. Disturbed areas along ditches provide suitable habitat. A single plant produces numerous stems that persist almost indefinitely and give sweet fennel a distinctive look. Young stems are moist, crisp, solid, and delicious. They make an excellent wild food similar to celery. No cooking is required, simply peel and eat. Outer portions are stringy and best discarded. Inner portions are also stringy, but the strings are soft. Old stems are often hollow, but they usually have a generous edible portion. Leafstalks of sweet fennel are thin and tough. They make a poor substitute for celery. The thread-like leaf blades make a better wild food. Young and old leaf blades have a similar texture, but younger blades have a stronger flavor. Blades of any age are mild, tender, and suitable for salads. No harsh accents are apparent. The developing umbels and yellow flowers are also good wild foods. Sweet fennel seeds are a legendary seasoning, equivalent to that available on the spice racks at grocery stores.

NOTES: Sweet fennel is uncommon in the Southwest, but it’s very common in the Pacific states, especially the San Joaquin Valley of central California. Except for the Mojave Desert, California is beyond the range of this book, but I managed to document a few species, such as sweet fennel, on treks through the golden state.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Foeniculum genus is currently found in the United States. It’s very common throughout the Pacific states, but it’s poorly established in the Southwest at this point in time.

Description of sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare): FORM perennial plant about 1-2 meters tall with a distinctive anise, fennel, or licorice-like aroma; emerging from a mess of thick roots; LEAVES compound; alternate; stalks 7-15 cm long and thickened at the bases; blades up to 40 cm long by equally wide and divided into thread-like segments; surfaces hairless and dusty; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels; bracts and bractlets absent; calyx lobes absent; petals 5, free, yellow; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps round in cross section, not significantly compressed, not spiny, and not prominently winged; HABITAT fields and disturbed areas; primarily in California, Oregon, and Washington; not well established in the Southwest or Great Basin; blooming May to September.

REFERENCES: Sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare): roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits Couplan (pp. 332-333).

Cow Parsnip

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Heracleum genus.

SPECIES: Cow parsnip or Indian celery (Heracleum maximum W. Bartram = Heracleum lanatum Michx. = Heracleum sphondylium L. ssp. montanum (Schleich. ex Gaudin) Briq.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Consuming or handling cow parsnip can cause extreme sensitivity to sunlight, irritation in the mouth, or severe dermatitis. Wearing protective gloves is a wise precaution when gathering this plant. Like many members of the parsley family, cow parsnip contains light-activated furanocoumarins, which are also known as phototoxins. Consuming or handling the plants followed by exposure to sunlight triggers the adverse effects. Furanocoumarins are resistant to heat, but they’re generally soluble in water (Lawley pp. 270-272). Soaking or boiling the edible parts in water is the most effective way to eliminate or at least degrade these compounds. Also see the notes below for information about giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum).

The roots, stems, leaves, developing flower clusters, and seeds of cow parsnip are edible, but fitness of these parts to serve as food varies greatly. Cow parsnip roots taste awful due to extremely acrid resins. Any thoughts of using these roots like parsnips should promptly be forgotten. Other parts, except for the seeds, are considerably more suitable for eating. Upper portions of cow parsnips generally taste better than lower portions, and younger parts generally taste better than older parts. The stems, leafstalks, and developing flower clusters were important resources for Native Americans throughout the range of cow parsnip. These parts are edible fresh or cooked, but caution is advised because some people may be sensitive to the harmful compounds in these plants.

Roots of cow parsnip are thick, soft, stringy, resinous, and highly aromatic. They smell like food, but the aroma is misleading considering the flavor. One bite is usually enough to deter anyone from ever taking a second bite! The flavor is horrendous and unaffected by any amount of cooking. Young and old roots taste equally awful. Terribly acrid resins permeate the roots and ruthlessly overpower the parsnip-like flavor cringing in the background. Pleasantness is not a trait of these roots and the bad flavor tends to linger. Simmering the roots yields a cloudy white wastewater that’s entirely unsuitable for any culinary purpose. Cow parsnip roots meet all the requirements of “famine foods.” They grow in tangled messes branching out in every direction. The thickest parts are located just below ground level. Based on Daniel Moerman’s outstanding work (pp. 126-127) showing how approximately 40 different tribes of Native Americans used cow parsnip, it’s evident that the roots of this plant were primarily used as medicine rather than food. Consumption is not recommended.

Stems of cow parsnip rank among the better-tasting parts of this husky, large-scale plant. Shaving is recommended to remove any woolly hairs. Not all the stems are equally hairy. This feature is variable. Cow parsnip stems, especially the lower portions, have sharp fibers that tend to be irritating. These fibers aren’t sharp enough to pierce flesh, but they can be rather uncomfortable. Peeling the outer portions won’t eliminate the fibers. Boiling softens the fibers, but they remain annoying and persist as tough strings. Gathering the upper stems provides an easy solution to the fiber issue. Upper stems are soft, tender, mild, stringy, hairy, and hollow. They serve well as a celery-like vegetable.

Leaves of cow parsnip are huge, hairy, aromatic, and reasonably mild tasting. Young leaves taste better than old leaves, and cooked leaves taste better than fresh leaves. Overly bitter or resinous leaves are best avoided. Cow parsnip leaves can serve as low-grade salad material or potherbs. The giant leafstalks appear deceptively thick, tender, and juicy. Instead, they’re merely wing-like sheaths with very little substance. They’re more like leaf blades than stalks of celery. Foragers seeking a “celery substitute” are advised to investigate the stems, especially the upper stems.

Flowers and developing umbels of cow parsnip are mild, tender, easily chewable, low in resins, and occasionally bug free. They rank among the best-tasting parts of cow parsnips. Any method of preparation produces reasonably good results.

Seeds of cow parsnip are occasionally reported to be edible. Actual seeds are grayish-brown with olive skins and contained within flat, tan, winged structures called schizocarps. The flavor is like caraway seeds blended with anise doused in terribly acrid resins that set the throat on fire. These seeds are absolutely not recommended for consumption.

NOTES: Cow parsnip is a very successful plant. On a bicycle trek over Scofield Pass in Colorado I saw vast stands of it that looked like cultivated fields. I didn’t know what it was at the time, but I remember hoping it was edible. Another biker told me it was cow parsnip. Later, I learned that it was edible and found many additional fields. Most of the samples for this reference came from the Abajo Mountains in southeastern Utah or various places in New Mexico. Regardless of where I sampled it, the results were the same. Currently, no other plants in the Southwest look like cow parsnip, but this could change as a related species called giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier) moves into the country. Giant hogweed is inedible and should never be handled. Contact with the sap in combination with sunlight is known to cause severe blisters that heal very slowly. It can even be worse than poison ivy, oak or sumac. Giant hogweed is invading the northern United States, as well as other countries. It’s expected to spread and may hybridize with cow parsnip, which could potentially diminish or even terminate the edibility of cow parsnip in the future.

IDENTIFICATION: The Heracleum genus is represented by 3 species in the United States, but only cow parsnip (H. maximum) is native and widespread. The other 2 species are nonnative weeds limited to the North. No additional subspecies or varieties are recognized. Few members of the parsley family have such large leaflets.

