Boraginaceae

Borage Family

FAMILY OVERVIEW: The borage family (Boraginaceae) is of minor importance to foragers due to harmful compounds called pyrrolizidine alkaloids that cannot be removed. Thousands of these compounds have been identified, and some types are more harmful than others. These compounds target the liver and even more harmful compounds called pyrroles are produced as the human body attempts to metabolize them. Overconsumption of plants containing these compounds may lead to hepatic veno-occlusive disease (obstruction of small veins in the liver), hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), cirrhosis of the liver, jaundice, coma, or death. The initial signs of poisoning occur rapidly and may include abdominal pain, nausea, dizziness, and vomiting. Ordinary processing techniques such as baking, boiling, filtering, or drying won’t fully eliminate pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Some forms of these compounds are water-soluble, but others are not. Since both forms are often present, cooking is more likely to spread these toxins than reduce them. Several family members are known to poison livestock, and the toxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in humans is well documented. Outbreaks from consuming bread and other food items contaminated with these compounds have caused thousands of deaths in various parts of the world. The harmful effects of pyrrolizidine alkaloids are cumulative, meaning they build-up over time, so even small amounts ingested on a regular basis are potentially dangerous. Foragers should be concerned about these compounds. Cross-contamination of pyrrolizidine alkaloids into milk, cheese, eggs, meat, and other products of commerce is regulated by health authorities. The only safe solution is to avoid plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

REFERENCES: Burrows (pp. 267-269), D’Mello (2003 pp. 14-15), Fuller (pp. 331-334), Steinhart (p. 348), and Zimmerman (p. 280).

Fiddlenecks

FAMILY: Borage family (Boraginaceae) – Amsinckia genus.

SPECIES: #1 common fiddleneck (Amsinckia intermedia Fisch. & C. A. Mey. = Amsinckia menziesii var. intermedia (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Ganders). #2 Menzie’s, rough, or small-flowered fiddleneck (Amsinckia menziesii (Lehm.) A. Nelson & J. F. Macbr. = Amsinckia menziesii (Lehm.) A. Nelson & J. F. Macbr. var. menziesii = Amsinckia parviflora A. Heller = Amsinckia retrorsa Suksd.). #3 cobblestone, smooth, bristly, or western fiddleneck; or devil’s lettuce (Amsinckia tessellata A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! FIDDLENECKS ARE DANGEROUS! Fiddlenecks contain harmful compounds called pyrrolizidine alkaloids. See the “family overview” above for more discussion about these compounds. Ordinary processing techniques such as baking, boiling, filtering, or drying won’t fully eliminate pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Fiddlenecks are poisonous to grazing animals, especially cattle and horses. Although the toxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in humans is well documented, fiddlenecks have not caused any illnesses in humans or the illnesses have not been documented. This could mean that the pyrrolizidine alkaloids in fiddlenecks are relatively harmless or that no one has eaten enough fiddlenecks to become ill. Considering how dangerous these plants are to grazing animals, it’s reasonable to assume that they pose a substantial risk to humans and that long-term consumption would lead to serious health problems. The harmful effects of pyrrolizidine alkaloids are cumulative, meaning they build-up over time, so even small amounts ingested on a regular basis are dangerous. Foragers should be very concerned about pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

All species listed above are reported to have edible leaves. In addition, species #2 and #3 allegedly have edible seeds. Consumption of any of these parts is not recommended. 

Leaves of all species listed above are unsuitable for salads due to a dense covering of irritating hairs. Only young plants have soft hairs. Old plants have needle-like hairs. The transition from soft to needle-like happens at a very early age. Boiling effectively softens the hairs, so healthy leaves of any age are suitable as potherbs. Boiled leaves taste good, with a flavor suggesting spinach. No harsh accents are present. The resulting broth is deep green and mild flavored. Many hairs detach and sink to the bottom of the broth. Based on flavor, nothing would indicate any potential toxicity. Of course, harmful compounds can be tasteless. Boiled leaves have a soft, mushy, gritty texture. Even young stem tips become mushy after boiling. All these species are abundant, almost too abundant. They can literally carpet the desert landscape in late winter and early spring. Gathering a supply is easy. Gloves are recommended to avoid the irritating hairs. Later in the season, the seeds can allegedly serve as food.

Seeds of fiddlenecks [the following notes are based on the whole fruit structures (nutlets) of common fiddleneck (A. intermedia) and cobblestone fiddleneck (A. tessellata) rather than the seeds inside the nutlets] are dire wild foods. Consumption is definitely not recommended. Note that seeds of common fiddleneck are not reported to be edible. Some authorities consider this species to be a variety of rough fiddleneck (A. menziesii), so it may have similar edibility. Since fiddlenecks teeter on the edge between edible and poisonous, differences between species, even varieties, could translate into significant differences in biochemistry. Nutlets of common and cobblestone fiddleneck taste very similar, but they differ in texture. Care should be taken to ensure that all the hairs are removed when cleaning the nutlets. Winnowing (the process of separating seeds from chaff with wind or breath) requires eye protection and lung protection! Hairs on the chaff are razor sharp when the nutlets are ready to harvest, and the process of winnowing disperses them in every direction. Nutlets of these species taste horribly bitter and medicine-like. Nothing about the flavor suggests that any food value is present. Raw nutlets are firm, crunchy, and bran-like. Removing the shells would probably improve the flavor, but no practical way to accomplish this task exists. The nutlets are very small. Considering the bad flavor, lack of food value, potential toxicity, and all the problems associated with gathering and processing, fiddleneck nutlets can safely be crossed off the list of wild foods, except as an emergency food when facing starvation. Anything in the Amsinckia genus should be regarded with great caution.

NOTES: With all the intimidating warnings surrounding fiddlenecks, I was reluctant to try them. Based on the species I sampled, the leaves were impressive and the seeds were terrible. The initial samples came from the Buckskin and Harquahala mountains in western Arizona. Subsequent samples came from central Arizona and southern California. It’s very important to gather the leaves early in the season, which begins in January or February in all those places. There doesn’t seem to be a right time or place to gather the seeds. Only the young leaves are worth gathering. Fiddlenecks rarely receive more than a brief mention in ethnobotanical literature. Cobblestone fiddleneck (A. tessellata) was reported to be an important spring vegetable for the Kawaiisu Indians of southern California, which suggests that the leaves are safe to eat. The Pima Indians of southern Arizona ate the leaves of this species raw, and the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada ate the seeds. Other species are mentioned, but don’t appear to have much historical significance.

IDENTIFICATION: The Amsinckia genus is represented by approximately 10 species in the United States, all of which are considered troublesome weeds. Only 3 species occur in the Southwest, along with a number of varieties. Fiddlenecks are bristly plants with yellow-orange flowers arranged in coiled clusters resembling scorpion tails (scorpioid spikes). All species have 5 sepals, but some species appear to have less due to fusion. This feature is highly variable in the wild, even on the same plant. Differences between species are minor and inconsistent. No other plants in the borage family look like fiddlenecks.

Description of common fiddleneck (Amsinckia intermedia): FORM upright, bristly, annual plant about 15-80 cm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or tapering to short stalks; bases often clasping; blades linear to widely lanceolate; margins entire; surfaces rough-haired (pustulate-hirsute); FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in coiled clusters resembling scorpion tails; calyces deeply cut into 5 linear lobes; corollas yellow-orange, about 7-11 mm long by 3-8 mm across, 5-lobed, marked with 10 veins near the bases, and often with red-orange markings in the throats; styles undivided; stigmas united and head-like; stamens 5, completely within and attached to the corolla tubes; FRUITS nutlets 4; surfaces sharply bumpy, and strongly ridged on the ventral sides; HABITAT barren areas throughout the Southwest and southern Great Basin; blooming from February to June.