Description of cow parsnip (Heracleum maximum): FORM perennial plant about 1-2 meters tall emerging from taproots or tangles of fibrous roots; STEMS thick and hollow; LEAVES compound, or the upper ones often simple; alternate; leaflets generally 3, huge, averaging 10-30 cm long by equally wide; margins coarsely toothed; surfaces hairy (tomentose); FLOWERS regular or irregular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels 5-25 cm across; bracts and bractlets slender; calyx teeth absent or minute; petals 5, white, free, those on the outer flowers often elongated and deeply 2-lobed; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps winged, unarmed, and strongly flattened back-to-back (dorsally or parallel to the commissure); lateral wings well developed; dorsal wings undeveloped; HABITAT mountains of the western United States; blooming April to July.

REFERENCES: Cow parsnip (Heracleum maximum = Heracleum lanatum): roots Brill (pp. 43-45), Couplan (pp. 333-334), Peterson (p. 40), and Tilford (p. 42); stems, leaves, and unexpanded umbels Couplan (pp. 333-334); green seeds Brill (pp. 43-45); seeds Peterson (p. 40); roots, shoots, stems, leafstalks, leaf blades, flower stalks, flower buds, and tops of young plants Moerman (pp. 126-127).

Osha

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Ligusticum genus.

SPECIES: Osha, Porter’s lovage, mountain lovage, licoriceroot, chuchupate, or bear root (Ligusticum porteri J. M. Coult. & Rose).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Osha is not recommended for consumption even for people with a good understanding of botany because its size, shape, habitat, and overall appearance are VIRTUALLY IDENTICAL TO SPOTTED HEMLOCK (Conium maculatum), which is America’s most deadly plant! Most species within the parsley family don’t look like spotted hemlock, but osha does, so the need for absolutely positive identification cannot be stressed enough (see notes on identification below). Osha has edible leaves. The roots can be used as medicine and the seeds can be used as seasonings, but these parts are otherwise inedible. Only the leaves can be used as food.

Osha roots are inedible, except as medicine. Fresh roots are aromatic, resinous, and extremely bad flavored. The flavor is like an acrid version of biscuitroots, which taste similar to parsnips. Aromatic resins aggressively overpower anything else attempting to impart flavor. Cooked roots aren’t much better. Starchy carbohydrates are barely noticeable under the acrid resins. Boiling yields cloudy white wastewater of similar disappointment. Osha roots are medicine, not food. The resins cause a mild numbing effect, alter the flavor of other foods, and linger on the taste buds for several hours. Osha roots are yellowish-white and surrounded by dark-brown protective skins that refuse to peel nicely. The texture is soft and completely chewable, but consumption of osha roots is not recommended due to the bad flavor and POTENTIALLY FATAL CONSEQUENCES OF MISIDENTIFICATION.

Osha leaves can be eaten fresh or cooked, but they taste better cooked. Stems and flowers, which are not reported to be edible, were also sampled for this reference. Osha stems are thick, hollow, and somewhat like celery when eaten fresh. Lower portions are tough and stringy, but upper portions are soft and chewable. The stems taste milder than other parts, followed by the flowers, then the leaves, and finally the roots. Osha leaves are suitable for salads. When eaten fresh, the flavor suggests lovage, chervil, and celery. A resinous accent is usually present. Osha leaves make a fine seasoning or potherb. Osha flowers collectively look like broccoli and make a fine addition to soups or stews. Simmering the flowers produces a rich green broth. Osha stew is fantastic, as long as the roots are excluded. The stems, leaves, and flowers are much less resinous than the roots. No parts of osha are hereby recommended for consumption due to the POTENTIALLY FATAL CONSEQUENCES OF MISIDENTIFICATION.

NOTES: Osha is less edible than I originally thought. For some reason, I thought the roots were edible, but they are not edible. They’re well known in Native American medicine, but they have no culinary use. Only the leaves are edible. Osha roots have strong antimicrobial properties that fight colds, fevers, and infections. Since I’m not a doctor, I don’t discuss the medicinal aspects of wild plants beyond simple first aid or field expedient remedies to help in emergency situations. Osha grows in New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, and to a lesser extent in Arizona and Nevada. Successfully identifying it requires checking a long list of features discussed in the paragraphs below.

IDENTIFICATION: The Ligusticum genus is currently represented by 11 species in the United States, of which only osha (L. porteri) occurs in the Southwest. Other species can be found along the northern margin of the Southwest.

Description of osha (Ligusticum porteri): FORM upright, perennial plant about 5-15 dm tall emerging from taproots; upper sections of taproots clothed with persistent leafstalks; STEMS never prominently marked with purple spots; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades tri-pinnate or deeply dissected; leaflets not always well defined; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in 1-12 compound umbels per plant; involucre bracts usually absent or soon deciduous; involucel bractlets absent or few (usually less than 3); petals 5, white, free; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums conic; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps oval and weakly compressed side-to-side; ribs prominent or winged; carpophores split (bifid) to the bases; HABITAT southern Rocky Mountains; blooming primarily from June to August.

Description of similar-looking species: Osha looks very similar to spotted hemlock (Conium maculatum), fool’s parsley (Aethusa cynapium), and Rocky Mountain hemlock parsley (Conioselinum scopulorum). None of the distinguishing features provide an absolutely reliable means of identifying these species, so consumption of osha always involves a risk that’s not worth taking when so many safer choices are available. Rocky Mountain hemlock parsley is edible (Moerman p. 89), so that plant is not a concern. Fool’s parsley, which is indeed poisonous, only grows in the northeastern United States, Europe, and Asia, so it’s not a concern to southwestern foragers. Spotted hemlock is the concern. Stems prominently marked with purple spots are a sure sign of spotted hemlock, and the presence of bracts (involucres) or more than a few (3) bractlets (involucels) is a serious warning sign. The difference between bracts and bractlets is that bracts subtend the primary umbels and bractlets subtend the secondary umbels. If bracts are absent, the plant in question is less likely to be spotted hemlock, but not necessarily osha or Rocky Mountain hemlock parsley, as this feature is variable and therefore unreliable. Osha normally doesn’t have bracts (or it may have one that soon falls away) and it tends to lack bractlets (or it may have 1-3). Rocky Mountain hemlock parsley normally has 3-6 bractlets and emerges from clusters of fleshy roots. These roots lack the persistent leaf bases that give osha roots a shaggy look, and osha roots are usually not clustered. Another sign of osha is reddish leaf bases near the root crowns. Fruits of osha, spotted hemlock, and Rocky Mountain hemlock parsley have carpophores divided to the bases, so this feature won’t be helpful in differentiating these species. Carpophores are stalks that connect the two halves of the fruits. They can be I-, Y- or V-shaped, depending on how deeply they’re divided. Osha has a pleasant aroma. Spotted hemlock often (but not always) has an ill scent. These differences are merely provided as guidelines. Further study of related species is strongly advised.

REFERENCES: Osha (Ligusticum porteri): roots (as medicine), leaves (as a vegetable), and seeds (as a seasoning) Morgan (pp. 120-123) and Buhner (pp. 128-133); leaves Castetter (1936 pp. 46-47).

Biscuitroots

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Lomatium genus.