Description of Menzie’s fiddleneck (Amsinckia menziesii): FORM upright plant about 15-80 cm tall, bristly, annual; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or tapering to short stalks; bases often clasping; blades linear to widely lanceolate; margins entire; surfaces rough-haired (pustulate-hirsute); FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in coiled clusters resembling scorpion tails; calyces deeply cut into 5 linear lobes; corollas pale-yellow, about 4-7 mm long by 2-3 mm across, 5-lobed, marked with 10 veins near the bases, and usually without red-orange markings; styles undivided; stigmas united and head-like; stamens 5, completely within and attached to the corolla tubes; FRUITS nutlets 4; surfaces sharply bumpy, and strongly ridged on the ventral sides; HABITAT barren areas throughout the Southwest and southern Great Basin; blooming February to June.

Description of cobblestone fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata): FORM upright, bristly, annual plant about 15-80 cm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or tapering to short stalks; bases often clasping; blades linear to widely lanceolate; margins entire; surfaces rough-haired (pustulate-hirsute); FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in coiled clusters resembling the tails of scorpions; calyces deeply cut into 2-4 lanceolate lobes, often appearing as 3 with 2 of them shortly 2-lobed; corollas yellow-orange, often with red-orange markings, tubular, 8-12 mm long by 3-7 mm across, 5-lobed, and marked with 20 veins near the bases; styles undivided; stigmas united and head-like; stamens 5, completely within and attached to the corolla tubes; FRUITS nutlets 4; surfaces covered with rounded cobblestone-like bumps, and ridged on the ventral sides; HABITAT abundant on barren terrain throughout the Southwest; blooming February to June. NOTES: This description is for the tessellata variety.

REFERENCES: #1 common fiddleneck (Amsinckia intermedia): shoots and leaves Couplan (p. 361). #2 Menzie’s fiddleneck (Amsinckia menziesii): leaves Vizgirdas (p. 50); seeds Ebeling (p. 263) and Vizgirdas (p. 50). #3 cobblestone fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata): leaves Ebeling (p. 263), Hrdlicka (p. 264), and Moerman (p. 47); seeds Chamberlin (p. 361) and Couplan (p. 361). References to harmful constituents: Burrows (pp. 267-269), D’Mello (2003 pp. 14-15), Fuller (pp. 331-334), Steinhart (p. 348), and Zimmerman (p. 280).

Yerba Santas

FAMILY: Borage family (Boraginaceae) – Eriodictyon genus. This genus is sometimes placed in the waterleaf family (Hydrophyllaceae).

SPECIES: #1 narrowleaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon angustifolium Nutt.). #2 California yerba santa (Eriodictyon californicum (Hook. & Arn.) Torr.). #3 hairyleaf yerba santa or holy herb (Eriodictyon trichocalyx A. Heller).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: (tea only): Warning! Although no warnings concerning these shrubs were found in the literature cited, regular consumption of tea made from yerba santa leaves is not recommended due to the dangerous nature of the borage family. All species listed above can be used in a similar manner.

Yerba santas are inedible, but an excellent tea can be made by steeping the leaves in hot water. This tea is more of a medicine than something for social occasions, but it is delicious. Words can only do so much to describe experiences. Yerba santa tea must be tried to gain a true sense of its appeal. The flavor and aroma have the essence of sweet fruit combined with bay laurel seasoning and pine needles. One sip has an immediate cooling effect upon the throat and begins to ease breathing. It’s a very soothing tea, free of harsh characteristics—if the brew isn’t too strong. Chewing a fresh leaf is considerably more intense than sipping the tea, as the enticing fragrance and subtle flavors are soon overpowered by an acrid character in the resins. Although the leaves are easy to chew, they are inedible and should not be swallowed. Since all the shrubs listed above are evergreen, leaves can be gathered anytime, but the new leaves of spring are preferable. Keep in mind that yerba santas are medicine, not food.

NOTES: As medicine, tea made from the leaves and flowers of California yerba santa (E. californicum) and hairyleaf yerba santa (E. trichocalyx) was taken to relieve symptoms of colds, influenza, and asthma (Clarke pp. 226-227). The leaves were also smoked for these purposes. Since smoking is a type of consumption, several nonintoxicating smoke plants are included in this book. Although I’m not a smoker, I tried several plants that were commonly smoked by Native Americans, including hairyleaf yerba santa, just for the experience. Fresh leaves of this shrub are shiny, tacky, and highly aromatic. Upon drying, they lose much of their tackiness, but retain their citrus-like aroma. Dried leaves readily crumble into a consistency ideal for rolling. Aromatic resins and subtle flavors are lost upon burning. There’s nothing harsh about the smoke of hairy yerba santa, but it lacks flavor. It’s a robust smoke that doesn’t cause coughing, burning, or other irritation. After my first experience, the value of this shrub as medicine was immediately apparent.

IDENTIFICATION: The Eriodictyon genus is currently represented by 8 species in the United States, all of which, except narrowleaf yerba santa (E. angustifolium), are endemic to California. The following species differ primarily in overall size, leaf shape, flower color, and distribution.

Description of narrowleaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon angustifolium): FORM aromatic, evergreen shrub about 4-17 dm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; leathery; stalks absent or short; blades linear to narrowly lanceolate, about 2-10 cm long; margins generally smooth (or the teeth small) and rolled under; lower surfaces covered with fine white hairs (tomentose); upper surfaces dark green, shiny, tacky, resinous, and usually hairless; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in coiled or head-like terminal clusters; calyces sparsely hairy and 5-lobed; corollas white, densely hairy, 5-lobed, and 4-7 mm long; styles 2; stamens usually 5; filaments hairy, included within the corolla tubes; FRUITS capsules 4-valved; SEEDS 1-8, dark brown or black; HABITAT chaparral communities throughout the Mojave and Sonoran deserts; blooming in late spring.

Description of hairyleaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon trichocalyx): FORM aromatic, evergreen shrub about 5-20 dm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; leathery; stalks short; blades lanceolate, 3-14 cm long; margins generally toothed (occasionally smooth) and rolled under; lower surfaces covered with fine white hairs (tomentose); upper surfaces dark green, shiny, tacky, resinous, and usually hairless; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in coiled or head-like terminal clusters; calyces densely hairy and 5-lobed; corollas white to purple, densely hairy, 5-lobed, and 4-12 mm long; styles 2; stamens usually 5; filaments hairy, included within the corolla tubes; FRUITS capsules 4-valved; SEEDS 1-8, dark brown or black; HABITAT chaparral communities of southern California; blooming in late spring. NOTES: California yerba santa (E. californicum) differs by having sparsely hairy calyces and corollas, and a more northern range in California.

REFERENCES: #1 narrowleaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon angustifolium): leaves (prepared as tea) Couplan (pp. 358-359). #2 California yerba santa (Eriodictyon californicum): leaves (prepared as tea) Couplan (pp. 358-359). #3 hairyleaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon trichocalyx): leaves (prepared as tea) Bean (p. 71) and Moerman (p. 110).

Sandfood

FAMILY: Borage family (Boraginaceae) – Pholisma genus. This genus has been placed in the lennoa family (Lennoaceae), the waterleaf family (Hydrophyllaceae), the borage family (Boraginaceae), and its own family (Ehretiaceae). Exactly where it belongs is debated by scientists.

SPECIES: #1 desert Christmas tree or sandplant (Pholisma arenarium Nutt. ex Hook.). #2 sandfood or purple pop-ups (Pholisma sonorae (Torr. ex A. Gray) Yatsk. = Ammobroma sonorae Torr. ex A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Sandfood and sandplant are extremely rare and protected under state and federal laws. Harvesting any part, in any state, is illegal. Both species were located and photographed for this reference, but neither of them were sampled. Native Americans considered the roots (technically the roots are subterranean flower stalks) a great delicacy. Earlier authors indicate that the roots have a starchy flavor and a crispy texture, somewhat like a marriage of sweet potatoes and radishes. Other aspects of the flavor (such as the presence of acrid, bitter, resinous, soapy, salty, musty, medicine-like, or perfume-like overtones) are seldom indicated in earlier references, likewise with harvesting and processing dynamics. Even if consumption was legal, sandfood and sandplant are simply too rare to be of any value to foragers. Help these plants by not harvesting them.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Pholisma genus are found in the United States, both of which are native and limited to sand dunes of southern California, Arizona, and northern Mexico. The long, thick, fleshy, subterranean flower stalks are often called roots or stems. The scaly leaves are also underground. Only the sand-colored, mushroom-like flower heads rise above ground level.