SPECIES: #1 Wyeth or lacy biscuitroot (Lomatium ambiguum (Nutt.) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #2 Wasatch springparsley (Lomatium bicolor (S. Watson) J. M. Coult. & Rose var. leptocarpum (Torr. & A. Gray) Schlessman = Lomatium leptocarpum (Torr. & A. Gray) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #3 cous (Lomatium cous (S. Watson) J. M. Coult. & Rose = Cogswellia cous (S. Watson) M. E. Jones). #4 carrotleaf, fernleaf, or giant biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance). #5 desert biscuitroot (Lomatium foeniculaceum (Nutt.) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #6 Gray’s biscuitroot (Lomatium grayi (J. M. Coult. & Rose) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #7 bigseed biscuitroot (Lomatium macrocarpum (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #8 Nevada biscuitroot (Lomatium nevadense (S. Watson) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #9 barestem or pestle biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule (Pursh) J. M. Coult. & Rose). #10 Great Basin biscuitroot (Lomatium simplex (Nutt.) J. F. Macbr. var. simplex = Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) J. M. Coult. & Rose ssp. platycarpum (Torr.) Cronquist). #11 nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) J. M. Coult. & Rose).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! The Lomatium genus is complex. Compounds called phototoxins (furanocoumarins) in the various parts can cause itching, burning, blistering, or dermatitis. These compounds are generally resistant to heat, but soluble in water (Lawley pp. 270-272). So from a forager’s perspective, soaking or cooking plants of the Lomatium genus in water would be the best way to reduce these compounds. Caution is advised when gathering plants of this genus because white-flowered species can resemble spotted hemlock until the fruits develop. Fruits provide a reliable difference.

All species of the Lomatium genus have edible roots, stems, and leaves (Tilford p. 184). However, some species taste far better than others. Species listed above were among the ones most frequently gathered by Native Americans, but most of these species barely enter the Southwest. Based on the species sampled for this reference, the roots generally taste better than the leaves. Acrid, resinous, and latex-like overtones are prevalent in the Lomatium genus. Some species produce tuberous roots that taste as good as commercially grown potatoes, but those of other species utterly fail to qualify as palatable. Cooking improves the flavor, but in some species the improvement will undoubtedly be insufficient. Consumption of harsh-tasting species is not recommended. All Lomatium species are native to central or western North America, and a few species are occasional weeds on other continents. Roots can be gathered from when the leaves first appear until the leaves wither, which is most of the year. Biscuitroots tend to bloom early, so the gathering season starts soon after winter submits to spring.

Wyeth biscuitroot (L. ambiguum) is primarily a species of the northwestern United States, with its southernmost distribution in the Wasatch Mountains of northern Utah. It produces thickened taproots that Native Americans used as food in the same way as cous. In 1871, in regard to the roots, J. R. Dodge wrote, “When fresh it is like the parsnip in taste, and as it dries becomes brittle and very white, with an agreeable taste of mild celery. It is easily reduced to flour. When its brown epidermis is removed, innumerable small dots are revealed. Both the roots and the flour will keep several months.” Dodge also indicated that the roots were gathered in April and May when the plants were blooming. This quote is often referred to by more recent authors, directly or indirectly.

Wasatch springparsley (L. bicolor) is a fairly good species for roots and leaves, but it barely enters the Southwest on the northern boundary. It looks similar to fernleaf biscuitroot, but tastes far superior. Obvious differences can be seen in the leaves. Roots of Wasatch springparsley are thick, starchy, chewy, fibrous, weakly aromatic, fairly sizable, white with dark-brown skins, similar to parsnips, and free of harsh overtones. Peeling the skins minimizes any distasteful aspects. The leaves and flowers are tender, aromatic, and usually suitable for salads. Cooking improves the flavor of any parts. Wasatch springparsley is a good resource in northern Utah and Nevada.

Cous (L. cous) is found primarily in the northwestern United States, where it served as an important wild food to the Nez Perce and other people native to that region. Cous reaches the Jarbridge and Independence mountains of northern Nevada, but those mountains are beyond the northern boundary of the Southwest. Cous is mentioned here because it’s considered to be the best species in the genus. Nevada biscuitroot (L. nevadense) can provide southwestern foragers with tuberous roots, but for cous, a trek to the Northwest will be necessary. Cous is a small, common, yellow-flowered species of open rocky soils that was traditionally gathered from April to June.

Carrotleaf biscuitroot (L. dissectum), based on the multifidum variety, produces sizable white roots covered with brown skins. Inner portions are a random pattern of contorted stringy fibers. The intensely balsamic aroma suggests a high food value, but this enticing aroma is terribly deceptive. Carrotleaf biscuitroots smell much better than they taste. Flavor is a real problem with these roots due to acrid resins. Other parts taste equally bad. Cooking fails to adequately subdue the resins, thus making the roots essentially worthless as food, which is a shame because the roots are big. It’s also a shame because the plant is common throughout the West. Carrotleaf biscuitroot has yellow flowers that bloom from April to August depending on elevation. A related variety called fernleaf biscuitroot Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance var. dissectum) is found in the northwestern states. Carrotleaf biscuitroot (var. multifidum) is the common western variety.

Desert biscuitroot (L. foeniculaceum), based on the macdougalii subspecies, produces excellent roots that are well worth the effort of gathering. Aboveground parts appear meager, but the roots are comparatively large. The roots average 10-20 mm thick by 15-30 cm long, or about the size of small carrots. The flavor is similar to parsnips and free of harsh accents. The texture is stringy, chewy, and fibrous. Boiling softens the texture and brings out a potato-like quality. Peeling the roots is recommended for best flavor. Skins can easily be scraped off with a knife. Leaves of desert biscuitroot taste less appealing than the roots. Consuming the leaves raw is possible, but the acrid resins and latex-like accents detract from the flavor. The flavor is relatively mild compared to leaves of other Lomatium species, but some people may find it objectionable. It’s similar to parsley, yet seems to lack food value. Cooking softens the texture, which is already soft, and doesn’t significantly affect the flavor. Desert biscuitroot (subspecies macdougalii) is common in desert settings and juniper woodlands throughout the greater Intermountain Region. Other subspecies, except for fimbriatum, prefer the central or western states.

King’s biscuitroot (L. graveolens) is definitely not recommended for consumption. All parts taste bad, but the roots taste especially bad. A trace of starchy flavor may be detectable under the intense burning sensation, at least until the taste buds cease to function! Freshly cut roots exude milky resins with a fetid aroma. Cooking offers little improvement. Leaves of King’s biscuitroot aren’t much better than the roots. The leaves have an unappealing flavor and an unappealing aroma reminiscent of pine, parsley, glue, paint, and “something that might attract a fly.” This flavor and aroma combination fails to suggest that any parts would be edible. Acrid overtones become progressively more intense as more leaves are consumed and soon overpower the subtle parsley-like character. Note that this parsley-like character is indeed subtle and that undesirable characters spoil any chance of using these leaves as salad material. Cooking offers little improvement. King’s biscuitroot is found in the Intermountain Region and is definitely best left alone.

Gray’s biscuitroot (L. grayi) produces fair-quality roots and low-quality leaves. Roots of this species are excessively stringy, chewy, and fibrous, but they taste okay. The fibers are nonirritating and eventually break apart, even if the roots are consumed raw. Boiling the peeled roots produces a delicious amber broth with a starchy aroma reminiscent of parsnips. This broth has sweetness, making it desirable for any culinary purpose. The roots lack the overly resinous characteristics prevalent within the genus. Leaves of Gray’s biscuitroot are less appealing than the roots. The leaves are barely suitable for salads, but they serve well as potherbs. They taste and smell typical of the genus, and have a resin content marginally within tolerable limits. Boiling tones down the resinous flavor, but something unappealing remains. Leaf surfaces are smooth and hairless. Gray’s biscuitroot is found across the Intermountain region, also in the Rockies and Northwest. In the past, it was gathered by Native Americans primarily when other foods were scarce, such as in late winter. Gray’s biscuitroot blooms early, at which time it served as a celery-like vegetable.