Description of sandplant (Pholisma arenarium): FORM nongreen, parasitic, mostly subterranean, perennial plant; LEAVES simple, alternate, scale-like, and glandular; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in cone-like clusters about 10-20 cm tall by 1-3 cm thick; stalks long, thick, fleshy, dull whitish-brown; calyces with 4-10 lance-like lobes; corollas funnel-shaped, purple with white margins and 4-10 short wrinkled lobes; styles 1; stigma lobes 5-9; FRUITS capsules; SEEDS brown and kidney-shaped; HABITAT sand dunes of southern California, Arizona, and southward into Mexico; blooming April to October.

Description of sandfood (Pholisma sonorae): FORM nongreen, parasitic, mostly subterranean, perennial plant; LEAVES simple, alternate, scale-like, and glandular; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in mushroom-like clusters about 1-3 cm tall by 3-12 cm across, often with a central depression; stalks long, thick, fleshy, and dull whitish-brown; calyces with 4-10 lance-like lobes; corollas funnel-shaped, purple with white margins and 4-10 short wrinkled lobes; styles 1; stigma lobes 5-9; FRUITS capsules; SEEDS brown and kidney-shaped; HABITAT sand dunes of southern California, Arizona, and southward into Mexico; blooming April to May.

REFERENCES: #1 desert Christmas tree (Pholisma arenarium): subterranean stems or stalks Couplan (p. 360) and Hodgson (pp. 204-207). #2 sandfood (Pholisma sonorae = Ammobroma sonorae): subterranean stems or stalks Couplan (p. 360), Castetter (1935-b p. 17), Hodgson (pp. 204-207), and Moerman (p. 179).

Stoneseeds

FAMILY: Borage family (Boraginaceae) – Lithospermum genus.

SPECIES: #1 puccoon, narrowleaf stoneseed, trumpet stoneseed, or fringed gromwell (Lithospermum incisum Lehm.). #2 many-flowered, purple, or showy stoneseed (Lithospermum multiflorum Torr. ex A. Gray). #3 western, mountain, or white gromwell (Lithospermum ruderale Douglas ex Lehm. = Lithospermum pilosum Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Species within the Lithospermum genus are unsafe to eat due to pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are capable of damaging the liver. References cited below indicate that Native Americans ate the roots of L. incisum, and the seeds of L. ruderale and L. multiflorum. Other species are not reported to be edible. Women intending to have children should not eat roots in the Lithospermum genus. These roots act as contraceptives, and this action can be permanent. These roots can also cause sterility in men.

Puccoon (L. incisum) is a highly fragrant plant found throughout the Southwest and Great Plains. Despite being perennial, the roots are fairly soft, but this can vary to hard, woody, and splintery. Perennials tend to have tougher roots than annuals. Fragrant aspects are limited to the flowers. Freshly dug roots are dark brown with tan interiors. Skins are thin. Peeling the skins is easy and recommended to help minimize the harsh flavor. Puccoon roots taste weakly starchy and strongly acrid. It’s not a flavor indicating much food value. A burning sting builds as more roots are consumed. Cooking doesn’t effectively neutralize the harsh flavor. Puccoon leaves taste better than the roots, but their edibility is unsubstantiated. The leaves would pass as salad material, and would definitely pass as potherb material. Raspy hairs covering the surfaces don’t pose any major problems. The leaves, flowers, and stem tips become mushy after cooking. None of these parts put up much resistance to chewing. The showy flowers impart a yellow hue to the broth. Puccoon roots can be gathered anytime the plant can be positively identified, but these roots are a poor-quality wild food. Overall, puccoon is probably best avoided.

Purple stoneseed (L. multiflorum) grows in sagebrush, juniper, and pine communities in Arizona, New Mexico, southern Colorado, and Utah. Despite its name, the seeds are nut-like rather than stone-like. Even the shells surrounding the seeds are delicately crunchy. The shells are glossy white with a grayish-brown tint and often sparsely pitted. Actual seeds are tan and covered with papery green skins. Whole fruit structures (nutlets) readily detach as the plants wither in late summer. Timing the harvest is important. Based on flavor, these nutlets seem to qualify as a decent wild food. Most of the volume is seed rather than shell. Gathering and processing a supply of this wild food is tedious. Shells easily crack, but separating the fragments is a nuisance. Purple stoneseed blooms from May to August. It’s fairly common, yet not common enough to make a significant contribution to the overall diet. Purple refers to the stem bases that exude a reddish-purple dye. Seeds of purple stoneseed should probably be avoided, except in desperate situations.

Mountain gromwell (L. ruderale) grows in sagebrush, juniper, pine, and spruce communities from Colorado to California and northward to Canada. It blooms from May to August, and produces seeds from July to October. Given the right growing conditions, it can be very common. Apparently, mountain gromwell was of little importance to Native Americans as a food source. Modern-day foragers should approach it with caution.

NOTES: Native Americans utilized plants of the Lithospermum genus primarily as medicine rather than food. In 1911, regarding the use of L. ruderale and L. multiflorum as food among the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada, Ralph Chamberlin states, “The seeds were formerly eaten.” That’s not much information, and unfortunately I can’t add much more. The quantity of L. multiflorum seeds I gathered on Mount Marvine in the Fishlake National Forest of central Utah was insufficient for a thorough evaluation, and the L. ruderale seeds were gone before I returned to their location in Blacksmith Canyon to the north. The limited sample of L. multiflorum seeds I had was certainly promising. These nut-like seeds seem to have food value, but gathering enough for a meal is difficult and they’re probably dangerous. Except for the Goshiute Indians, no other Native Americans used the seeds of these plants as food, or at least there’s apparently no record of any such usage. In 1928, James Teit noted the usage of L. incisum roots as food among the Thompson Indians of British Columbia (Kuhnlein p. 141), and in 1905 Frank Russell (p. 77) noted that the Pima Indians of southern Arizona ate the leaves of various Lithospermum species without preparation. Subsequent references often refer to these ones, either directly or indirectly. Nothing about L. incisum (except for the leaves) struck me as food-like, but most of the samples were from poor-quality soils in the Valley Mountains of Utah. Perhaps plants from better-quality soils would taste better, or perhaps not. Plants of the Lithospermum genus fail to meet the qualifications of safe wild foods and should be approached with caution whether used as food or medicine.

IDENTIFICATION: The Lithospermum genus is represented by 15-20 species in the United States, about half of which occur in the Southwest.

Description of puccoon (Lithospermum incisum): FORM upright, hairy, perennial plant about 10-40 cm tall emerging from taproots; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades narrow, linear to lanceolate; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in sparse head-like or coiled clusters; calyces deeply 5-lobed; corollas yellow, slender, 10-30 mm long, and trumpet-shaped with 5 ruffled lobes spreading at right angles; styles unbranched; stigmas united and head-like; stamens included within the corolla tubes; FRUITS nutlets 1-4, ovoid, and lacking barbs; surfaces smooth, pitted, wrinkled, or shiny; HABITAT widespread, prairies, desert uplands, juniper communities, and mountains from Texas to North Dakota and westward; blooming June to November.