Bigseed biscuitroot (L. macrocarpum) is found primarily in the northern Intermountain Region and Northwest, where it served as an important food. Roots of this species are strongly thickened or tuberous. They were highly regarded by numerous groups of Native Americans. Bigseed biscuitroot is a white-flowered species of open rocky hillsides and plains. It blooms from April to May.

Nevada biscuitroot (L. nevadense), based on the parishii variety, bears delicious little tuberous roots about 10-20 cm below ground level. When eaten raw, these roots have a starchy flavor similar to parsnips and a weakly resinous accent. Baking or boiling effectively subdues any harsh accents. The texture is smooth like potatoes and free of stringy fibers. Skins are thin and easily peeled away. These roots are rather small, but they’re a top-quality wild food. Nevada biscuitroot easily ranks among the best species. Two varieties are recognized, distinguished by the presence or absence of a tuberous portion. These varieties have overlapping ranges that collectively encompass most of the Southwest and Intermountain Region. Southwestern foragers will most likely find Nevada biscuitroot blooming from April to May on dry, open, rocky hillsides and plains.

Barestem biscuitroot (L. nudicaule) is found primarily in the northwestern United States and southward to Utah and Nevada. It’s a yellow-flowered species with distinctive leaves bearing rounded leaflets. No other species have similar leaflets. In addition to being rounded, the leaflets are thick, leathery, dusty, bitter, resinous, and fruity-aromatic. They’re better as potherbs than salad material. Roots of barestem biscuitroot are a better wild food than the leaves. The roots have characteristics similar to those of other good-quality species: starchy, chewy, weakly aromatic, free of harsh overtones, fairly sizable, similar to parsnips, and white with dark-brown skins. Peeling the skins minimizes any distasteful aspects. Barestem biscuitroot blooms from April to June, and was commonly eaten like celery by several groups of Native Americans. Overall, barestem biscuitroot seems to be a good resource.

Parry’s biscuitroot (L. parryi) is a fairly good species, but it’s generally not reported to be edible. Freshly dug roots are white with dark-brown skins, about 5-20 mm thick, aromatic, and easily cut with a knife. They taste sweet, mild, and similar to parsnips. The texture ranges from gum-like to almost wood-like. It’s tough, chewy, and nonirritating. Simmering the roots produces a delicious, starchy, nonresinous, light-brown broth that’s perfect for any soup. Peeling the roots is recommended for best flavor. Leaves of this species taste awful compared to the roots. Prolonged boiling in two changes of cooking water offers a minor improvement, yet fails to subdue the powerful resins in the leaves. Parry’s biscuitroot is found primarily in the Mojave Desert and southern Utah. Based on flavor, with the exception of the leaves, Parry’s biscuitroot appears to be a good resource.

Great Basin biscuitroot (L. simplex), based on the simplex variety, is an excellent species for roots and leaves. It’s a widespread species found from Colorado to Nevada and northward to Washington and Montana. Although relatively small, the roots of Great Basin biscuitroot are sweet, starchy, chewy, weakly aromatic, similar to parsnips, and free of harsh overtones. Any distasteful overtones are limited to the skins, which can be peeled. Leaves of this species also taste good, but only a few leaves occur on each plant. Fresh leaves taste mild. They’re suitable for salads and even better as potherbs. Great Basin biscuitroot is a small, yellow-flowered species that blooms from April to July in open meadows and rocky hillsides at low to middle elevations.

Nineleaf biscuitroot (L. triternatum) is found primarily in the northwestern United States, but also in northern Utah and Nevada. It provided an important source of roots and leaves for Native Americans in those regions. Despite the name, the leaves don’t always have nine leaflets. This species is closely related to the preceding species, Great Basin biscuitroot (L. simplex), from which it differs by having leaves occurring along the stems (cauline) and fruits with smaller wings. Great Basin biscuitroot tends to have leaves only near the base (scapose) and more rounded fruits with broader wings. From a forager’s perspective, the differences are of no concern because both species are edible. The Nez Perce Indians called nineleaf biscuitroot “péqiy” and gathered the thickened roots in spring.

NOTES: Since many of the preferable biscuitroots barely reach the Southwest, I did a trek to northern Utah and southern Idaho to improve coverage of this complex genus. Biscuitroots come in a wide variety of flavors, ranging from very good to very bad. Harsh-tasting roots seem destined to taste harsh. No amount of processing seems to help them. That’s why it’s important to select good-tasting roots. Whether a biscuitroot tastes good or bad seems to depend on the species rather than other factors like soil quality, growing conditions, or localities. Despite references clearly indicating that “all species” of the Lomatium genus are edible, certain species are way too harsh to eat and are probably dangerous. I recommend approaching this genus with a lot of caution. Nobody has described the flavor, texture, and aroma of everything in the Lomatium genus. Based on the 9 species I describe above, I would expect similar traits across the remaining species with a trend towards unappealing. Native Americans were masters of self-sufficiency and living off the land. Any other species worth knowing about would have been documented by now. Utah and Nevada are excellent states for gathering biscuitroots. The genus is well diversified in those states. Most species are common, but a few are rare. The common ones can keep a forager well fed, especially in early spring when other resources tend to be scarce.

A 100 gram serving of fresh cous (Lomatium cous) roots contains: 127 kilocalories, 67.9 g water, 1.0 g protein, 0.4 g fat, and 30.0 g carbohydrates. Source: Hunn and Selam (p. 110).

IDENTIFICATION: About 80 species of the Lomatium genus are found in the United States, almost all of which are native to the West. Several species appear similar to species of the Cymopterus genus. The most reliable way to tell the difference (which isn’t always reliable) is by observing the fruits. In the Lomatium genus, only the lateral wings of the fruits are well developed. Dorsal wings are reduced to thread-like ribs. In the Cymopterus genus, all the wings are usually well developed. There are exceptions. Species within both genera may or may not have stems, but the presence of stems generally indicates the Lomatium genus.

Description of biscuitroots (the Lomatium genus): FORM perennial plants about 5-130 cm tall emerging from thick roots, tubers, or branching caudices; STEMS absent or present; when present usually unbranched; LEAVES compound or dissected; alternate or basal; blades often triangular in outline; leaflets often poorly defined; ultimate segments narrow to broad; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels; peduncles hairy or hairless; involucres (bracts below the main umbels) usually absent; involucels (bractlets below the secondary umbels) usually present; calyx lobes absent, tiny, or well developed; petals 5, free, typically yellow, occasionally white or purple; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums absent or poorly developed; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps strongly flattened back-to-back (parallel to commissures) and without bristles; dorsal ribs thread-like; lateral ribs expanded into prominent wings; carpophores split to the bases; seeds flat; HABITAT diverse; found nearly throughout the Southwest; blooming in late winter or spring.