Description of purple stoneseed (Lithospermum multiflorum): FORM upright, hairy, perennial plant about 15-70 cm tall; emerging from taproots that exude reddish-purple dye; stem bases also reddish-purple; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear to lanceolate; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in coiled terminal clusters; calyces deeply 5-lobed; corollas yellow, 7-14 mm long, and trumpet-shaped with 5 spreading entire lobes; styles unbranched and unequal in length; stigmas united and head-like; stamens included within the corolla tubes; FRUITS nutlets 1-4, ovoid, and lacking barbs; surfaces smooth, pitted, wrinkled, or shiny; HABITAT sagebrush, juniper, aspen and evergreen communities, primarily in Arizona, New Mexico, southern Colorado, and Utah; blooming May to August.

Description of mountain gromwell (Lithospermum ruderale): FORM shrub-like, perennial plant about 15-70 cm tall from taproots; stems branching from the bases; LEAVES simple; alternate; congested; blades linear to lanceolate; margins entire; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in dense head-like clusters; calyces deeply 5-lobed; corollas pale greenish-yellow, 7-14 mm long, and trumpet-shaped with 5 spreading entire lobes; styles unbranched, equal in length; stigmas united and head-like; stamens included within the corolla tubes; FRUITS nutlets 1-4, ovoid, and lacking barbs; surfaces smooth, pitted, wrinkled, or shiny; HABITAT sagebrush and mountain communities from Colorado to California and northward to Canada; blooming May to August.

REFERENCES: #1 puccoon (Lithospermum incisum): roots Couplan (p. 364), Craighead (pp. 156-157), Kuhnlein (p. 141), and Moerman (p. 143). #2 purple stoneseed (Lithospermum multiflorum): seeds Chamberlin (p. 373) and Moerman (p. 143). #3 mountain gromwell (Lithospermum ruderale): seeds Chamberlin (p. 373, cited as L. pilosum) and Moerman (p. 143). References to toxicity: Burrows (pp. 267-269) and Kane (2006 pp. 159-160).

Purplemat

FAMILY: Borage family (Boraginaceae) – Nama genus. The Nama genus was formerly placed in the waterleaf family (Hydrophyllaceae).

SPECIES: Purplemat or purple nama (Nama demissum A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Native Americans, particularly the Kawaiisu Indians of southern California, gathered purplemat seeds to prepare as porridge.

NOTES: Purplemat is a small, ground-hugging annual that depends on seed production for survival. Finding it when the seeds are ready to gather is challenging because withered plants are inconspicuous against the desert landscape. Locating colonies earlier in the season when the attractive purple flowers are present is wise. Even with knowledge of those locations, timing is important. Purplemat capsules split open naturally and the seeds readily fall out of the capsules, almost too readily. One gust of wind can disperse the entire crop. Seeds are only available for a short period of time. All these factors complicate the task of gathering a supply. The Kawaiisu Indians gathered whole plants as the capsules began to mature, spread the plants out to dry in the sun, threshed the plants to release the seeds, winnowed out the debris, ground the seeds in a mortar, and then boiled the seeds to make porridge. Southwestern foragers interested in purplemat seeds would be wise to follow this gathering and processing strategy. All the purplemat colonies I located for this reference failed to yield a sufficient number of seeds to evaluate the taste, texture, and aroma.

IDENTIFICATION: The Nama genus is represented by about 20 species in the United States, most of which are native to the Southwest. An important feature to observe is the level at which the stamens attach to the corolla tubes. In Nama species, stamens attach at different levels, which is unlike flowers in the Phacelia genus that have stamens attached (inserted) at the same level. Purplemat has a distinctive look.

Description of purplemat (Nama demissum): FORM small, low-lying, annual plant about 2-10 cm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; tapering to short stalks; blades lanceolate; margins entire; stipules absent; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged individually or in small cymes; sepals 5, free, narrow, hairy, and equal in length; corollas broadly funnel-shaped and more than 4 mm across at the rims; styles divided to the bases; stamens usually 5, unequal in length, and attached to the corollas at different levels; FRUITS capsules splitting from the tips; seeds numerous; HABITAT sandy or gravelly areas at low elevations; western Texas to southern California; blooming February to May.

REFERENCES: Purplemat nama (Nama demissum): seeds Campbell (p. 165), Ebeling (p. 261), MacKay (p. 79), and Moerman (p. 160).