REFERENCES: Couplan (p. 337) states that the shoots and leaves of all species are edible raw or cooked, and Tilford (p. 184) states that the roots of all species are edible. #1 Wyeth biscuitroot (Lomatium ambiguum): roots Moerman (p. 143); flowers (as a seasoning) Moerman (p. 143). #2 Wasatch springparsley (Lomatium bicolor var. leptocarpum = Lomatium leptocarpum): roots Couplan (p. 336) and Moerman (p. 143); leaves Couplan (p. 337). #3 cous (Lomatium cous): roots Couplan (p. 336), Moerman (p. 143), and Murphey (p. 12, cited as Cogswellia cous); leaves Couplan (p. 337). #4 fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum): roots Couplan (p. 336) and Moerman (p. 144); leaves Couplan (p. 337). #5 desert biscuitroot (Lomatium foeniculaceum): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 336-337). #6 Gray’s biscuitroot (Lomatium grayi): roots and young stems Hunn (p. 101) and Moerman (p. 144). #7 bigseed biscuitroot (Lomatium macrocarpum): roots, leaves, and seeds (seasoning) Moerman (p. 144). #8 Nevada biscuitroot (Lomatium nevadense): roots Moerman (p. 144); leaves Couplan (p. 337). #9 barestem biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 336-337); stems, stalks, flowers (seasoning), and fruits (seasoning) Moerman (pp. 144-145). #10 Great Basin biscuitroot (Lomatium simplex): roots Moerman (p. 145). #11 nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 336-337); flowers (seasoning) Moerman (p. 145).

Great Basin Indian Potato

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Orogenia genus.

SPECIES: Great Basin Indian potato (Orogenia linearifolia S. Watson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The tubers are a valuable resource. Other parts are not reported to be edible. Great Basin Indian potatoes are tiny plants with tiny tubers. A tuber one centimeter in diameter would be relatively large for this species. Soon after the snow melts and sunlight once again reaches the ground, Great Basin Indian potatoes appear in great abundance in mountain meadows. As the name indicates, the tubers are indeed potato-like in flavor, texture, and aroma. Notes of parsnips are also apparent. Cooking highlights the starchy sweetness and yields a broth packed with carbohydrates. Digging up the tubes isn’t particularly difficult, but hundreds are needed for just one meal. Acquiring a supply may expend more energy than the supply returns. Inner portions of healthy tubers are off-white and surrounded by brown skins. Inner portions appearing brown are rotted. Cutting the tubers in half for inspection is wise, because they’re frequently rotted. Peeling the skins would be a waste of time, kind of like peeling skins off grapes. A rough wash can remove most of the skins. Tubers are usually positioned directly below the aboveground parts at a depth of 3-11 centimeters. Great Basin Indian potatoes are an excellent wild food found along the northern boundary of the Southwest and northward.

NOTES: I was happy to find Great Basin Indian potatoes, yet simultaneously disappointed to realize how small they were. In spring, before the snow completely melts, vast colonies of them arise on the plateaus of Utah. They’re common on the Sevier Plateau and further north in the Wasatch Mountains, especially around the Payson Lakes east of Santaquin. Great Basin Indian potatoes seem to be in a rush to bloom. They don’t waste any time once sunlight reaches the ground. Getting out early is the key to finding them.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Orogenia genus are found in the United States, both of which are native to the West.

Description of Great Basin Indian potato (Orogenia linearifolia): FORM small, stemless, hairless, perennial plant about 3-7 cm tall emerging from globe-shaped tubers; LEAVES basal; compound; blades 1-3 ternate; leaflets linear; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels; involucre bracts and involucel bractlets minute; calyx teeth absent; petals 5, white, free; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums absent; stamens 5, white or dark purple; FRUITS schizocarps elliptic and subterete in cross section; dorsal ribs obscure; lateral wings corky; HABITAT preferring mountain meadows from Colorado to California and northward; blooming in early spring, often in melting snow fields. NOTES: A related species called western Indian potato (Orogenia fusiformis) grows in California and differs by having tapered rather than globe-shaped tubers.

REFERENCES: Great Basin Indian potato (Orogenia linearifolia): roots Couplan (p. 338), Fern (p. 256), and Harrington (pp. 189-190).

Sweetroots

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Osmorhiza genus.

SPECIES: #1 Chilean or mountain sweetroot (Osmorhiza berteroi DC. = Osmorhiza chilensis Hook. & Arn.). #2 California sweetroot (Osmorhiza brachypoda Torr.). #3 bluntseed sweetroot (Osmorhiza depauperata Phil. = Osmorhiza obtusa (J. M. Coult. & Rose) Fernald). #4 western sweetroot (Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray) Torr.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots of all species in the Osmorhiza genus can be used as flavorings or prepared as tea (Couplan p. 338). Mountain sweetroot (O. berteroi) was the primary species utilized as food by Native Americans in the western United States, or at least it was the one most frequently documented. It has edible roots and leaves. Bluntseed sweetroot (O. depauperata), a predominantly Rocky Mountain species, has edible roots. It looks very similar to mountain sweetroot, from which it differs primarily in fruit structure. Western sweetroot (O. occidentalis), found nearly throughout the West, has edible roots, and its unarmed seeds can be used as seasonings. Some authors consider the roots of this species too strong-flavored to be edible in meal-size amounts. However, at least some colonies of western sweetroot produce mild-flavored roots. There’s apparently no mention of California sweetroot (O. brachypoda) as an edible plant, except in the sense that all species can be used as flavorings or prepared as tea. All species mentioned above typically bloom from April to July, except for California sweetroot, which blooms from March to June due to its preference for warmer climates. The gathering season begins as soon as the new leaves appear in late winter or early spring, and continues until the plants completely wither, which can be well into winter, thus making sweetroots a year-round resource.

Roots of western sweetroot (O. occidentalis) can look like ordinary taproots or a tangled mess of chaos. The anise-like aroma characterizing the genus is most prevalent in the roots. Resins responsible for the agreeable aroma occasionally overwhelm the flavor with an acrid bite, but the flavor is usually delicious—as the vernacular name sweetroot so keenly articulates. Resins are concentrated in the skins, so peeling the skins minimizes any acrid overtones. Cooking doesn’t affect the resins. Inner root portions are off-white, easily chewable, and relatively low in resins. Any method of cooking produces good results. Baking, steaming, and sautéing capture the full flavor. Boiling highlights the anise-like flavor and yields a terrific broth. Western sweetroots are suitable for soups, and most western mountains have an ample supply. Early spring is the best time for gathering, but gathering can be done anytime, even in winter. Dry stems poking through the snow indicate where to dig. The distinctive aroma and fruits make winter identification easy. Overall, western sweetroot is an excellent resource.

Leaves of western sweetroot (O. occidentalis) aren’t so inundated with resins compared to the roots. The anise-like aroma characteristic of the genus is prevalent in the fresh or dried leaves. Fresh leaves are suitable for salads, especially when other ingredients are bland. A raspy texture may be apparent in some leaves. Western sweetroots is a leafy perennial found in the filtered shade of mountain forests, especially along riparian corridors. Gathering a supply of leaves is easy. Dried leaves make a superb seasoning. Removing the chaffy leafstalks prior to drying is recommended. Dried leaves have a crumbly texture and a flavor typical of commercially prepared seasonings.

Seeds of western sweetroot (O. occidentalis) are contained within dry fruits (schizocarps) that usually lack stiff barbs. Fruits of all other western species have dangerous barbs that present a serious choking hazard. Cooking does not affect the barbs, so caution is strongly advised when using fruits of the various species for culinary purposes. Even fruits of western sweetroot can have a few stray barbs, but barbs are generally not a problem in this species. A fantastic beverage can be made by boiling the crushed fruits for about 10-20 minutes and filtering the results through fine cloth to remove the debris. This procedure also works on species with barbed fruits, as filtering effectively removes shells, tails, and barbs. The resulting blackish-green beverage/broth captures the sweetness contained within the seeds, along with the flavor of the shells. Concentrating the beverage/broth by boiling off the excess water increases sweetness. Actual seeds of western sweetroot are off-white and fairly large. The flavor is unlike any of the well-known seasonings in the parsley family such as: dill, cumin, celery, fennel, caraway, and coriander. Western sweetroot seeds have a unique character and seem to be a fine wild food.

NOTES: My experiences with sweetroots were mostly good, except for a few experiences with western sweetroot (O. occidentalis). Roots of that species occasionally tasted acrid. After combing the mountainsides I eventually found all southwestern species of the Osmorhiza genus, except for mountain sweetroot (O. berteroi). References to the edibility of sweetroots generally describe the various parts as flavorings rather than foods. The first species I found was western sweetroot from Corn Creek in the Pahvant Mountains of central Utah, not too far from Adelaide campground where some rangers were setting traps to mitigate the bear situation. Fortunately, I ran into the rangers before the traps— or the bears! The western sweetroots from Corn Creek were stronger than any other sweetroots I tried afterward. For some reason, presumably the strong flavor, sweetroots never rose to the prominence of yampas (of the Perideridia genus). Yampa roots definitely taste better, but sweetroots are much more common.

During the development of this book, I did several treks to the Wasatch Mountains of northern Utah, especially the southern extent of that range in the vicinity of Mount Nebo. Within that vicinity, I found several plants of interest in a place called Pole Canyon. I also lost a few plants in that canyon. How do you lose a plant? I can now think of several ways, but at the time I was unaware of those ways. Mature fruits are usually required to identify sweetroots, and that’s where the complications began. In spring, Pole Canyon was a lush, green paradise overflowing with plant life. In summer, the sweetroot fruits were nearing maturity. In autumn, the canyon was stripped clean of vegetation by hungry cattle. It was the first time (and certainly not the last time) that hungry cattle ate the plants I was trying to identify. Those fruits would’ve been ready on the day I returned, but the whole colony was lost. Foragers have to contend with disappearing resources on a regular basis. That’s the nature of competition. Fortunately, sweetroots are resilient. I can barely recall a mountain range without this wonderful resource.

IDENTIFICATION: The Osmorhiza genus is represented by 8 species in the United States at this point in time, of which only 4 species grow in the Southwest and Great Basin. The strong anise-like aroma and narrow fruits of the various species are distinctive.

Description of mountain sweetroot (Osmorhiza berteroi): FORM aromatic, perennial plant about 3-11 dm tall from a well-developed taproot; LEAVES alternate; cauline; compound; 1-3-pinnate; leaflets lance-ovate; margins toothed or deeply cut; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in open compound umbels; bracts and bractlets poorly developed; petals 5, free, white or greenish-white; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps narrowly cylindrical to club-shaped, 15-25 mm long, bristly, and long-tailed; tips narrowed into short beaks; HABITAT shaded canyons and woodlands throughout the West; blooming April to July.

Description of California sweetroot (Osmorhiza brachypoda): FORM aromatic, perennial plant about 3-12 dm tall from a well-developed taproot; LEAVES alternate; cauline; compound; 1-3-pinnate; leaflets broad; margins toothed or deeply cut; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in open compound umbels; involucel bractlets linear or lanceolate, usually exceeding the pedicels and deciduous; petals 5, free, yellowish-green; pistils 1; styles 2, shorter than petals; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps narrowly spindle-shaped, 12-20 mm long, bristly, and without tails; HABITAT canyons and woodlands in California and central Arizona; blooming March to June.

Description of bluntseed sweetroot (Osmorhiza depauperata): FORM aromatic, perennial plant about 2-9 dm tall from a well-developed taproot; LEAVES alternate; cauline; compound; 1-3-pinnate; leaflets lance-ovate; margins toothed or deeply cut; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in open compound umbels; bracts and bractlets poorly developed; petals 5, free, white or greenish-white; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps club-shaped, 12-18 mm long, bristly, and long-tailed; tips rounded and not beaked; HABITAT mountain canyons and woodlands throughout most of the western United States; blooming April to July.

Description of western sweetroot (Osmorhiza occidentalis): FORM aromatic, perennial plant about 5-13 dm tall from a taproot or tangled cluster of roots; LEAVES alternate; cauline; compound; 1-3-pinnate; leaflets lance-ovate; margins toothed or deeply cut; FLOWERS regular, perfect, and arranged in open compound umbels; bracts and bractlets absent or poorly developed; petals 5, free, pale greenish-yellow; pistils 1; styles 2; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps narrowly oblong, 16-20 mm long, without tails, without bristles, and obtuse at both ends or the tips beaked; HABITAT canyons and woodlands throughout most of the western United States; blooming April to July.

REFERENCES: Couplan (p. 338) states that the roots of all species in the Osmorhiza genus can be used as flavorings or prepared as tea. #1 mountain sweetroot (Osmorhiza berteroi = O. chilensis): roots, leaves, and young tops of plants Moerman (p. 169). #2 California sweetroot (Osmorhiza brachypoda): roots No specific references to edibility except as flavorings, tea, or medicine. #3 bluntseed sweetroot (Osmorhiza depauperata = O. obtusa): roots Harrington (pp. 362-363) and Henshaw (p. 168). #4 western sweetroot (Osmorhiza occidentalis): roots Moerman (p. 170); seeds (as a seasoning) Moerman (p. 170).

Yampas

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Perideridia genus.

SPECIES: #1 Bolander’s yampa (Perideridia bolanderi (A. Gray) A. Nelson & J. F. Macbr.). #2 Gairdner’s yampa (Perideridia gairdneri (Hook. & Arn.) Mathias). #3 Parish’s yampa (Perideridia parishii (J. M. Coult. & Rose) A. Nelson & J. F. Macbr.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots and leaves of all species listed above are edible, and the fruits can be used as seasonings. Yampas were highly valued by Native Americans, but these plants are uncommon in the Southwest. Most species are native to California or the northwestern states. Yampas bloom in spring, exactly when is influenced by elevation. The gathering season also begins in spring as soon as the plants can be identified and lasts until they wither in autumn. The following article is based on Bolander’s yampa (P. bolanderi), specifically the bolanderi subspecies. Other species are presumably, but not necessarily, similar in taste, texture, and aroma.

Bolander’s yampa (P. bolanderi) roots are a top-quality wild food. They occur in clusters of 1-7 located just below ground level. Each root is about 2-5 cm long and shaped like a skinny radish or football. Inner portions are whitish or yellowish. Skins are brown. Peeling the skins is unnecessary. Bolander’s yampa roots taste sweet, starchy, and similar to potatoes. The flavor is delicious. A pine-like accent originating from the skins compliments the starchy predominance. Raw roots have a crisp texture that’s completely chewable except for a few strings in the cores. Cooked roots have the texture of mashed potatoes. There’s no wrong way to prepare these roots. Fire roasting is particularly satisfying and doesn’t take long since the roots are naturally tender. Simmering a combination of meat, onions, sage, and Bolander’s yampa roots makes a superb stew. Tossing the roots into stir-fries is another good choice. Bolander’s yampa roots are a valuable resource, but gathering a supply may take a while because they’re rather small and scarce.

Bolander’s yampa (P. bolanderi) leaves make fine potherbs, and the stems can be eaten like celery. The plants are sparsely leafy, so gathering enough leaves for any purpose is barely worth the effort. Bolander’s yampa is best utilized whole. Leaving a few roots in the ground is good etiquette and accelerates the colony’s recovery time. The leaves, including the stalks, have a soft texture and a pleasant flavor. They can serve as a main ingredient or a savory seasoning. Fresh or cooked leaves taste equally palatable. Stems of Bolander’s yampa are small, stringy, and hollow. Cutting them into short pieces makes the strings less noticeable. Boiling the stems or leaves produces a true green broth with a fantastic flavor and oils floating on the surface. Dried leaves retain a pleasant quality.

IDENTIFICATION: The Perideridia genus is represented by 10-15 species in the United States, of which only 3 occur in the Southwest, Great Basin, and southern Rocky Mountains. The genus is easy to recognize, but the species look very similar. Minor differences are seen in the leaves and fruits. Yampas do not resemble spotted hemlock or water hemlock.

Description of Bolander’s yampa (Perideridia bolanderi): FORM plants about 20-80 cm tall emerging from clusters of thickened roots (or solitary roots); STEMS normally green and never purple-spotted; LEAVES alternate and basal; upper leaves reduced, often simple; lower leaves 2-3-pinnate or dissected; ultimate leaflets varying in length and bearing additional linear lobes (dimorphic); FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in 1 to several, terminal, long-stalked, compound umbels; bracts usually numerous and deciduous; bractlets well developed, lance-shaped, and with nongreen margins; calyx lobes conspicuous; petals 5, white, free, and about equal in length; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums conic; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps oblong, 3-5 mm long, not winged, and not bristly; oil tubes 2-4 per interval and 6 on the commissures; HABITAT moist mountain meadows, primarily in the northern Great Basin and northwestern states; blooming in spring. NOTES: This description is based on the bolanderi subspecies.

Description of Gairdner’s yampa (Perideridia gairdneri): FORM plants about 30-110 cm tall emerging from clusters of thickened roots (or solitary roots); STEMS normally green and never purple-spotted; LEAVES alternate and basal; upper leaves often simple or ternate; lower leaves normally 1-2-pinnate with 3-5, similar, linear leaflets bearing few (if any) additional lobes; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in 1 to several, terminal, long-stalked, compound umbels; bracts absent or few; bractlets several, narrowly lance-shaped; calyx lobes conspicuous; petals 5, white, free, about equal in length, and with 5-7 veins; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums conic; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps rounded, 2-4 mm long, not winged, and not bristly; oil tubes 1 per interval and 2 on the commissures; HABITAT moist mountain meadows primarily in the northwestern United States, also in scattered locations in the southwestern mountains; blooming in spring. NOTES: This description is based on the borealis subspecies.

Description of Parish’s yampa (Perideridia parishii): FORM plants about 20-90 cm tall emerging from clusters of thickened roots (or solitary roots); STEMS normally green and never purple-spotted; LEAVES alternate and basal; upper leaves simple or ternate; lower leaves single-pinnate with 3-5, similar, linear leaflets seldom bearing additional lobes; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in 1 to several, terminal, long-stalked, compound umbels; rays 6-11 and unequal in fruit; bracts absent or few; bractlets several, small, narrowly lance-shaped, and about half as long as the pedicels; calyx lobes conspicuous; petals 5, white, free, about equal in length, and with solitary midveins; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums conic; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps oblong, 2-4 mm long, not winged, and not bristly; oil tubes 2-4 per interval and 6 on the commissures; HABITAT moist mountain meadows, from New Mexico to Arizona and California; blooming in spring. NOTES: This description is based on the parishii subspecies.

REFERENCES: Donald Kirk (p. 120) and Ray Vizgirdas (pp. 76-77) indicate that all species of the Perideridia genus are edible. Francois Couplan (p. 340) indicates that roots and leaves of the following species are edible and that the fruits can be used as seasonings: #1 Bolander’s yampa (Perideridia bolanderi), #2 Gairdner’s yampa (Perideridia gairdneri), and #3 Parish’s yampa (Perideridia parishii).

Mountain Parsley

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Pseudocymopterus genus.

SPECIES: Mountain parsley, false wavywing, or false spring-parsley (Pseudocymopterus montanus (A. Gray) J. M. Coult. & Rose = Cymopterus lemmonii (J. M. Coult. & Rose) Dorn).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots and leaves of mountain parsley are edible fresh or cooked. Other parts are not reported to be edible, but the flowers and seeds were sampled for this reference.

Roots of mountain parsley are small, tough, and white with brown skins. Even young plants have tough roots. Edible layers are thin to nonexistent, except in the most well-developed roots. Peeling the skins is like pulling glue off carpet. Flavor quality ranges from acrid-resinous to parsnip-like. Biscuitroots (of the Lomatium genus) taste similar. Cooking doesn’t significantly alter the flavor. Consumption of these roots may cause abdominal discomfort, so caution is advised.

Leaves of mountain parsley are suitable for salads and even better as potherbs. The stems also taste good, but they’re fibrous and tend to splinter when chewed. Fresh or dried leaves can be used as seasonings, but the chaffy stalks should be removed prior to the endeavor. The flavor is similar to commercially grown parsley, so the common name mountain parsley is well chosen. Fresh or cooked leaves taste mild, but fresh leaves taste sharper. The texture is tender. Even old leaves are tender. Mountain parsley is a fantastic potherb. If the flowers are included, the broth will have a seasoned look. Boiling breaks the tiny flowers into even tinier pieces. Flowers of yellow-flowered varieties impart a yellowish color to the broth. Reddish varieties impart a dull color. Gathering the leaves or flowers is easy. Mountain parsley is available throughout most of the growing season.

Seeds of mountain parsley are contained within dry, shield-like fruits called schizocarps. Collecting enough fruits for a meal might take all day, but an ample supply is available. Keep in mind that the seeds are not reported to be edible. Isolating pure seeds is difficult. Mountain parsley seeds are worthy of being called a good seasoning. Fresh seeds add a touch of distinction to less flavorful wild foods. Toasting highlights a parsnip-like accent and produces a wonderful aroma. Adding the seeds to broths imparts a hearty flavor with notes of the parsley family.

NOTES: Mountain parsley is very common in the Southwest. As with most members of the parsley family, several species look similar. The genus name Pseudocymopterus translates into “false wavywing.” I always thought mountain parsley looked more like a biscuitroot (Lomatium) than a wavywing (Cymopterus), but due to the highly variable nature of this plant, I’m not going to argue. Most of the ones I encountered had well-developed lateral wings and poorly-developed dorsal wings, which is more typical of biscuitroots. The samples for this reference were primarily from the Pinos Altos Mountains of southwestern New Mexico and nearby mountains. The roots varied in quality, but the leaves were fairly consistent. Although mountain parsley is a good resource, new foragers might want to skip it until becoming more familiar with the parsley family.

IDENTIFICATION: The Pseudocymopterus genus is currently represented by 2 species in the United States. Only mountain parsley (P. montanus) is common in the Southwest. Some floras call it Cymopterus lemmonii. “Evident” (but very tiny) calyx lobes and short, stiff hairs on the flower stalks just below the main umbels distinguish mountain parsley from the multitude of Cymopterus species. Mountain parsley has a number of forms that complicate the process of classification. Flowers are typically yellow, burnt orange, or dull red.

Description of mountain parsley (Pseudocymopterus montanus): FORM perennial plant about 10-60 cm tall emerging from a slender taproot; STEMS short or well developed; often with ridges running lengthwise (striated); LEAVES compound; alternate and basal; 1-3-pinnate; ultimate leaf segments linear to lanceolate, often with sharp pointed tips; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels subtended by short, stiff, rough hairs; bracts absent; bractlets numerous and slender; calyx teeth conspicuous, triangular to ovate; petals 5, free, yellow, orange, red, or purple (never white); pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums absent; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps oblong to obovate; 3-6 mm long; strongly compressed back-to-back (dorsally); lateral wings well developed; dorsal wings poorly developed, appearing as raised ribs; HABITAT mountains throughout the Southwest and Intermountain Region; blooming April to September.

REFERENCES: Mountain parsley (Pseudocymopterus montanus): roots and leaves Moerman (p. 203).

Water Parsnip

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Sium genus.

SPECIES: Water parsnip (Sium suave Walter = Sium cicutifolium Schrank).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Water parsnip is not recommended for consumption because it looks very similar to an extremely poisonous plant called water hemlock (Cicuta maculata). The roots and leaves of water parsnip are edible, but these parts are meager and MISIDENTIFICATION COULD BE FATAL! Roots of water parsnip taste like those of true parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), but that’s where the similarities end. Water parsnips have fibrous roots, not taproots. If a taproot is present, then the plant is not water parsnip. Except for flavor, nothing about water parsnips honestly suggests parsnips, so the name is misleading. “Wire-snips” might be a better name. The multitudes of moist, delicate, wiry roots are delicious, but they don’t have much substance. Simmering the roots produces an excellent broth. All the herbaceous parts (stems, leaves, and flowers) can be chopped and tossed into a stewpot. These parts are delicate and wilt shortly after picking. They need a constant supply of water. The stems are hollow and soft enough to chew without much effort. The leafstalks are also fairly soft, but only a few occur on each plant. The flowers are no special treat. Gathering meal-size quantities of these parts would not be easy. Water parsnips are uncommon in the Southwest due to the lack of marshy habitats. At best, these plants are of minor value to southwestern foragers.

NOTES: Finding water parsnip and photographing it throughout its life cycle was a challenge. My search for it ended in central Utah near a small town called Torrey. Considering the consequences of misidentification, I was reluctant to try it. And considering the meager food value, I didn’t see much point in trying it. After carefully reviewing the identification keys in “A Utah Flora” (by Welsh, Atwood, Goodrich, and Higgins), I gathered and prepared a small supply of the various parts. Based on flavor, water parsnip is a fine resource, but a forager needs to consider more than just flavor. Although water parsnip is fairly tall, it has hollow stems, scanty leaf cover, and pitifully small roots. Gathering this plant is hardly worth the effort, or the risk.

IDENTIFICATION: The Sium genus is represented by 2 species in the United States, of which only 1 is found in the Southwest. Water parsnip (S. suave) looks similar to water hemlock (Cicuta maculata) and minor differences between the two can vary. Water parsnip normally has single-pinnate leaves with veins ending at the tips of the teeth, conspicuous involucres consisting of 6-10 leaf-like bracts, and calyces without lobes. Water hemlock normally has bi-pinnate leaves with veins ending at the bases of the teeth, poorly-developed involucres, calyxes with clearly visible tooth-like lobes, chambered roots, and clear-brown sap containing virulent cicutoxins. There are exceptions. Note that involucre bracts are the ones below the larger primary umbels, and involucel bractlets are the ones below the smaller secondary umbels. Water “parsnips” have fibrous roots, so roots appearing like parsnips would be more suggestive of water hemlock.

Description of water parsnip (Sium suave): FORM plants about 5-13 dm tall emerging from fibrous roots; STEMS upright, hollow, branching, ridged, and never purple-spotted; LEAVES compound, alternate, single-odd-pinnate, and long-stalked; leaflets lanceolate, distinct, sessile, and arranged in 2-6 pairs; margins coarsely toothed (serrated); veins ending inside the teeth; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels; bracts (involucres) and bractlets (involucels) well-developed, leaf-like, and lance-shaped; calyx lobes absent or minute (never tooth-like); petals 5, white, free; pistils 1; stylopodiums depressed rather than conic; stamens 5, white; FRUITS schizocarps rounded, 2-4 mm in diameter, not flattened, not bristly, and not winged; ribs prominent and corky; oil tubes mostly solitary in the intervals; HABITAT moist or marshy areas throughout most of North America; blooming May to July.

REFERENCES: Water parsnip (Sium suave): roots Couplan (pp. 342-343), Moerman (pp. 246-247), and Vizgirdas (p. 76); stems Vizgirdas (p. 76); leaves Vizgirdas (p. 76).

Hedge Parsley

FAMILY: Parsley family (Apiaceae) – Yabea genus.

SPECIES: Hedge parsley or false carrot (Yabea microcarpa (Hook. & Arn.) Koso-Pol. = Caucalis microcarpa Hook. & Arn.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of hedge parsley are edible. Taste, texture, aroma, color, size, and other aspects are virtually identical to those of western carrot (Daucus pusillus). These species differ primarily in fruit structure, not edibility. Hedge parsley roots taste and smell like commercially grown carrots, but they’re very small and tough. They’re also white. Describing them as “carrot-flavored wire” would not be unfair.

NOTES: Hedge parsley is common on the desert floor after winter rainstorms renew the growing season. It’s a small plant that’s easily overlooked. Although it may seem too small to be worth gathering, keep in mind that it’s easy to gather. Instinct often tells us that bigger is better, but instinct isn’t always right. Smaller roots are easier to dig up than bigger roots. More smaller roots may be needed for an equivalent number of calories, but the energy expended acquiring those calories is what really matters. Please don’t misunderstand. I’m not saying your gathering basket will be overflowing with hedge parsley roots anytime soon. What I am saying is these roots are easy to dig up, and if soil conditions are favorable they can be pulled out of the ground with no digging required. Digging is a full-time job for foragers, so it’s nice to know that some things are easy to dig up. Since hedge parsley is an annual, every seed tries to become a plant. Not all of them succeed, but germination rates are high. Rainfall initiates a mass seed germination in the desert, and this happens twice per year, once in winter and once in summer. Hedge parsley responds to winter rainfall. February to May is the ideal time to gather it. Only young plants are suitable for gathering, and these can usually be identified by observing older plants growing nearby. The probability of encountering poisonous look-alikes is low, but positive identification is extremely important. The samples I gathered for this reference were primarily from Devils Canyon, Walnut Canyon, and a few other places in central Arizona.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Yabea genus is found in the United States. Hedge parsley (Y. microcarpa) looks similar to western carrot (Daucus pusillus). The difference is that hedge parsley has: fruits compressed side-to-side rather than back-to-back; hooked bristle tips lacking additional barbs; prominent calyx teeth; and prominent stylopodiums. True carrots lack these features. A few more plants look similar to hedge parsley. See carrots (Daucus) for details.

Description of hedge parsley (Yabea microcarpa): FORM annual plant about 5-40 cm tall, covered with stiff hairs (hispid), and emerging from a taproot; LEAVES compound; alternate or basal; 2-3-pinnate or dissected; ultimate segments linear or thread-like; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary inferior, and arranged in compound umbels; rays 2-9; involucre bracts leaf-like; involucel bractlets present; calyx teeth prominent; petals 5, white, free; pistils 1; styles 2; stylopodiums conic; stamens 5; FRUITS schizocarps flat, oval-oblong, 3-7 mm long, covered with hooked bristles, and moderately compressed side-to-side; HABITAT deserts of Arizona and southern California; often along dry streams or in locations shaded by shrubs, trees, or pricklypear cacti; blooming February to May.

REFERENCES: Hedge parsley (Yabea microcarpa = Caucalis microcarpa): roots Ebeling (pp. 250-251).